Module – 4: Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation
4.1 Introduction:
Besides using the amplitude of carrier information, one can also use the angle of carrier to
carry information. This approach is called angle modulation, and includes frequency
modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). In angle modulation, the phase angle of a
sinusoidal carrier signal is varied according to the modulating signal. The amplitude of the
carrier is maintained constant. An important feature of FM and PM is that they can provide
much better protection to the message against the channel noise as compared to the linear
(amplitude) modulation schemes. Also, because of their constant amplitude nature, they can
withstand nonlinear distortion and amplitude fading. The price paid to achieve these benefits
is the increased bandwidth requirement; that is, the transmission bandwidth of the FM or PM
signal with constant amplitude and which can provide noise immunity is much larger than
2W, where W is the highest frequency component present in the message spectrum. Consider
a sinusoidal carrier signal:

c(t )  Ac cos    Ac cos  2 f ct  0  (4.1)

where Ac is the (constant) amplitude, fc is the (constant) frequency in Hz, ϕ0 is the (constant)
initial phase angle and θ = 2πfct + ϕ0 is the angle of the carrier signal. In Amplitude
Modulation (AM), it was shown that the amplitude of carrier Ac is varied as a function of the
message signal m(t). By contrast, in angle modulation, Ac is a constant but θi(t) is a function
of m(t) instead of being equal to 2πfct + ϕ0. The angle modulated wave can be written as:

s(t )  Ac cos i (t )  (4.2)

where θi(t), the instantaneous angle quantity, is a function of m(t). The instantaneous
frequency fi of the angle modulated wave s(t), is given by:

1 d i ( t )
fi  (4.3)
2 dt

The subscript i in θi(t) or fi indicative of our interest in the instantaneous behaviour of these
quantities. If θi(t) = 2πfct + ϕ0, then fi reduces to the constant fc.

4.2 Phase modulation

The phase modulated signal can be usually written as:

s(t )  Ac cos i (t )   Ac cos  2 f ct  i (t )  (4.4)

where, ϕi(t) is the phase deviation and is proportional to the modulating signal m(t).

i (t )  k p m(t ) (4.5)

41
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

where, kp is the phase sensitivity constant of the modulator with the units, radians per volt.
Thus, a phase modulated signal can be represented by:

s (t )  Ac cos  2 f c t  k p m (t )  (4.6)

The term 2πfct is the angle of the un-modulated carrier. In PM, from eq. (4.6), it is evident
that the phase deviation of s(t) from that of the un-modulated carrier phase is a linear function
of the base-band message signal, m(t). In a single tone modulation, m(t )  Am cos(2 f mt ) .
So, i (t )  k p Am cos(2 f mt ) , and maximum phage deviation is   k p Am . Figure 4.1
illustrates PM for both analog and digital modulating signals.

          

Figure 4.1: PM modulated waves for: (a) Analog message signal (b) Digital message signal

4.3 Frequency modulation:

The Frequency modulated signal can be usually written as:

s(t )  Ac cos i (t )  (4.7)

In FM, the instantaneous frequency is a function of m(t); that is, fi = fc + kf m(t). kf is

frequency sensitivity constant of the modulator with the units Hz/volt. The instantaneous
frequency of the angle modulated wave is given by:

1 d i ( t )
fi  (4.8)
2 dt
t
i (t )  2  f i dt


t t
i (t )  2   f c  k f m(t )  dt  2 f ct  2 k f  m(t )dt
 

Substituting in eq. (4.7), the time domain equation for FM signal is denoted as:

42
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct  2 k f  m(t )dt 

t
(4.9)
  

In a single tone modulation, m(t) = Amcos(2πfmt). So, fi = fc + kf Amcos(2πfmt) and maximum

frequency deviation is Δf = kf Am. The single tone FM wave is given by:

s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct  2 k f  Am cos(2 f mt )dt 

t

  

 sin(2 f mt ) 
s(t )  Ac cos  2 f c t  2 k f Am 
 2 f m 

 k A 
s(t )  Ac cos  2 f c t  f m sin(2 f mt )   Ac cos  2 f c t   sin(2 f mt ) (4.10)
 fm 

Where β is modulation index of FM, and is given by:

k f Am f
  (4.11)
fm fm

In FM when β << 1, such a modulation is called as narrow band frequency modulation

(NBFM) and if this condition is not satisfied then such a modulation is called as wide band
frequency modulation (WBFM).

Figure 4.2: FM wave for analog modulation signal

43
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

4.4 Narrow Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM)

Expanding FM expression given in eq. (4.10) results:

s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct  cos 

 sin(2 f mt )   Ac sin  2 f c t  sin 
 sin(2 f mt )  (4.12)
 

For β < 1,

sin( )   and cos( )  1

So,

s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct   Ac  sin  2 f c t  sin  2 f mt  (4.13)

This is the time domain expression for in NBFM. Expanding eq. (4.13) results:

Ac  A
s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct   cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   c cos  2 ( f c  f m )t 
2 2

Thus the spectrum of NBFM is shown in Figure 4.4.

S( f )
Ac Ac
2 2
Ac  Ac 
4 4

f
 fc  fm  fc  fc  fm 0 fc  fm fc fc  fm

B  2 fm

Ac  Ac 
 
4 4
Figure 4.4: Spectrum of NBFM

AM signal and NBFM have same modulation index and bandwidth.

Power calculations in NBFM:

Ac2
Power of carrier = Pc  (4.14)
2

Ac2  2
Power of upper side band = PUSB  (4.15)
8

44
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

Ac2  2
Power of lower side band = PLSB  (4.16)
8

 2 
P
Total Power of FM signal = t  Pc 1   (4.17)
 2 

There is no application of NFM because it has similarity with AM.

4.5 Generation of NBFM:

One of the principal applications of NBFM is in the (indirect) generation of WBFM as
explained later on in this section. The system shown in Figure 4.5 can be used to generate the
NBFM signal. Applying m(t) directly to the balanced modulator, results in NBFM with a
suitable value for kf .

2  


2

Figure 4.5: Generation of NBFM signal

4.6 Wide Band Frequency Modulation (WBFM)

If the modulation index β > 1, then we have the wideband FM, which has theoretically
infinite bandwidth. However, as will be seen a little later, most of the power of the FM signal
resides in a finite bandwidth, called the transmission bandwidth. From eq. (4.10), the FM
expression is given by:

s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct   sin(2 f mt )

We know from Euler's formula: cos θ + j sin θ = ejθ → cos θ = Re [ejθ], so

s(t )  Ac Re  e j 2 fct   sin(2 f mt )  

 Ac Re  e j 2 f ct e j sin(2 f mt )  (4.18)

Let e j sin(2 fmt )  g (t ) and

fm = 1/T0.

Here, g(t) is a periodic signal with period fm. Expressing this term in Fourier series, we have:

45
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation


2
g (t )  e j  sin(2 f m t )
 ce
n 
n
jn0t
, where 0 
T0
(4.19)

T0 /2
1
cn 
T0 
 T0 /2
g (t )e  jn0t dt

1/2 f m

       f m 
1/2 f m
e j sin(2 fmt ) e  jn0t dt

1/2 f m

cn  f m 
1/2 f m
e j (  sin(2 fmt )  n0t ) dt

Let θ =2πfmt

 
fm 1
 e j (  sin   n ) d   e
j (  sin   n )
cn  d (4.20)
2 f m 
2 

The term given in eq. (4.20) referred as the nth order Bessel function of the first kind and the
Bessel function is defined as:


1
 e
j ( x sin   n )
J n ( x)  d (4.21)
2 

For argument β, the Bessel function is denoted as:


1
cn  J n (  )   e
j (  sin   n )
d (4.22)
2 

From eq. (4.18), eq.(4.19) and eq.(4.22)

 

s(t )  Ac Re  e j 2 fct  J n (  ) e jn 2 fmt 
 n  

  
s(t )  Ac Re   J n (  ) e j 2 fct e jn 2 fmt 
 n  

 

         Ac Re 

J n 
n (  ) e j 2 ( fc nfm ) t 


s (t )  Ac J
n 
n (  ) cos  2 ( f c  nf m )t  (4.23)

Thus, eq. (4.23) is the time domain expression for WBFM.

46
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

Properties of Bessel function:

1. Jn(β) is always real (For all n and β)

2. J−n (β) = (−1)n Jn(β)
(  / 2)n
3. For small values of β, J n (  ) 
n!
Hence, for small values of β,
J 0 ( )  1


J1 (  ) 
2
J n (  )  0, n  1

4. J
n 
2
n ( )  1

Using property 2, the WBFM given in eq. (4.23) can be elaborated as:

s (t )  Ac J 0 (  ) cos  2 f c t   Ac J 1 (  ) cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   Ac J 1 (  ) cos  2 ( f c  f m )t 

(4.24)
 Ac J 2 (  ) cos  2 ( f c  2 f m )t   Ac J 2 (  ) cos  2 ( f c  2 f m )t   ...

For the WBFM given in eq. (4.24), the one sided spectrum is as shown in Figure 4.6. From
this figure it is observed that the ideal bandwidth of WBFM is infinite.

S( f )
Ac J 0 (  )
2
Ac J 1 (  )
2
Ac J 2 (  ) Ac J 2 (  )
2 2
Ac J 3 (  )
2
  f
0 fc  3 fm fc  2 fm fc  fm fc fc  fm fc  2 fm fc  3 fm
Ac J 3 (  )

2

Ac J 1 (  )

2  
Figure 4.6: Spectrum of WBFM

Analysis of WBFM spectrum:

Figure 4.7 depicts the behaviour of Jn(β). We now make the following observations regarding
the spectrum (f > 0) of a tone modulated FM signal.

47
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

1. The spectrum of a tone modulated FM wave contains carrier component and an infinite
set of side-frequencies located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency
separations of nfm, n = 1, 2, ⋅ ⋅ ⋅. So, the ideal bandwidth is infinite.
2. For small β, only J0(β) and J1(β) are significant. Then the FM spectrum has only three
components: at fc, fc ± fm. This situation corresponds to the special case of NBFM.
3. The amplitude of the carrier component varies with β according to J0(β). Thus, in contrast
to AM, this amplitude ‘contains’ part of the message information.
4. The amplitude of spectral components depends on the Bessel function Jn(β). Jn(β)
decreases as n increases. So, the amplitude of the higher order spectral component will be
less than that of lower order components.
5. In FM, the maximum efficiency to be possible is 100% at β = 2.4, 5.5, 8.6, 11.8, etc. The
carrier amplitude of spectrum is zero at these values as shown in Figure 4.7. For this case,
the total power is distributed to side bands.

Figure 4.7: (a) J0(β) vs β for n = 0 (b) Jn(β) vs β for different values of n

4.6.1 Power calculations in WBFM:

All the following power calculations are normalized at R (resistance) = 1.
2
 A J ( )  Ac2 J 02 (  )
Power of carrier: Pfc   c 0  
 2  2

Ac2 J 12 (  )
Power of 1st order USB: Pfc  fm 
2

Ac2 J12 (  )
Power of 1 order LSB: Pfc  fm 
st
2
So, total 1st order side band power: P1d  Ac2 J 12 (  )

Ac2 J 22 (  )
nd
Power of 2 order USB: Pfc 2 fm 
2

48
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

Ac2 J 22 (  )
Power of 2nd order LSB: Pfc 2 fm 
2
So, total 2nd order side band power: P2 d  Ac2 J 22 (  )

Ac2   2 
The total transmitted power in WBFM: Pt   
2  n 
J n (  )


From Property 4 of Bessel function, we know J
n 
2
n ( )  1

Ac2
Hence Pt  (4.25)
2
This total power in WBFM is equal to un-modulated carrier power. So, power required to
transmit FM signal is lower than AM and FM power is independent of modulation index.

4.6.2 Calculation of practical Bandwidth using Carson’s rule:

The ideal bandwidth (B) of FM signal is infinite. But, the practically the bandwidth of the
signal should be as minimum as possible. So, the WBFM signal passed through a BPF to
eliminate the higher order spectral components. According to Carson’s rule only carrier and
(β+1) upper and lower side bands will have significant amplitudes and contains 99% of the
total power. So the bandwidth of WBFM signal is:

 f 
B  2(   1) f m  2   1 f m (4.26)
 fm 

From eq. (4.26), it is evident that the FM requires more bandwidth than AM and bandwidth
of FM depend on modulation index, whereas bandwidth of AM doesn’t depend on
modulation index.

4.7 Generation WBFM:

There are two distinct methods of generating WBFM signals: Direct method and Indirect
method. Details on their generation are as follows.
4.7.1 Direct method of FM:
An FM signal can be generated by using a varactor diode (also called varicap, or voltacap)
and a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode that
exhibits a definite capacitance value with the applied (reverse) voltage. The capacitance of
the varactor diode will vary as a function of applied reverse bias. This varactor diode is
connected in parallel with an oscillator consisting a capacitance C and inductance L. The
frequency of oscillator is controlled by the message signal m(t), and any such oscillator
whose frequency is controlled by a message signal is called as a Voltage Controlled
Oscillator. The oscillation frequency fi of a parallel tuned circuit is given by:

49
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

1 1
fi  or i  (4.27)
2 LCE LCE

Let the effective tuned circuit capacitance CE be related to the message signal according to:

CE = C − km(t) (4.28)

where k is an appropriate constant associated with the varactor diode.

1 1  km(t )  k m(t )
So, i (t )   1  , where  1
 km(t )  LC 2C  C
LC 1 
 C 

1
Let c  be the carrier frequency
LC
kc
Then i  c  c f m(t ), where c f  (4.29) 
2C

Hence, the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator is of the form: i  c  k f m(t ) , which
represents the FM equation.

Oscillator

Varactor
CV
Diode
FM Signal
 C L
m( t )

 
Figure 4.8: Varactor diode frequency modulator

4.7.2 Indirect method (Armstrong’s method):

In this method, first a narrowband FM signal is generated. This is then converted to WBFM
by using frequency multiplication. This is shown schematically in Figure 4.9.

m( t ) NBFM x (t ) Frequency y (t ) WBFM

Mixer
Modulator Multiplier ( n ) Ac cos  2 nf c t  n sin(2 f m t ) 
Ac cos  2 ( n  1) f ct 
c( t ) or
Ac cos  2 ( n  1) f ct   
Figure 4.9: Generation of WBFM (Armstrong method)

50
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

A frequency multiplier is a nonlinear device followed by a BPF. Let us take in a non-linear

devise with characteristic vo = avi + bvi2, if b = 0, then that devise will be a linear devise (vo =
avi). Similarly, if a = 0, then that devise will be a square law devise (vo = bvi2), that means
frequency multiplier by 2. Thus, a nonlinear devise of order n can give rise to frequency
multiplication by a factor of n. For simplicity, consider a square law device with output y(t) =
x2(t) where x(t) is the input. Let x(t) be the NBFM signal given by,

t
x(t )  Ac cos  (t )  , where  (t )  2 f c t  2 k f  m(t )dt (4.30)


So, y (t )  Ac2 cos2  (t ) 

Ac2
 1  cos  2 (t )  
2 

Ac2 Ac2  t

  cos  2 (2 f c )t  4 k f  m(t )dt  (4.31)
2 2   

The DC term in eq. (4.31) can be filtered out to give a WBFM output with the carrier
frequency 2fc and frequency deviation twice that of the input NBFM signal. In the same way,
if we take a frequency multiplier by a factor n, then the output of frequency multiplier is:

 t

y (t )  cos  2 ( nf c )t  2n k f  m(t )dt 
  

For a single tone modulation:

y (t )  cos  2 (nf c )t  n sin(2 f mt ) 

So, fc and β are increased by a factor n, but there is no change in fm. If necessary, frequency
multiplication can be resorted to in more than one stage. If β is increased by a factor n, the Δf
also increases by a factor n. For example:

m( t ) NBFM x (t ) Frequency WBFM

y (t )
Modulator Multiplier ( 2)
f c  1 MHz f c  2 MHz
  0.8   1.6
c(t )
f m  2 KHz f m  2 KHz

51
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

m( t ) NBFM x (t ) Frequency y (t ) f c  1MHz

Mixer
Modulator Multiplier (10)
f c  1 MHz f c  10 MHz
  0.8  8
c(t )
f L = 9 MHz (or) 11MHz
 
Figure 4.10: Examples of Armstrong’s method

An example of an Armstrong FM System (Commercial FM):

The multiplier scheme used in a commercial FM transmitter is indicated in Figure 4.11.

m( t ) NBFM Frequency Frequency

Mixer
Modulator Multiplier ( 64) Multiplier ( 48)
f c1  200 kHz f c 2  12.8 MHz f c 3  1.9 MHz f c 3  91.2 MHz
f 2  1.6 kHz f 3  1.6 kHz f 3  76.8 kHz
c( t ) f1  25Hz
Crystal Oscillator
10.9 MHz  
Figure 4.11: Multiplier chain used in typical commercial FM transmitter

The carrier frequency of the NBFM signal fc1, is 200 kHz with the corresponding Δf1 = 25
Hz. Desired FM output is to have the frequency deviation Δf4  75 kHz and a carrier (fc4) of
91.2 MHz. To obtain Δf4 = 75 kHz starting from Δf1 = 25 Hz, we require a total frequency
multiplication of (75×103)/25 = 3000. In the scheme of Figure 4.9, this has been
accomplished in two stages, namely, multiplication by 64 followed by multiplication by 48,
giving a total multiplication by the factor 64 × 48 = 3072. (Actually each stage of
multiplication is implemented by a cascade of frequency doublers or triplers. Thus
multiplication by 64 is obtained by 6 doublers in cascade whereas multiplication by 48 is
implemented by a cascade of a frequency tripler and 4 doublers.) Multiplication of fc1 = 200
kHz by 3072 gives a carrier frequency fc4 = 614.4 MHz. As the final required carrier
frequency is 91.2 MHz, a frequency conversion stage is used to down convert fc2 (12.8 MHz)
to fc3 (1.9 MHz). In this process of down conversion, frequency deviation is unaffected (Δf2 =
Δf3 = 1.6 kHz). The possible drawbacks of this scheme are the introduction of noise in the
process of multiplication and distortion in the generation of NBFM signal especially for low
modulating frequencies as β could become excessive.

52
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

4.8 Relation between Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation:

A frequency modulated signal can be generated using a phase modulator by first integrating
m(t) and using it as an input to a phase modulator. This is possible by considering FM signal
as phase modulated signal in which the modulating wave is integral of m(t) in place of m(t).
This is shown in the Figure 4.12.

2 k f
Modulating kp  m(t ) dt Phase
Ac cos  2 f c t  2 k f  m(t )dt 
 
Integrator
Wave m(t ) Modulator FM Signal

Accos(2 f ct )
Figure 4.12: Scheme for generating of FM signal from PM generator

Similarly, a PM signal can be generated by first differentiating m(t) and then using the
resultant signal as the input to a FM modulator, as shown in Figure 4.13.

k p dm(t )
Ac cos  2 f c t  k p m(t ) 
Modulating 2 k f dt Frequency
Differentiator
Wave m(t ) Modulator PM Signal

Accos(2 f ct )
Figure 4.13: Scheme for generating of PM signal from FM generator

4.9 Comparison between Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation:

Table 4.1: Comparison between FM and PM

Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

Frequency modulated signal: Power required is less

s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct  2 k f  m(t )dt  s (t )  Ac cos  2 f c t  k p m (t ) 
t

  
In a single tone modulation, In a single tone modulation,
m(t )  Am cos(2 f mt ) m(t )  Am cos(2 f mt )
s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct   sin(2 f mt ) s(t )  Ac cos  2 f ct   cos(2 f mt )

Frequency deviation f  k f Vm Phase deviation   k pVm

Bandwidth: B = 2(βFM + 1)fm Bandwidth: B = 2(βPM +1)fm

k f Vm
Modulation index  FM  Modulation index  PM    k pVm
fm

53
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

4.10 Comparison between AM and FM:

Table 4.2: Comparison between AM and FM

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

Power required is more Power required is less

Ac2  m 2  Ac2
Pt  1   Pt 
2  2  2

AM signal power varies with modulation FM signal power is independent of

index modulation index

Maximum efficiency to be possible is: Maximum efficiency to be possible is:

% η = 33% % η = 100 % (at β = 2.4, 5.5, 8.6,...)

AM requires less bandwidth: B = 2fm FM requires more bandwidth: B = 2(β+1)fm

Bandwidth is independent of modulation Bandwidth is dependent upon modulation

index index

Receiver is less complex Receiver is more complex

Effect of noise is more Noise effect is less

Carrier frequency used is (550 – 1650) KHz Carrier frequency used is (88 – 108) MHz

Coverage area is more because of Coverage area is limited because of line of

Ionospheric propagation sight propagation

Frequency reuse is not possible Frequency reuse is possible

Fidelity is less Fidelity is more

54
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

Demodulation of Angle Modulated Signals

5.1 Demodulation of FM Signals:
A variety of techniques and circuits have been developed for demodulating FM signals. The
widely used techniques are Frequency discrimination method (FM to AM conversion
method), Phase discrimination method and Phased Locked Loop method.

5.1.1 Frequency discrimination methods (FM to AM conversion method):

The instantaneous frequency of an FM signal is given by fi = fc + kf m(t). Hence a frequency
selective network with a transfer function of the from |H(f)| = αf + β , ( f > 0, and α and β are
constants) over the FM band would yield an output proportional to the instantaneous
frequency. That is, the circuit converts the frequency deviation into a corresponding
amplitude change, which in this case is proportional to m(t), the message signal. It is assumed
that the time constant of the network is small enough in comparison with the variations in the
instantaneous frequency of the FM signal.
Consider the scheme shown in Figure 5.1, where d/dt represents a bandpass
differentiator with the magnitude characteristic |H(f)| = αf + β, (for f > 0), over the required
bandwidth. The Band–Pass Limiter (BPL) eliminates amplitude fluctuations from the
received FM signal.

Received s (t ) d s '(t ) Envelop DC km(t )

BPL
Signal dt Detector Blocker

Figure 5.1: Schematic of an FM demodulator based on FM to AM conversion

Let s(t) is the constant amplitude FM signal to be demodulated and s'(t) is the output of the
differentiator given by:

 t

s '(t )   Ac c  2 k f m(t )  sin c t  2 k f  m( )d  (5.1)
  

Above equation represents a signal that is both amplitude and frequency modulated. The
envelope of s'(t) is Ac ωc + 2πkf m(t)] (we assume that Δf = kf mp ≤ fc; hence, ωc + 2πkf m(t)]
≥ 0). As Acωc represents a DC term, signal m(t) can be obtained from s'(t) , after the DC-
block.
The need for a BPL is as follows. Assume that the received FM signal (with
amplitude fluctuations) is applied directly as the input to the differentiator. Let Ac(t) denote
the envelope of the FM signal. Then, there would be an additional term, dAc(t)/d t on the RHS
of the above equation. Even if this term were to be neglected, the envelope of s' (t) would be
is Ac ωc + 2πkf m(t)], which implies that the envelope of s'(t) does not contain a term
proportional to m(t). Therefore, it is essential to maintain the FM envelope at a constant level.
(Several factors such as channel noise, fading etc. cause variations in Ac). Band-pass limiter
eliminates the amplitude fluctuations, giving rise to an FM signal with constant envelope.

55
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

We shall now indicate some schemes to implement Frequency discrimination method

of demodulation.
Scheme 1: Slope detector
According to the principle of the slope detector, the received FM signal is applied to a tuned
circuit (LC circuit) whose output is an amplitude and frequency-modulated signal. This signal
is then passed to an AM detector (Envelop detector), which uses a detector diode, D, as
shown in Figure 5.2 to recover the modulating signal mˆ (t ) . The circuit diagram of a slope
detector is shown in this figure is also known as a single-tuned slope detector.

T
 
s(t )
CT 1 C R mˆ (t )
FM Signal AM + FM
Signal

Envelop Detector
 
Figure 5.2: Circuit diagram of slope detector

The transformer, T, shown in Figure 5.2, passes the received signal to the diode D. The
secondary winding of the transformer used as the inductor, and a variable capacitor CT1 is
connected in parallel to constitute an LC resonating circuit. The secondary winding is tuned
to the resonating frequency fr of the LC resonating circuit. The resonating frequency fr is
greater than the central frequency of the input signal fc.
The resonance characteristic of a tuned circuit is shown in Figure 5.3. If the maximum
frequency deviation in the input FM signal is ±Δf, then the operating frequency range of the
voltage versus frequency will be from (fc – Δf ) to (fc + Δf ). This range covers the linear
region of the curve, which is shown in red have been drawn as straight lines. This straight
line segment between A and B is used for demodulation purposes. Let us assume that the FM
signal to be demodulated has the carrier frequency fc = (f1 + f2)/2. As can be seen from the
figure, the frequency variation is converted into the corresponding output voltage variation.
In short, a fixed amplitude, frequency modulated input will generate, at the output of tuned
circuit, a signal which is not only frequency modulated and also amplitude modulated. The
Envelope detector (diode detector) will ignore frequency modulation but respond to
amplitude modulation and produce the required message signal.

56
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

H( f ) f1  f c   f
f 2  f c  f

f
f1 f 2 fr  
Figure 5.3: Magnitude characteristics of a tuned circuit

Drawbacks of Slope Detector: A slope detector has the following drawbacks:

 Although a slope detector is a very simple and low-cost circuit, it has a severe
drawback like harmonic distortion. The frequency range over which the voltage
versus frequency curve, shown in Figure 5.3, remains linear, is very small. Therefore,
all frequency deviations are not linearly translated into their corresponding voltage
variations. This introduces distortion into the requisite output.
 A slope detector transfers even the slightest amplitude variation of the incoming FM
signal to the output because it does not reject the amplitude variation of the incoming
FM signal and responds equally to this variation. Therefore, if there is an increase or
decrease in the amplitude of the received FM signal which is unwanted, the same
change is reflected at the output along with the amplitude variations due to the
frequency deviations, which is desirable. This alters the original modulating signal
and the true modulating, signal is not recovered.

Scheme 2: Balanced slope detector

A balanced slope detector is an improved version of the slope detector. The drawback of
harmonic distortion is removed in this detector by using two slope detectors instead of one as
in a single-tuned slope detector. The circuit diagram of this detector is shown in Figure 5.4.

D1

i1
 
CT 1 C1 R1 v1
T


s (t )
mˆ (t )
FM Signal
 
CT 2 C2 R2 v2

i2

D2  
Figure 5.4: Circuit diagram of balanced slop detector

57
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

The balanced slope detector has two slope detectors marked slope detector 1 and slope
detector 2. Both the slope detectors are called balanced because they have identical
components. The two slope detectors have C1 = C2, R1 = R2, and D1 is identical to D2. The
upper and lower windings of the secondary windings of the center-tap transformer T are also
identical. The secondary windings of the transformer T are tuned to different frequencies so
that the circuit is staggered tuned. If the maximum frequency deviation of the incoming FM
signal, s(t), is ± ∆f, the resonating frequency of slope detector 1 (Upper tuned circuit) is set to
fr1 by adjusting CT1, where fr1 is greater than fc + ∆f. The operating range of slope detector 1 is
between fc and (fc + ∆f), shown in Figure 5.5, which illustrates the frequency response curve
of both slope detectors.

Normalized Amplitude response of Amplitude response of

output voltage lower tuned filter upper tuned filter

Total response
of both filter

f
fr2 fc f r1
f c  f f c  f

 
Figure 5.5: Response curve of balanced slope detection

When the incoming signal frequency deviation between fc and (fc +∆f), diode D1 is
forward biased because voltage at this diode increases according to the frequency response
curve of slope detector 1. The diode rectifies this amplitude and frequency modulated signal.
Capacitors C1 and resistor R1 then filter the rectified voltage. The voltage so developed across
R1 is the positive half of the modulating signal. Slope detector 2 is tuned to fr2, by adjusting
the tuning capacitor CT2, where fr2 is less than fc – ∆f. The input FM signal whose frequency
deviation lies between fc and (fc – ∆f ) is converted into amplitude-and frequency-modulated
signal by slope detector 2 because this range frequency-deviations lies toward the frequency-
response curve of slope detector 2. Now, the diode D2 is forward-biased and it rectifies
amplitude-and frequency-modulated signal. The rectified signal is filtered by capacitor C2.
The filtered voltage is developed across R2 and, as a result, the output of the balanced slope
detector is the negative half of the modulating signal corresponding to the frequency
deviations lower than fc.

58
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

The output of the balanced slope detector is the combined output of the individual
slope detectors. When the incoming signal lies between fc and (fc + ∆f), the diode D1 is
forward-biased and the diode D2 is also slightly forward-biased because the voltage
developed across the lower winding is very small as shown in Figure 5.5. The conduction of
diode D2, results in a small current that flows though R2. Therefore, when a positive voltage
is developed across R1 a very small negative voltage also develops across R2. The sum of
these two voltages (v1 – v2) appears across the terminals of balanced slope detector. Thus, the
final output is slightly reduced by a negative voltage developed across R2. A similar action
takes place when the incoming FM signal contains the frequency deviations between fc and (fc
– ∆f ), the diode D2. During the conduction of D2, a small voltage also appears across the
upper winding of the secondary winding of transformer T. Due to this voltage, diode D2, also
supplies a positive voltage across R1. This positive voltage slightly reduces the negative
voltage appearing across R2, when summed up between the output terminals. The net voltage
is still a negative half cycle of the modulating signal. The overall response of both slope
detectors is shown in S shape in Figure 5.5. This operating range of the overall response
curve is a straight line as shown in red colour, and therefore, the operation is linear. This
removes the; nonlinear behaviour of a single-tuned slope detector, and the higher harmonics
are not generated in a balanced slope detector.

Drawbacks of Balanced Slope Detector: Although a balanced slope detector is better than a
slope detector, it has following drawbacks:
 Tuning both the slope detectors is a difficult task that should be accomplished with
accuracy to obtain a linear S-curve.
 This slope detector also responds to the amplitude variations of the input. Therefore, it
may not provide a true modulating signal.
 The operating frequency range is increased after obtaining an S-shape, but
its performance does not improve

5.1.2 Phase discrimination methods:

This method of FM demodulation involves converting frequency variations into phase
variations and detecting the phase changes. In other words, this method makes use of linear
phase networks instead of the linear amplitude characteristic of the circuits used in the
previous method. Under this category, we have the Foster-Seely discriminator, the ratio
detector and Phase Locked detector.

Scheme 1: Foster-Seely discriminator

The circuit diagram of this discriminator, where all the resonant circuits involved are tuned to
the same frequency, is illustrated in Figure 5.6. Note the similarity between this circuit and
the circuit of balanced slope detector. Major differences are a by-pass capacitor C between
the primary and secondary, an additional inductance L and only a single tuned circuit on the
secondary (L2 || C2).
The Foster-Seeley circuit operates using a phase difference between signals. To obtain
the different phased signals, a capacitor is connected from the primary side of the transformer

59
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

to the centre tap of the transformer. This gives a signal that is 90o out of phase. That is, the
secondary voltage V23 leads the primary voltage by 90o. Thus ½V23 will lead Vin by 90o and
½V23 will lag Vin by 90o. When an un-modulated carrier is applied at the centre frequency,
both diodes conduct and produce equal and opposite voltages across their respective load
resistors. These voltages cancel each other at the output so that no voltage is present. As the
carrier moves off to one side of the centre frequency the balance condition is destroyed, and
one diode conducts more than the other. This results in the voltage across one of the resistors
being larger than the other, and a resulting voltage at the output corresponding to the
modulation on the incoming signal. The inductor L is required in the circuit to ensure that no
RF signals appear at the output. The capacitors C3 and C4 provide a similar filtering function.

 
Figure 5.6: Circuit schematic of Foster-Seely discriminator

Advantages and disadvantages of Foster-Seeley detector:

Advantages of Foster-Seeley detector are as follows:
 Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity.
 Simple to construct using discrete components.
Disadvantages of Foster-Seeley detector are as follows:
 Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an integrated circuit.
 High cost of transformer.
As a result of its advantages and disadvantages the Foster Seeley detector or discriminator is
not widely used these days. Its main use was within radios constructed using discrete
components.

Scheme 2: Ratio detector

Ratio detector or discriminator was widely used for FM demodulation within radio sets using
discrete components. It was capable of providing a good level of performance. In recent years
the Ratio detector has been less widely used. The main reason for this is that it requires the
use of wound inductors and these are expensive to manufacture. Other types of FM
demodulator have overtaken them, mainly as a result of the fact that the other FM

60
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

demodulator configurations lend themselves more easily to being incorporated into integrated
circuits.
By making a few changes in the Foster-Seely discriminator, it is possible to have a
demodulator circuit which has built in capability to handle the amplitude changes of the input
FM signal, thereby obviating the need for an amplitude limiter. The resulting circuit is called
the ratio detector which has been shown in Figure 5.7. Comparing the ratio detector circuit
with that of the Foster-Seely discriminator, we find the following differences: direction of D2
is reversed, a parallel RC combination consisting of (R5 + R6) and C5 has been added and the
output Vout is taken across a different pair of points.
The operation of the ratio detector centres on a frequency sensitive phase shift
network with a transformer and the diodes that are effectively in series with one another. The
transformer enables the circuit to detect changes in the frequency of the incoming signal. It
has three windings. The primary and secondary windings act in the normal way to produce a
signal at the output. The third winding is un-tuned and the coupling between the primary and
the third winding is very tight, and this means that the phasing between signals in these two
windings is the same. The primary and secondary windings are tuned and lightly coupled.
This means that there is a phase difference of 90 degrees between the signals in these
windings at the centre frequency. If the signal moves away from the centre frequency the
phase difference will change. In turn the phase difference between the secondary and third
windings also varies. When this occurs the voltage will subtract from one side of the
secondary and add to the other causing an imbalance across the resistors R3 and R4. As a
result this causes a current to flow in the third winding and the modulation to appear at the
output. The capacitors C3 and C4 filter any remaining RF signal which may appear across the
resistors. The capacitor C5 and (R5 + R6) also act as filters ensuring no RF reaches the audio
section of the receiver.
With the diode D2 being reversed, we find that the voltages V64 and V65 are series
aiding rather than series opposing and as such, the voltage V54 represents the sum voltage.
Taking R5 = R6,

Vout = V64 + V47 = V64 − V74 (5.2)

= V64 − ½ V54
= V64 − ½ (V56 + V64)
= ½ (V64 −V56) (5.3)

Usually, C3 = C4 and R3 = R4. Hence at resonance, V64 = V56 which implies that Vout is zero.
Above resonance, as V64 > V56, Vout is positive whereas below resonance V56 > V64, and Vout is
negative.

61
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

 
Figure 5.7: Circuit schematic of a ratio detector

Advantages and disadvantages of Ratio detector:

Advantages of Ratio detector are as follows:
 Simple to construct using discrete components
 Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity.
Disadvantages of Ratio detector are as follows:
 High cost of transformer.
 Typically lends itself to use in only circuits using discrete components and not
integrated within an IC.
Both the ratio and Foster-Seeley detectors are expensive to manufacture. Wound
components like coils are not easy to produce to the required specification and therefore they
are comparatively costly. Accordingly these circuits are rarely used in modern equipment.

Problems

P4.1. An angle modulated signal is given by

s(t )  cos  2  2  106 t  30sin(150t )  40cos(150t )  .
Then determine the maximum phase and frequency derivations.
P4.2. A FM signal is represented in time domain as: s (t )  cos  2 106 t  4 sin (8 103 t )  .
Calculate frequency deviation, modulation index, bandwidth and total power.
P4.3. A 100 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 20 V
and frequency 100 KHz. The frequency sensitivity of the modulator is 20π
KHz/Volts.
(a) Calculate frequency deviation, modulation index and bandwidth.
(b) Repeat the whole calculations when message amplitude is doubled.
P4.4. A carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal of frequency 2 KHz. The
frequency deviation is 6 KHz.
(a) Calculate modulation index and bandwidth.

62
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

(b) If the amplitude of the message signal is increased by a factor of 2 and its
frequency is decreased to 1 KHz, then calculate frequency deviation, modulation
index and bandwidth.
P4.5. A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal resulting a maximum
frequency deviation of 50 KHz. Calculate the modulation index and bandwidth when
the message frequency is: (a) 500 KHz (b) 500 Hz.
P4.6. A device with input x(t) and output y(t) is characterized by y(t) = x2(t). If an FM signal
with frequency deviation of 90 KHz and a modulating signal frequency of 5 KHz is
applied to this device, then calculate the bandwidth of output signal.
P4.7. For the given NBFM signal, shown in Figure 2, x(t) = A cos (ωct + β sin ωmt) with β <
0.5 and fc = 200 kHz, fm range from 50 Hz to 15 kHz. If the maximum frequency
deviation is 75 kHz, find the maximum allowed frequency deviation at input.
NBFM WBFM
Signal Frequency Signal
x (t ) Multiplier y (t )

n
Figure 2
P4.8. A carrier is phase modulated by a single tone signal with frequency 1 KHz while the
frequency deviation is 10 KHz. If the frequency of the single tone signal is increased
to 2 KHz, calculated the bandwidth of the PM signal (assume the phase deviation
remains constant).
P4.9. An angle modulated signal is represented in time domain as
10cos  2 106 t  5sin (8 103 t )  . Calculate the phase and frequency deviations.
P4.10. An angle modulated signal is represented in time domain as
s (t ) =10cos  2 106 t  3sin (2 103 t )  .
a) Assume the given signal is frequency modulated. Calculate frequency deviation,
modulation index, bandwidth and total power.
b) Repeat the above calculations when message frequency is doubled.
P4.11. Repeat the above problem assuming phase modulation.
P4.12. A sinusoidal signal of 4 KHz frequency is used as a message signal for an FM and
AM transmitter. Both of the transmitters use the same carrier. The frequency
deviation in FM transmitter is four times the bandwidth of AM transmitter. The
amplitude of spectral component at fc + 4 KHz is same in AM and FM spectrum.
Determine the modulation index of AM and FM.
P4.13. Let m(t) = cos (4π103t) and c(t) = 5 cos (2π106t)
a) c(t) and m(t) are used to generate an AM signal. The modulation index of the AM
signal is 0.5. Determine the quantity of total side band power/carrier power.
b) c(t) and m(t) are used to generate an FM signal. The frequency deviation of the
FM signal is 3 times the bandwidth of AM signal. Determine the coefficient of
5cos  2 (1008  103 )t  .

63
 
 Module – 4: Angle Modulation

P4.14. An FM transmitter radiates 100 watts when the carrier is not modulated. The carrier is
now modulated by a sinusoidal signal and modulation index is adjusted such that the
amplitude of 1st order side bands is ‘0’ in the spectrum. Under this condition calculate
power of: (i) carrier (ii) all the remaining side bands (iii) the 2nd order side band.

Note: J0(0) = 1; J0(2.4) = 0; J0(3.8) = –0.4; J0(5.1) = –0.16;

J1(2.4) = 0.52; J1(3.8) = 0; J1(5.1) = –0.33;

J2(2.4) = 0.43; J2(3.8) = 0.41; J2(5.1) = 0;

P4.15. A message signal with a bandwidth of 10 KHz is lower side band SSB modulated
with a carrier frequency of 1 MHz. The resulting signal passed through a NBFM
modulated with a carrier frequency 1 GHz. What is the bandwidth of output signal?
P4.16. A carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal signal with amplitude Am and
frequency fm in a certain experiment conducted with fm = 1 KHz and increasing Am
(starting from 0 volts). It was found that the carrier component in the FM spectrum is
reduced to ‘0’ for the first time when Am is 2 volts. Calculate frequency sensitivity of
modulator. Also calculate the value of Am for which the carrier component is reduced
to ‘0’ for the second time.

64