AL-

AMEENCOLLEGEOFLAW
MODELANSWERS
THEORITI
CALPERSPECTIVESINSOCI
OLOGY
rd
3 SEM 5YEARSB. A.LL.
BCOURSE

DURATI
ON:
-3hour
s

Uni
t-
1

Q.NO.1.Expl
aint
he nat
ure ofsoci
ologi
calTheor
ies and i
ts
vari
ouski
nds.
Marks10

SYNOPSI
S
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Natur
eofsociologicalt
heori
es
Ki
ndsofsociologicalt
heori
es
Concl
usi
on

Int
roduction
Theorya setofint
err
elat
ed concept
s used t
o descr
ibe,
explainandpredi
cthowsoci
etyanditspart
sarerel
atedtoeach
other.

Theoriesaresetsofi nter
-r
elat
edconcept
sandi deasthathave
been scienti
fi
cal
lytested and combi
ned to magnify
,enlar
ge,
cl
ari
fyandexpandourunder st
andi
ngofpeople,thei
rbehavi
ors
andtheirsoci
eti
es.
Oncet hest udyisadmi nist
eredthefi
ndi ngsandgener ali
zat
ions
canbeconsi deredt oseeiftheysupportt hetheory
.I ftheydo,
simil
arst udieswi llbeper f
ormed tor epeatand f i
ne-t
unet he
process.Ift hefindingsandgeneral
izationsdonotsuppor tthe
theory,t
hesoci ologistr
ethi
nksandrevisitstheassumptionsthey
made.

Nat
ureofsoci
ologi
calt
heor
ies

The t er
m soci ological t heory r ef ers t o l ogi cal
ly
i
nterconnect
ed set s of pr oposit
ions f r
om whi ch empi ri
cal
unif
or mi
ti
escanbeder i
v ed.I tisawor ki
nghy pothesisthatev olve
i
n abundance dur i
ng day -
to-dayr esearch and t he all-
inclusive
syst
emat i
cef f
ort
st odev el
opauni fi
edt heoryt hatwillexplainall
theobserveduniformi
ti
esofsoci albehavior,socialorganizat i
on,
andsocialchange.

Soci
ologicaltheor
iesarethecor eandunderl
yingstr
engthoft
he
di
sci
pline. Theygui deresearcher
sintheirstudi
es. Theyal
so
gui
depr acti
ti
onersinthei
rint
ervent
ionst
rat
egies.

Sociologi
caltheor
ieswillpr
ovideyouwi thabasicunderst
andi
ng
ofhow t o see the lar
gersoci alpict
ur einyourown person
l
ife.
Sociol
ogistdeveloptheori
est oexplainsoci
alphenomena.A
theoryisaproposedr el
ati
onshipbetweent woormoreconcepts.
I
n ot herwor ds a theoryis explanation f
orwhy orhow a
phenomenonoccur s.
Thetheoryproposedbysociol
ogi
sti
ncl
udes2component
s
1.Data
2.Proposedrelat
ionshi
p

Anexampl
eofasociol
ogi
calt
heor
yist
hewor
kofRober
tPut
nam
ont
hedecl
ineofci
vi
cengagement
.

Hest at
esthatAmericansi
nvolvementi ncivi
clif
e( eg.Community
organiz
ati
ons,clubs,v ot
ing,r eli
gious part
ici
pat i
on etc) has
decli
nedoverthelast40to60y earsandt hepromi nentfact
oris
i
ncreasedconsumptionoftelev
isionasaf orm entertai
nment.

Themoret
elev
isi
onpeopl
ewat
ch,t
hel
owert
hei
rinv
olv
ementi
n
ci
vi
cli
fewi
l
lbe.

Heret wocomponentscanbenot i
ces:thedata,i
nt hi
scaset he
fi
ndingsthatci
vi
cengagementhasdecli
nedandTVwat chinghas
i
ncreased,andt heproposedrel
ati
onship,thattheincreasein
tel
evisi
on viewi
ng has contr
ibut
ed to t he decl
ine in civi
c
engagement.

I
nordertounderstandt
hesoci
alworl
dar oundus,i
tisnecessar
y
toemploytheoryt odr
aw theconnect
ionsbetweenseemi ngl
y
di
spar
ateconcepts.

AnotherEx:-Emil
eDurkhei
m hasexplai
nedtheconceptsui
cide.
Durkhei
m st at
esthathefoundthatprotest
ant
swer emorel i
kel
y
tocommi tsuici
dethanwereCathol
i
cs.
Hearguedthatthel
oosersocialt
iesfoundinprotest
antsrel
igi
on
l
eadtoweakersocialcohesi
onandr educessoci
alsoli
dari
ty.The
hi
ghersuici
derateswer etheresul
tofweakeni ngsocialbonds
amongProtest
ants.

Whil
ehist
heoryi
scri
ti
cized,hisstudyisaclassi
cexampleofthe
useoft
heoryt
oexpl
aintherelati
onshipbet
weent woconcept
s.

Theor
iescanbeusedt ost
udysoci
ety
-mil
li
onsofpeopl
einast
ate
count
ry,orevenatthewor
ldl
evel
.Whent heor
iesar
eusedatt
his
l
evelt
heyar eref
err
edtoasMacroTheor
ies.

Macrot
heor
iesaret
heor
ieswhi
chbestf
itt
hest
udyofmassi
ve
number
sofpeopl
e

Whent heori
esareusedt ostudysmallgr
oupsori
ndi
vidual
ssaya
couple,fami
lyorteam theyarer
eferr
edtoasbei
ngmicrotheor
ies.
Microt heor
iesaret heori
eswhi chbestfi
tthestudyofsmal l
groupsandt hei
rmember s

Therearetwotypesoft heor
ies:
-
1.Grand Theories:
-ar et he t
heories which dealwi t
ht he
univer
salaspectsofsoci alprocessesorpr oblemsandi s
basedonabst r
actideasandconcept sratherthanoncase
specif
ic evidence. These i ncl
ude conf l
ict t heor
ies,
functi
onal
ism,sy mboli
cinter
acti
onism andsoci alexchange
theori
es.
 2.Middler angetheor
ies:
-aretheor
iesderi
vedf r
om speci
fi
c
scienti
fi
cf i
ndi
ngsandfocusesontheint
errel
ati
onoftwoof
mor econceptsappli
edt oaveryspeci
fi
csocialpr
ocessor
problem.

RobertK.Mer t
onwasaf uncti
onaltheor
y-basedsoci
ologistwho
taughtthe v al
ue ofusi ng smallermor e speci
fi
cal
ly preci
se
theori
esi ntryi
ng to explai
nsmal lerand morespecifi
csoci al
phenomena. These t heori
es i ncl
ude cont i
nui
ty,l abeli
ng,
diff
erent
ialassoci
ati
ont heori
es.

Concl
usi
on:
-
Sociologi
stanalysesocialphenomenaatdifferentlevel
sandfrom
di
fferentperspecti
ves.From concr
eteinter
pretati
onst osweeping
generali
zati
onsofsoci etyandsocialbehavior,sociol
ogiststudy
everythi
ngfrom specif
iceventstothebigpicture.

OR

A)Def
ineConcept
?AndExpl
aint
heconceptasabst
ract
ion
Mar
ks10

I
ntr
oduction
Defi
nit
ionofConcept
Conceptasabstract
ion
Concl
usion

I
ntr
oduct
ion
 Ev
erysci
enceev
olv
esi
tsown concept
s.Bot
hfact
sand
concept
sar
ethebui
l
dingbl
ocksofsci
ent
if
ici
nqui
ry.Sci
encei
s
baseduponf
act
s.Concept
srel
atet
opr
oper
ti
esofagr
oupof
f
act
sandhav
eawi
derambi
t.Thepur
poseofconcepti
stosi
mpl
y
t
hinki
ngbysubsumi
nganumberofev
ent
sunderonegener
al
headi
ng.Concept
sar
eneededt
ofor
mul
atet
hepr
obl
em andt
o
desi
gnway
sofsol
vi
ngi
t.Concept
sdealwi
thspeci
fi
csegment
s
oraspect
sofconcr
eter
eal
i
ty.Asci
ent
if
icconceptshoul
dhav
e
t
heexact
ness,
preci
sion,
expi
ri
ci
sm andt
heor
yor
ient
ati
on.

Af
acti
snotmer
elyar
andom obser
vat
ions,
forexampl
e,but
i
sanempi
ri
cal
l
yver
if
iedst
atementaboutphenomena.I
tthus
embodi
esbot
hsci
ent
if
icobser
vat
ionsandaknownt
heor
eti
cal
f
ramewor
kint
owhi
cht
hoseobser
vat
ionsar
efi
tt
ed.Fur
ther
mor
e,
t
heobser
vat
ionst
hemsel
vesar
esy
stemat
ical
l
ygui
dedbyt
he
ex
ist
ingst
ruct
ureofknowl
edge.Theuni
ver
sepr
esent
sani
nfi
nit
e
v
ari
etyofphenomenat
obest
udi
ed,butsci
encel
i
mit
sit
sel
ftoa
f
ew oft
hese.Ashasbeenpoi
ntedoutbef
ore,sci
enceabst
ract
s
f
rom r
eal
i
ty,
deal
i
ngwi
thcer
tai
naspect
sofphenomena(suchas
mass,speed,i
ntensi
ty ofat
ti
tude et
c)notwi
tht
he whol
e
phenomenat
hemsel
ves.

Def
ini
ti
onofconcept
s
 1. Webst
er:
-conceptasagener
ali
zedt
ermf
oracl
assof
obj
ect
s,anabst
ract
ionf
rom r
eal
i
tyt
hatal
l
owsust
oref
ert
o
r
eal
i
ty.

2. McCl
ell
aud:
- Shor
thandr
epr
esent
ati
onofav
ari
etyof
f
act
s.

3. Ker
li
nger
:-conceptexpr
essesanabst
ract
ionf
ormedby
gener
ali
zat
ionsf
rom par
ti
cul
ars.

4. Nachmi
as and Nachmi
as:
-Conceptas an abst
ract
sy
mbolr
epr
esent
inganobj
ect
,apr
oper
tyofobj
ectora
cer
tai
nphenomenon

Theabst
ract
ionofconcept
sis:
-

B)Theconceptasabst
ract
ion

I
tis somet
imes f
orgot
ten t
hat concept
s ar
e l
ogi
cal
const
ruct
scr
eat
edf
rom sensei
mpr
essi
on,
per
cept
sorev
enf
air
ly
compl
exexper
iences.Thet
endencyt
o assumet
hatconcept
s
act
ual
l
yexi
stasphenomenal
eadst
omanyer
ror
s.Theconcepti
s
nott
hephenomenoni
tsel
f;t
hati
ssuchl
ogi
calconst
ruct
sdonot
ex
istout
side t
he st
ated f
rame ofr
efer
ence.The f
ail
uret
o
r
ecogni
zet
hisi
ster
medt
hef
all
acyofr
eif
icat
ion,t
hati
s,t
reat
ing
abst
ract
ionsasi
ftheywer
eact
ualphenomena.Thi
sissucha
commoner
rort
hatmostofusar
eoccasi
onal
l
ygui
l
tyofi
t.

Acl
assi
cexampl
eoft
hiser
rori
sfoundi
nsoci
ologyi
nthe
t
reat
mentandcr
it
ici
sm W.
IThomas’
sFourWi
shes,Thomasf
elt
t
hathehadabst
ract
edf
rom humanbehav
iourcer
tai
nel
ement
s
t
hatcoul
dbet
houghtofasor
ient
edt
owar
d

1.Ex
per
ienci
ngnewsi
tuat
ions

2.Secur
ingt
her
ecogni
ti
onofot
her
s

3.Ret
aini
ngf
eel
i
ngsofsecur
it
y

4.El
i
cit
ingr
esponsef
rom ot
her
s.

Fr
om hi
sobser
vat
ionsofhumanbehav
iour
,thesewer
emer
ely
f
ourmaj
orel
ement
s,nott
het
otal
i
ty.Theywer
egi
vent
hesel
abel
s
f
rom concept
ualconv
eni
ence.As a consequence,t
hey wer
e
subj
ectt
osev
erecr
it
ici
sm becauset
heexi
stenceofsuchent
it
ies
wast
houghtt
obeunpr
oved.

Aconceptl
i
keaf
act
,isanabst
ract
ionnotaphenomenon.I
ttakes
i
tsmeani
ngf
rom t
het
houghtf
ramewor
kwi
thi
nwhi
chi
tispl
aced.
The di
sti
nct
ion bet
ween f
actand concepti
sthatconcept
s
sy
mbol
i
zet
heempi
ri
calr
elat
ionshi
psandphenomenawhi
char
e
st
atedbyt
hef
act
.Thus,asnot
edbef
ore,af
acti
sst
atedasa
r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween concept
sforeach t
erm st
ands f
ort
he
phenomenadescr
ibedbyt
hef
act
.Int
hissense,t
henaf
acti
sa
l
ogi
calconst
ructofconcept
s.A concepti
ntur
nisabst
ract
ed
f
rom many sense i
mpr
essi
on orper
cept
s.The pr
ocess of
concept
ual
i
zat
ioni
soneofabst
ract
ingandgener
ali
zi
ngsense
i
mpl
i
cat
ions.I
nthi
s way
,iti
s possi
blet
o mani
pul
ate,st
udy
,
or
gani
zeandi
sol
atet
hepr
oper
ti
esofobj
ect
s.I
tisonl
ybyt
hought
t
hatsuchpr
oper
ti
escanbei
sol
ated,andt
hinki
ngcanpr
oceed
onl
ybygi
vi
ngnamest
osuchpr
oper
ti
es.Thus,concept
ual
i
zat
ion
i
sessent
ial
tot
hought
.

Q.No.(
b)El
ement
sofTheor
y Mar
ks06

Atheoryi
sasetofinterr
elat
edconcept
susedtodescr
ibe,
expl
ain
andpredi
cthowsocietyanditspar
tsar
erel
atedt
oeachother
.

Themajorcharact
eri
sti
csoftheor
yar
e,
1.Ti
meboundedness
2.Obj
ecti
vity
3.Rel
iabi
l
ityandveri
fi
abi
l
ity

El
ementsofTheor
yar
e,
1.Concept
s
2.Vari
abl
es
3.Stat
ement
sand
4.Format
s

1.Concept s:-t heor ies ar e bui l

tf r om concept s.Gener ally
,
concepts denot e phenomena. A conceptembr aces t he
aspectsoft hesoci alwor ldthatar econsi der edessent ialfor
aparticularpur pose.
Concept sar econst ructedf rom def initi
ons.Theconcept sof
theoryr eveala speci alchar acteristi
c:abst ractness.Some
conceptsper taint oconcr et
ephenomenaatspeci ficti
mesand
l
ocat i
ons.Ot her,mor eabst r
act ,concept spoi ntt ophenomena
thatarenotr elat
edt oconcr et etimesandl ocat ions.
Forex: -i nt he cont extofsmal l-
gr oup r esearch,concr ete
conceptswoul dr efertot heper sistenti nteractionsofpar ti
cular
i
ndi v
iduals,wher eas an abst r
actconcept ualizati
on ofsuch
phenomenawoul dr efertot hosegener alpr oper ti
esoff ace-to-
facegroupst hatar enott iedtopar ticulari ndividualsinteracting
ataspeci fi
edt i
meandl ocat i
on.Wher easabst r
actconcept s
arenott i
edt oaspeci ficcont ext,concr eteconcept setc.

2.Variables:
-oncethemeasur ementhasbeenspecifi
edbyt he
oper at
ionaldef
init
ion,
diff
erentval
uesoftheconceptcanbe
obser ved.Theconceptcannowber eferr
edtoasav ar
iable,
sincei tcanr espondt o dif
fer
encesi ntherealworldby
taking on varyi
ng val
ues,asspeci f
ied intheoperati
onal
definit
ion.
3.Statementandf ormats:-
 Tobeusef ul ,theconcept soft heorymustbeconnect edto
oneanot her .Suchconnect ionsamongconcept sconsti
tute
theor eti
calst at ement s.Thesest at
ement sspecif
ytheway
i
nwhi chev ent sdenot edbyconcept sarei nt
err
elat
ed,and
thesamet ime,t heypr ovideani nter
pretat
ionofhow and
whyev entsshoul dbeconnect ed. Whent hesetheoreti
cal
statement s ar e gr ouped t ogether,t hey consti
tute a
theor eti
cal format .
Concept s ar e const ructed f r
om def i
niti
ons;theoreti
cal
statement sl ink concept st ogether,and st at
ementar e
organi zedi nto5basi ctypesoff ormats.Ther eare5basi c
appr oachesi nsoci ol
ogicaltheoryf orgenerati
ngtheoreti
cal
statementandf or mats
1.Met a-t
heor eticalschemes
2.Anal yt
ical schemes
3.Di scursiveschemes
4.Pr oposi t
ional scheme
5.Model ingschemes.
OR

(
b)GRANDTHEORY: Mar
ks06

Gr
andt
heor
yisat
erm coi
nedbyt
heAmer
icansoci
ologi
stC.
Wr
ightMi
l
lsi
nTheSoci
ologi
calI
magi
nat
iont
oref
ert
othef
orm
ofhi
ghl
yabst
ractt
heor
izi
ngi
nwhi
cht
hef
ormalor
gani
zat
ionand
ar
rangementofconcept
stakespr
ior
it
yov
erunder
standi
ngt
he
soci
alwor
ld.I
nhi
svi
ew,gr
andt
heor
yismor
eorl
esssepar
ate
f
rom concr
eteconcer
nsofev
ery
dayl
i
feandi
tsv
ari
etyi
nti
meand
space.Mi
l
ls'
smai
ntar
getwasTal
cot
tPar
sons,
alsoanAmer
ican
soci
ologi
standt
hear
chi
tectofst
ruct
uralf
unct
ional
i
sm,agai
nst
whom Mi
l
lsi
nsi
stedt
hatt
her
eisnogr
andt
heor
yint
hesenseof
oneuni
ver
sal
schemet
ounder
standt
heuni
tyofsoci
alst
ruct
ures.
I
nPar
sonsv
iew "
grandt
heor
y"i
ntegr
atednotonl
ysoci
ologi
cal
concept
s, but al
so psy
chol
ogi
cal
, economi
c, pol
i
tical
, and
r
eli
giousorphi
l
osophi
cal
component
s.Het
ri
edt
oint
egr
ateal
lthe
soci
alsci
enceswi
thi
nanov
erar
chi
ngt
heor
eti
cal
framewor
k.

Byt
he1980s,gr
andt
heor
ywasr
efor
mul
atedt
oincl
udet
heor
ies
such ascr
it
icalt
heor
y,st
ruct
ural
i
sm,st
ruct
uralMar
xism,and
St
ruct
urat
ion Theor
y—al
linf
luenced human geogr
aphy
.Bar
nes
andGr
egor
yconf
ir
medt
his,andnot
icedi
naddi
ti
on,“
Nomat
ter
t
hephenomenoni
nvest
igat
ed,i
tcoul
dal
way
sbesl
ott
edi
ntoa
wi
dert
heor
eti
calscheme.Not
hingwoul
dbel
eftout
;ev
ery
thi
ng
woul
dbeexpl
ained.
”

Gr
egor
yput
sfor
tht
wocr
it
icalr
esponsest
othi
s(r
efor
mul
ated)
gr
andt
heor
y.Fi
rst
,ther
ehasbeencont
inui
ngdebat
eaboutt
he
scope oft
heor
yin human geogr
aphy
,wi
tht
he f
ocuson t
he
r
elat
ionbet
weent
heor
yandempi
ri
ci
sm.Someaut
hor
sthoughtof
a‘
theor
y-l
esswor
ldofempi
ri
ci
sm’
,incont
rastt
o ot
her
swho
f
oresaw a f
ixat
ion on t
heor
y—meani
ng t
he t
hreat of t
he
‘
theor
izat
ion of t
heor
ies’
,second or
der abst
ract
ions t
wice
r
emov
edf
rom t
heempi
ri
calwor
ld.Secondl
y,nosi
ngl
etheor
eti
cal
sy
stem canpossi
blyaskal
lthei
nter
est
ingquest
ionsorpr
ovi
de
al
lthesat
isf
yinganswer
s.

At
hir
dresponse,suchasi
nEngagedt
heor
yandgl
obalst
udi
es,
hasbeent
ocar
ryf
orwar
dtheaspi
rat
iont
ounder
standt
he'
soci
al
whol
e'
,butwi
thoutt
het
otal
i
zingcl
aimsof'
grandt
heor
y'
.One
soci
alt
heor
istt
alks oft
he sear
ch as:"
..
.t
ofi
nd a pat
hway
bet
weenandbey
ondt
hemoder
nconf
idencei
ngr
andt
heor
yand
t
hepost
moder
nrej
ect
ionofot
hert
hanpi
ece-
mealexpl
anat
ions
f
ort
hisandt
hatdi
scur
siv
epr
act
ice.I
tdoesso,
notbyset
ti
ngupa
gr
andt
heor
y,butbyset
ti
ngupasensi
ti
zi
ngandgener
ali
zi
ng
‘
grand met
hod’t
o expl
oret
hest
ruct
uresand subj
ect
ivi
ti
esof
soci
alf
ormat
ionst
hatt
rav
ersehi
stor
yasweknowi
t.
"

Gr
andt
heor
yisasetofabst
racti
deast
hatt
oget
hermakea
br
oadst
atementabouthumanbei
ngst
heenv
ironmentormaybe
engi
neer
ing.Agr
andt
heor
yisbr
oadi
nscope.I
tismadeupof
concept
sandpr
oposi
ti
onst
hatar
elessabst
ractandgener
alt
han
t
heconcept
sandpr
oposi
ti
ons.Agr
andt
heor
yisusedi
npl
aceof
aconcept
ualmodelasagui
def
orr
esear
chorpr
act
ice.Thus
gr
andt
heor
yisnot
hingbutov
eral
lexpl
anat
ionofphenomenai
na
par
ti
cul
ardi
sci
pli
neorr
eal
m ofex
per
iences.Gr
andt
heor
yisa
sy
stemat
ic met
hodol
ogy i
nthe soci
alsci
ences i
nvol
vi
ng t
he
gener
ati
on of t
heor
yfr
om dat
a.Gr
and t
heor
yis a br
oad
concept
ualschemewi
thsy
stem ofi
nter
rel
atedpr
oposi
ti
onst
hat
pr
ovi
de a gener
alf
rame ofr
efer
ence f
ort
he st
udyofsoci
al
pr
ocessesandi
nst
it
uti
on.

Gr
andt
heor
iesar
ecompl
exandbr
oadesti
nscope.I
tfocusi
n
gener
al,non speci
fi
c and abst
ract
.Itf
ocus on concept
s–
concept
s ar
elack oper
ati
onaldef
ini
ti
ons and not di
rect
ly
amenabl
etot
est
ing.I
tcanbeusedi
nvar
iet
yofset
ti
ngand
popul
ati
ons.

Gr
andt
heor
iesar
etheor
ieswhi
chdealwi
tht
heuni
ver
sal
aspect
sofsoci
alpr
ocessorpr
obl
emsandar
ebasedonabst
ract
i
deas and concept
srat
hert
han on speci
fi
c ev
idence.Thi
s
i
ncl
udessoci
alconf
li
ct,f
unct
ional
i
sm,sy
mbol
i
cInt
eract
ional
i
sm
andsoci
alexchange.

Gr
andt
heor
iesar
eassoci
ati
nganddi
sassoci
ateofconcept
sis
wel
lwor
th consi
der
ing.The f
act i
sthat i
tis not r
eadi
l
y
under
standabl
ethesuspi
ci
oni
sthati
tmaynotbeal
toget
her
i
ntel
l
igi
ble.Thi
sist
obesur
eapr
otect
iveadv
ant
age,buti
tisa
di
sadv
ant
age i
n so f
aras i
ts pr
onunci
ati
on ar
eint
ended t
o
i
nfl
uencet
hewor
kinghabi
tsofsoci
alsci
ent
ist
.

Ther
ear
etwof
oldst
ruct
ureofgr
andt
heor
iesar
ebi
ndi
ng:
-

a.Thef
ir
stpl
acebyv
irt
ueofI
nter
nal
i
zat
ionoft
hest
andar
d
conf
ormi
ty wi
thi
ttends t
o be per
sonalexpr
essi
ve or
i
nst
rument
alsi
gni
fi
cancet
oego.

b.I
nthesecondpl
ace,t
hest
ruct
uri
ngoft
her
eact
ionst
oego
act
ionassanct
ioni
saf
unct
ionofhi
sconf
ormi
tywi
tht
he
st
andar
d.Ther
efor
e conf
ormi
tyas a di
rectmode oft
he
f
ulf
il
lmentofhi
sownneeddi
sposi
ti
onst
endst
ocoi
nci
de
wi
thconf
ormi
tyasacondi
ti
onofel
i
cit
ingt
hef
avour
abl
eand
av
oidi
ngt
heunf
avour
abl
ereact
ionofot
her
s.

I
nfactmanyoft
hei
deaofgr
andt
heor
ieswhent
ransl
atedar
e
mor
e orl
ess st
andar
d ones av
ail
abl
ein manyt
ext
books of
soci
ology
.Ther
e ar
etwo maj
orway
s by whi
ch t
he soci
al
equi
l
ibr
ium mai
ntai
ned by whi
ch shoul
d ei
therorbot
hfai
l
di
sequi
l
ibr
ium r
esul
ts.

1.Thef
ir
sti
ssoci
ali
zat
ional
ltheway
sbywhi
cht
henewbor
n
i
ndi
vi
duali
smadei
ntoasoci
alpr
ocess.Par
toft
hissoci
al
maki
ngofper
sonconsi
stsi
nthei
racqui
ri
ngmot
ivesf
or
 t
aki
ngt
hesoci
alact
ion.

2.Thesecondsoci
alcont
rol
.

Thebestcl
assi
fi
cat
ionanddef
ini
ti
onoft
hesesoci
alcont
rolhav
e
beengi
venbyMaxweber

1.Tochar
act
eri
zet
hel
ogi
calst
yleoft
hinki
ngr
epr
esent
edby
gr
andt
heor
y

2.Tomakecl
earacer
tai
ngener
icconf
usi
on

3.Toi
ndi
cat
ehow mostsoci
alsci
encenow setupandsol
ve
par
sonspr
obl
em ofor
der
.

Thegr
andt
heor
yisf
actsetf
ort
har
eal
m ofconcept
sfr
om whi
ch
ar
eexcl
udedmanyst
ruct
uralf
eat
uresofhumansoci
ety
,feat
ures
l
ong and accur
atel
y r
ecogni
zed as f
undament
al t
o i
ts
under
standi
ng.

Ex
ampl
e f
or gr
and t
heor
ies ar
e popul
ati
on, soci
ali
zat
ion,
psy
chol
ogi
calanal
ysi
s,power
,soci
alst
ruct
ure,sel
frol
es,st
atus
soci
alst
rat
if
icat
ionandsoci
all
ear
ning(behav
ior
ism)

UNI
T-2

Q.No.2(a).Enumer
atet
het
heor
yonpr
obl
em ofRol
eanal
ysi
sby
S.
F.Nadel
.
Mar
ks10

Sy
nopsis
Intr
oducti
on
 TheTheor
yonPr
obl
em ofRol
eAnal
ysi
s

 Concl
usi
on

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Socialstr
uctureisthebasi
cconceptfortheproperunderstanding
ofsociety.
Str
ucturalfunctionalanal
ysi
swasj usttheat temptto explain
st
abili
tybydi scoveri
nghowpr act
icesfi
ttogethertosustainthat
st
abili
ty.

Thefuncti
onofpract
icewasjusti
tsr
oleinsust
aini
ngtheover
all
soci
alst
utur
einsoforasther
ewasast abi
l
esocialst
ruct
ure

 Thet
heor
yonpr
obl
em ofRol
eAnal
ysi
sbyS.
F.Nadel
:
-

S.F.
Nadelwrotetwot heoret
icalbooks-t
hefoundati
onsofsoci
al
anthropol
ogyandt hetheoryofsocialst
ruct
ure.Bothrev
eal
eda
synthesi
sofstr
uctural
-f
uncti
onalism.

Nadel’s cent
ralargumentwas si
mplythat t
he st
ruct
ural
i
st
orthodoxywasi nadequat
ebyi
tsel
f-i
thastobeweddedt oa
functi
onali
stper
specti
ve.

Nadel
’sTheor
yofSoci alstr
uctur
eis one ofthe out
standi
ng
t
heoret
ical ksof20thcent
wor urysoci
alsci
ence.
Roles,accordi
ng to Nadel,are‘modesofact i
on ‘al
locat
ed to
i
ndividual
s’bythenor msofsoci et
y ’andl
i
eatt heveryheartof
socialstr
uctur
alanal
ysis.Todescribesoci
alst
ructur
e,onemust
considerthr
eeaspectsofroles:

1.Theal
l
ocat
ionpr
inci
plest
hatpr
ovi
deact
orswi
thr
oles;

2.Thedegr
eetowhichgiv
enr ol
eshaveaut
hor
it
yov
erot
her
rol
est
hecommand-ov
er-
act
ionsaspect
;

3.The degree t
o whi
ch gi
ven rol
es command t
he v
ari
ous
resour
cesandbenef
it
softhesoci
alsyst
em.

S.F.
Nadelwrites“wearri
veatt hest
ructur
eofsoci etythrough
abstract
ingfr
om theconcret
epopulati
onandi tsbehav i
or,the
patt
er n ornetwor k(orsy stem)ofr el
ationships obtaini
ng
betweenactorsinthei
rcapacit
yofplayi
ngr olesrelat
ivetoone
another.
”

Nadelhast r
iedt oexplaini
nhi sdefini
ti
onthat‘st
ructur
e’ r
efersto
adef inablear t
iculati
on,anor deredarrangementofpar t
s. Itis
rel
atedt otheout eraspectort hef r
amewor kofsoci etyandi s
tot
allyunconcer nedwi t
hthefunct i
onalaspectofsociety.Sohe
hasemphasi zedt hatthesocialstruct
urerefer
stot henetwor kof
soci
alr el
ati
onshi pwhi chiscr eatedamongt hehumanbei ngs
whent heyinteractwitheachot heraccordingtotheirstatusesin
accordancewi t
ht hepatter
nsofsoci ety.

 Accor
dingt
ohi
mther
ear
e3el
ement
sinsoci
ety
:-

a.Agr
oupofpeopl
e

b.I
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zedr
ulesaccor
dingt
owhi
cht
hemember
sof
 t
hegr
oupi
nter
act
.

c.An insti
tut
ional
i
zed pat
ter
n or expr
essi
on of t
hese
i
nter
acti
ons.

The i nsti
tuti
onal
ized patterns do notchange easi
ly and t
his
creates or der
li
ness in soci et
y. These rules det
ermine the
statusesandr ol
esoft hei ndiv
idual
s.Thereisanor deramong
these r ol
es and st atuses also which provi
des an ordered
arrangementofhumanbei ngs

Nadelf eelthatwhen descri

bing str
ucture,abst
ractrelati
onal
feat
uresfrom thetot
ali
tyoft
heperceiveddata,i
gnori
ngallthatis
notorderorar r
angementinbri
efwedef inetheposit
ionsrelat
ive
tooneanot heroft
hecomponentpar t
s.

Str
ucturescanbet r
ansposedi rr
espect
iveoftheconcr
etedata
manifesti
ngit;dif
ferent
lyexpressed,thepart
scomposingany
str
ucture can var
ywi delyint hei
rconcret
e char
acterwit
hout
changingtheident
it
yofthestructure.

Nadelf urt
herst at
es thatsociet
ies are made up ofpeople;
societ
ieshav eboundar
iespeopl
eei t
herbelongi
ngtothem ornot
andpeopl ebelongtoasociet
yinvirt
ueofr ul
esunderwhichthey
standandwhi chimposeont hem regulardeter
minat
ewav eof
acti
ngt owardsandinregar
dtooneanot her.

We i denti
fyt he mut ualway s of act
ing of i
ndivi
duals as
relat
ionshi
psonlywhent hefor
merexhibi
tsomeconsistencyand
constancysincewithoutt heseat
tri
butestheywouldmer elybe
singl
eordisjoi
ntedacts.
Mostr elat
ionships lack t
his simpl
e constancy oruniformi
ty.
Rather theconcr etebehavioroccurr
inginthem wi l
lalwaysbe
di
versif
iedandmor eorlesswi del
yvar
iabl
eintent
ional
lychangi
ng
wit
ht hecircumst ancesitwillconst
antorconsistentonlyini
ts
generalcharacterini tscapacitytoindi
cateacer t
aintypeof
mutuali
tyorlinkage.

 Concl
usi
on

Nadelconcludest hatwear ri
veatt hestruct
ureofa soci
ety
t
hroughabstract
ingfrom t
heconcret
epopulati
onandit
sbehavi
or,
t
hepat t
ernornet workofrel
ati
onshi
psobtaini
ngbetweenact
ors
i
ntheircapaci
tyofplayi
ngrol
esrelat
ivet
ooneanother.

OR

(
a) Expl
ain the t
heor
y of empi
ri
cal f
unct
ional
i
sm by
R.K.
Mert
on
Marks10
SYNOPSI
S

INTRODUCTION
 DEFI
NITI
ONOFFUNCTIONALI
SM
 THEORYOFEMPIRI
CALFUNCTIONALI
SM BYR.
K.MERTON
 CONCLUSION

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Funct
ional
i
sm i
s a soci
ologi
cal t
heor
ythat or
igi
nal
l
y
at
tempt
ed t
o expl
ainsoci
ali
nst
it
uti
onsascol
l
ect
ivemeanst
o
meeti
ndi
vi
dualbi
ologi
calneeds.Lat
eri
tcamet
ofocusont
he
way
ssoci
ali
nst
it
uti
onsmeetsoci
alneeds
Thecent
ralconcer
noff
unct
ional
i
sm i
stheexpl
anat
ionoft
he
appar
entst
abi
l
ityandi
nter
nalcohesi
onofsoci
eti
esnecessar
yto
ensur
ethei
rcont
inuedexi
stenceov
ert
ime.
Manyf
unct
ional
i
sts
ar
guet
hatsoci
ali
nst
it
uti
onsar
efunct
ional
l
yint
egr
atedt
ofor
m
ast
abl
e sy
stem and t
hat a change i
n one i
nst
it
uti
on wi
l
l
pr
eci
pit
ateachangei
not
her
inst
it
uti
ons.

Funct
ional
i
sm addr
essessoci
etyasawhol
eint
ermsoft
he
f
unct
ion ofi
tsconst
it
uentel
ement
s;namel
y nor
ms,cust
oms,
t
radi
ti
onsandi
nst
it
uti
ons.I
mpor
tant
soci
ologi
stsassoci
atedwi
th
t
hisappr
oachi
ncl
udeAugust
eComt
e,Emi
l
eDur
khei
m,Her
ber
t
Spencer
,Tal
cot
tPar
sons,and Rober
tK.Mer
ton.A common
anal
ogy
,popul
ari
zedbyHer
ber
tSpencer
,pr
esent
sthesepar
tsof
soci
etyas"
organs"t
hatwor
ktowar
dthepr
operf
unct
ioni
ngoft
he
"
body
"asawhol
e.

Funct
ional
i
sm addr
essessoci
etyasawhol
eint
ermsoft
he
f
unct
ion ofi
tsconst
it
uentel
ement
s;namel
ynor
ms,cust
oms,
t
radi
ti
onsandi
nst
it
uti
ons.I
mpor
tantsoci
ologi
stsassoci
atedwi
th
t
hisappr
oachi
ncl
udeAugust
eComt
e,Emi
l
eDur
khei
m,Her
ber
t
Spencer
,Tal
cot
tPar
sons,and Rober
tK.Mer
ton.A common
anal
ogy
,popul
ari
zedbyHer
ber
tSpencer
,pr
esent
sthesepar
tsof
soci
etyas"
organs"t
hatwor
ktowar
dthepr
operf
unct
ioni
ngoft
he
"
body
"asawhol
e.

 THEORYOFEMPI
RICALFUNCTI
ONALI
SM BYR.
K.MERTON

R.K.Mer t
on theor
y adv
ocat
es that t
heory bui
ldi
ng i
n
soci
ologyshouldnotbegover
nedbyintel
l
ectualaggr
essi
onor
academicspecul
ati
on.

Sociol
ogi
calt
heori
escannotaffor
dtober ogue,
unr
eal
isti
c,jar
gon
focusedandsimplylogi
cal. Rathertheori
esaredevelopedin
sociol
ogyt
oarranget
heempi r
icalf
actsinaconsol
i
datedmanner.

Hence,sociol
ogi
caltheor
iesshoul
dbef actdri
ven.Thesoci
al
theori
esshoul
dbecomi ngartoffact
stoexplai
nt hef
act
sina
systemat
icmanner.

Inst
eadofbei ngconcer
nedaboutmegaspecul ationthatthereis
a social sy st
em wher e t here i s exchange, negot iat
ion,
conver
gence,consequently controland integrati
on soci ol
ogy
mustl ook intothe actualpr oblems and issues related to
empiri
calsi
tuati
ons.
Duri
ng 1960’si n Ameri
ca,poli
ti
calcorr
uption,ethni
c confl
ict
,
devi
antbehaviorwaslargel
ymanifest
edandMer tontookint
erest
i
nstudyi
ngt hem andexplai
nedalltheemergentcondit
ionsusing
si
mplydesignedtheoret
icalf
ramework.

Empi r
icalr eal
iti
es make an attemptt o st
udy ever
y possibl
e
dimensi on ofsocialr eal
it
yt hati s notpossibleinf i
eld of
sociology.Merton i
s notcomf ortable wit
ht he use ofnatural
sciencet heori
esinthefi
eldofsociology.

He advocat
es t hatt
heor
ies i
n natur
alscience come outof
cumulat
iveresearchmadeonagi venprobl
em byl ar
gebodyof
schol
arsint
imeandspace.

 CONCLUSI
ON

Societies are seen as coher ent,bounded and f undamentally

rel
ationalconstructst hat f unction l i
ke organisms,wi ththei r
vari
ouspar tsorsoci alinst i
tutionswor ki
ngt ogethert omaintain
andr eproducet hem.Thev ariouspar tsofsoci et
yar eassumedt o
workf ortheov erallsoci alequi l
i
brium.Al lsoci aland cult
ur al
phenomenaar ethereforeseenasbei ngfunctionalinthesenseof
workingt ogethert oachiev et hisstate.
Thesecomponent sar et henpr imarilyanalysedi nt er
msoft he
function they pl ay.
Af unct i
on i st he contributi
on made by a
phenomenont oal argersy stem ofwhi cht hephenomenoni sa
par
t.

Q.No.(b)Expl
aint
heAnal
yti
calf
unct
ional
i
sm byTal
cot
tPar
son.
Marks06

SYNOPSI
S

I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Par
son’
sTheor
yOfSoci
alAct
ion

 Sy
stem ofsoci
alact
ion

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Heisoneofthebestknownsoci ol
ogi
stsinU.
S.Heproduceda
gener
alt
heor
eti
calsystem f
ortheanal
ysisofsoci
etyt
hatcame
tobecal
l
edasstruct
uralf
uncti
onali
sm.

Hi
sanaly
siswasl
argel
ydev
elopedwi
thi
nhi
smaj
orpubl
i
shed
wor
ks.

1. Thest
ruct
ureofsoci
alact
ion.

2. Thesoci
alsy
stem

3. St
ruct
ureandpr
ocessi
nModer
nsoci
eti
es.

4. Soci
ologi
cal
theor
yandmoder
nsoci
ety
5. Pol
i
ticsandsoci
alst
ruct
ure.

Histheor
yon act
ion t
heorybased on t
he assumpt
ions t
hat
humanacti
oni
svol
untar
y,i
ntent
ional
andsymboli
c.

He stat
es that ev
ery gr
oup/ soci
etyf
ulf
il
ls 4 f
unct
ional
i
mperati
ves.

1.Adapt
ati
ont
othephy
sical
andsoci
alenv
ironment

2.Goalat
tai
nment,whi
chi
stheneedtodefinepri
mar
ygoal
s
andenl
i
stindi
vi
dualt
ost
ri
vet
oattai
nthesegoal
s.

3.Int
egrati
on,t
hecoor
dinat
ionoft
hesoci
etyorgr
oupasa
cohesiv
ewhole.

4.Latency
,maint
aini
ngt
hemotiv
ationofi
ndi
vidual
stoper
for
m
thei
rrul
esaccordi
ngt
osoci
alexpect
ati
on.

Parson’
stheor
yofsoci
alact
ioni
sbasedont
hisconceptoft
he
societ
y.

Accordingtohi
mt heprocessesofact i
onar erel
atedtoand
i
nfluenced by t
he att
ainment of the grati
fi
cat
ion or the
avoidanceofdepri
vat
ion ofcorrel
ati
veact orwhatevert
hey
concretel
ybei
ntheli
ghtoftherel
ati
vepersonalstr
uctur
esthat
theremaybe.

Sy
stem ofsoci
alact
ion

Soci
alact
ioni
sgui
dedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ng3sy
stem.

1.Per
sonal
i
tysy
stem

Thi
saspectoft
hesy
stem ofsoci
alact
ioni
sresponsi
blef
or
 theneedsf
orful
fi
ll
mentofwhichthemanmakesef
for
tand
perf
ormscert
ainacti
ons.Butoncemanmakeseffor
tshe
hastomeetcer
tai
ncondit
ions.

2.Cult
ur alsyst
em:-once t
he pr ocess ofthe socialacti
ons
develops the symbols and t he si
gns acquire general
meani ng. Theyalsodev el
opasar esul
tofsy stemati
zed
system and ul ti
matel
y when di f
ferent act
ors under a
part
icularcul
tur
alsyst
em performv ari
oussociali
nter
acti
ons,
specialsit
uat
ionsdevel
ops.

3.Socialsyst
em: -
The3mai ntypeofsocialacti
onsy st
em has
a disti
ncti
ve coor
dinat
iveroleinthe action pr
ocessand
ther
eforehassomedegr eeofcasualautonomy.

Ev
erysoci
alsy
stem i
sconf
ront
edwi
th4f
unct
ional
probl
ems

1.Pat
ter
nmai
ntenance

Itr
efer
stotheneedt omaintai
nandr ei
nfor
cethebasi c
val
uesofthesocialsyst
em andtoresol
vetensi
onst hat
emergefr
om cont
inuouscommitmenttot
hesevalues.

2.I
ntegrat
ion:-r
eferstoall
ocat
ionofri
ghtsandobl
i
gation
rewardsandfacil
it
iestoensurethehar
monyofrelat
ion
betweenmember sofsoci
alsyst
em.

3.Goalatt
ainment:
-I
tinvol
vesthenecessit
yofmobi l
izi
ng
act
orsandresour
cesinorgani
zedwaysfortheat
tai
nment
ofspeci
fi
cgoals.

4.Adapt
ation:
-Refer
st othe need f
orthe pr
oducti
on or
acqui
sit
ionofgeneral
i
zedfaci
li
ti
esorr
esourcesthatcan
 beempl
oyi
ntheat
tai
nmentofv
ari
ousspeci
fi
cgoal
s.

OR

b.Neo-funct i
onali
sm Marks06
I
ti sat heoryofr egi
onalintegrat
ion,buil
ding ontheworkof
Ernst
.B.Haas.Theexpl i
citpurposeoft heneo-f
uncti
onal
i
stswas
toutil
izet hepi oneeri
ngEur opeanexper i
enceofi nt
egr
ati
onto
generatehy pothesesfortest
inginothercontext
s.

Neo-f
unct
ionali
sm descr
ibesandexpl
ainst
heprocessofregi
onal
i
ntegr
ati
onwi t
href
erencetohowthreecausal
fact
orsint
eract
.

 Gr
owi
ngeconomi
cint
erdependencebet
weennat
ions

 Organizat
ionalcapacit
yto r
esol
ve di
sput
es and bui
l
d
i
nternati
onallegal
regi
ms.

 Supranat
ionalmar
ket
srul
est
hatr
epl
acenat
ionalr
egul
ator
y
regi
mes.

Haastheori
zedthr
eemechanismst hathethoughtwoul
ddri
vethe
i
ntegr
ati
onf or
ward:posit
ivespil
l
ov er
,thet r
ansferofdomesti
c
al
legi
ancesandtechnocr
ati
cautomat i
cit
y.

Posit
ivespi
ll
overef
fect:
-isthenoti
ont hatintegrati
onbet ween
st
atesinoneeconomi csectorwil
lcreatestrongi ncent
ivesfor
i
ntegrat
ioni
nfurt
hersector
s,i
nordertofull
ycapt uretheperksof
i
ntegrat
ioni
nthesect
orinwhichi
tstar
ted.

I
ncr
easednumberoft r
ansact
ionandi nt
ensi
tyofnegoti
ati
ons
t
hentakenpl
acehandi
nhandwi t
hincr
easi
ngregi
onal
int
egrat
ion.
Thi
sleadstoacreat
ionofi
nst
it
uti
onst
hatwor
kwi
thoutr
efer
ence
to“
local
”gover
nments.

Themechani sm ofatransferi
ndomesticall
egi
ances:canbebest
underst
oodbyf irstnotingthananimportantassumptionwit
hin
neo-f
uncti
onali
stt hi
nking is ofa pl
ural
ist
s soci
etywi t
hinthe
rel
evantnat
ionsst at
es.

Technocrati
c aut omat i
cit
y describes the way i n whi
ch,as
i
ntegrat
ion proceeds,t he supranationalinst
it
uti
ons setup to
over
seet hatintegrat
ionpr ocesswillthemselv
estaketheleadin
sponsori
ngf urt
herintegrati
onast heybecomemor epowerf
uland
moreaut onomousoft hememberst ates.

Accordi
ngt
oJeff
reyC.Alexanderwhoseesneo-
funct
ional
i
sm as
havi
ng5centr
alt
endenci
es:

1.To createaf orm of st

ruct
uralfunct
ional
i
sm that i
s
multi
dimensi
onalandi
ncl
udesmi cr
oaswellasmacr
olevel
s
ofanalysi
s.

2.To push functi

onal
i
sm t othe l
eftand r
ejectPar
son’
s
opt
imism aboutmoderni
ty.

3.To argue f
oran i
mpl
i
citdemocr
ati
cthr
usti
nfunct
ional
anal
ysis.

4.Toi
ncor
por
ateaconf
li
ctor
ient
ati
onand

5.Toemphasi
zeuncer
tai
ntyandi
nter
act
ional
creat
ivi
ty.

UNI
T-3
Q.No.3(a)Expl
aint
heTheor
yofCl
assConf
li
ctbyKar
lMar
x.
Marks10
Synopsi
s

Intr
oduct i
on
 Defi
niti
on
 EmergenceofConfl
ictTheor
y
 Karl
Mar x’
s-Conf
li
ctTheory
 Conclusi
on

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Conf l
i
cttheoryisusedtounderstandwar,wealt
handpov ert
y,the
haves and t hehave not
s,r ev
oluti
ons,exploi
tat
ion and such
confli
ct-
relat
ed soci
alphenomena.Conf l
ict
Theory cl
aims that
societyisi nast at
eofper petualconf
li
ctandcompet i
ti
onf or
l
imitedresources.

Mar xandWeberwer et hemajorpr oponent

sofconf li
cttheory
.
Socialconf
lictt
heory sees soci
all i
fe as a competit
ion and
focusesonthedi
str
ibut
ionofresources,powerandinequali
ty.

 DEFI
NITI
ON:
-

Soci
alconfli
cti
samacr o–ori
ent
edparadigm i
nsociologythat
vi
ewssocietyasanar
enaofi
nequal
it
ythatgener
atesconfl
ictand
soci
alchange.

Societ
yisstruct
uredinway sofbenefi
tafewattheexpensesof
themaj or
it
yandf act
orssuchasr ace,sex
,cl
assandagear e
l
inkedtosociali
nequali
ty.
Soci
alconfl
icttheori
stiti
sal
laboutdomi
nantgr
oup v
ersus
minor
it
ygrouprelat
ions.

Kar
lMar
xisconsi
der
edt
hef
atherofsoci
alconf
li
ctt
heor
y.

Thefoll
owi ngar et hreepr imar yassumpt i
onsofconf li
cttheory:
 Compet it
ion ov erscar cer esourcesi satt hehear tofal l
soci alr
elationshi ps.
 Compet it
ion r athert han consensus i s charact
erist
ic of
humanr elationshi ps.
I nequaliti
esi n powerand r ewar d arebuiltinto al
lsoci al
structures.I ndiv idualsand gr oups t hatbenef itfrom any
par ti
cul
arst ructur estrivet oseei tmaintai
ned.
 Changeoccur sasar esultofconf li
ctbetweencompet ing
i
nt erest
sr athert hant hrough adapt ati
on.Change i s often
abr uptandr ev olutionar yratherthanevoluti
onary.

 EVOLUTI
ON/EMERGENCEOFCONFLI
CTTHEORY.

The ev
olut
ion ofconf
li
ctt
heor
ycan be t
raced backt
o ear
ly
phi
l
osophy.

TheancientChinesephil
osopherstaughtthatmenar einnately
weakandl azy.Thi
sassumptionleadstotheobviousconcl
usion
thatthe only way men can be controll
ed,then i
st hrough
puni
shment .Thosewhohav et hepowert opunishcancont rol
soci
ety.

Thef
earoft
hepowerofpuni
shmentkeepsmeni
ncheck.

Poly
bius,aGreekphil
osopherfocused hi
sst udi
eson Roman
Republi
c.Hebeli
eved t
hatpeoplewerel i
keher dsofanimal
s
weaknesses l
ead man tof or
m communi t
ies in whi
ch t
he
st
rongestandbr
avestper
sonbecamet
hel
eader
.

Manyphil
osophershadsimi
lari
deasaboutconfl
ictandsoci
ety
.
Theybel
i
evedthatconf
li
ctwasanecessar
ypartofsoci
ety
.

Confli
ctasasoci
ologi
calt
heorywasformali
zedi
nthe19th and
20thcent
uri
es,
bui
l
dinguponthei
deasofpeopl
e.

Many sociologi
sts hav
e contr
ibut
ed t
ot he dev
elopmentof
confl
ict t
heory Kar
lMar x,John Rex,Lewis.A.Coser
,Max,
Gluckman,RalfDahr
endorf
,Geor
gesimmel.

 KARLMARX’
S-CONFLI
CTTHEORY

KarlMarxwasaGer manphi l
osopher
,sociol
ogi
st,economi
stand
rev
oluti
onarysoci
ali
st.Marxoff
eredatheoryofcapit
ali
sm based
onhisideathathumanbeingsarebasi
call
yproducti
ve-i
norderto
survi
ve,peopl
ehavetowork.

Healsobel
ievedt
hatpeopl
ehav
etwor
elat
ionshi
pst
othemeans
ofpr
oducti
ons:

 Youei
therownt
hepr
oduct
ivepr
oper
tyor

 Youwor
kforsomeonewhodoes.

Thecl ashbetweent heowner sandt heworkersisattheheartof

Mar x’
st hi
nki
ng.I
nani ndustr
ialweal
thysoci
ety,howcansomany
peoplebepoor ?Att heheartofMar x’
sthi
nkingissocialconf
li
ct,
which ist hestrugglebet ween groupsin societ
yov erscarce
resources.

Marx’
spri
maryconcer
nwasclassconfl
i
ct,whi
char
isesf
rom t
he
waysoci
etypr
oducesmat
eri
algoods.
KarlMar xli
ved intheear l
ystagesofi ndustr
ialcapit
ali
sm in
Europe.Marxbelievedtheownersoft heseindustri
eswer ethe
capit
ali
sts,t
hosepeoplewho ownand oper at
ebusi nessesin
pursui
tofprofi
ts.Thesystem ofcapit
alism t
urnsmostpeopl ein
anysocietyt
osel lt
hei
rlaborforwages.ToMar x,suchasy st
em
wil
linevi
tabl
yleadt ocl
assconf l
ictbetweent heempl oyersand
employees.

Conf l
icttheor y stat es thatt ensions and confl
ictar ise when
resources,st atus andpowerar e unevenl
ydi st
ributed between
groupsi nsoci ety,andt hattheseconfli
ctsbecomet heenginef or
socialchange. I nt hiscont ext,powercan beunder stood as
controlofmat eri
alr esour cesandaccumul atedweal th,contr
olof
poli
ticsandt hei nstituti
onst hatmakeupsoci ety,andone’ ssocial
statusrelat
ivet oot her s(determinednotjustbeclassbutbyr ace,
gender ,
sexual it
y,cult ur
eandr el
i
gion,amongot herthings).

 CONCLUSI
ON

Conf
li
ctTheor
yassumest
hatt
hosewhohav
eweal
thper
pet
ual
l
y
t
ryt
oincr
easet
hei
rweal
thatt
heex
penseandsuf
fer
ingoft
hose
whohav
enot
.Iti
sapowerst
ruggl
ewhi
chi
smostof
tenwonby
weal
thyel
i
teandl
ostbyt
hecommonper
sonofcommonmeans.
Poweri
stheabi
l
ityt
ogetwhatonewant
sev
eni
nthepr
esenceof
opposi
ti
on.
Aut
hor
it
y i
s t
he i
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zed l
egi
ti
mat
e power
. The
Bour
geoi
sie,orweal
thyel
i
tehav
ethemostpower
.Bour
geoi
sie
ex
ploi
tthePr
olet
ari
atst
omaxi
mizet
hei
rpr
ofi
t.
ThePr
olet
ari
ats
ar
ethecommonwor
kingcl
ass,
lowercl
ass,
andpoormember
sof
soci
ety
.

OR

(
a) Expl
ainConf
li
ctf
unct
ional
i
sm byCoser
.Mar
ks10

Coserar guest hatconfli

ctisinsti
nctualforus,so wef ind i
t
everywherei nhumansoci et
y.Thereist heconf li
ctofwar ,but
therei s also the confl
ictthatwe f i
nd in ourdai l
yli
ves and
rel
ationships.ButCoseral soarguesthatconflictisdif
ferentfor
humanst hanf orotheranimalsi
nt hatourconf li
ctscanbegoal
rel
ated.Ther eisgener al
l
ysomet hi
ngthatwear etryi
ngtoachi eve
through conf l
ict,and t her
e are diff
erent possibl
e way s of
reachingourgoal .

The ex i
stence ofthe possi
bil
ityofdi f
ferentpat hs opens up
opportunit
ies f
ornegoti
ati
on and dif
fer
entt ypes and l evel
s of
confl
ict.BecauseCoserseesconf li
ctasanor malandf unctional
partofhuman l if
e,he can t al
k aboutitsv ar
iati
on i n ways
that
othersmi ssed,suchast helevelofv i
olenceandf unctional
consequences.

Cosermakest hecasef ort wokindsoff uncti

onalconsequences
ofconfl
ict
:confl
ict
thatoccurswithinagroupandconf l
ictthatoccursoutsi
det he
group.Anexampl eofi
nternalconfl
ictisthetensi
onthatcanexist
betweenindi
genouspopul ati
onsorf i
rstnat
ionsandt henati
onal
government. Notice that t hi
s internal conf
li
ct is actuall
y
betweenoramonggr oupst hatf uncti
onwi t
hint hesamesoci al
system.Exampl es ofexternalgr oupconfli
cts arethe war sin
which a nat ion may i nvolve i t
self. When consi deri
ng
theconsequencesforint
ernalgr oupconf l
ict
,Coseri sconcer ned
withlow-levelandmor efrequentconf li
ct.Whenexpl ai
ning the
consequences forexternalconf li
ct,he ist hi
nkingaboutmor e
viol
entconfl
ict.

Internal Conf l
i
ct
Internalconf l
icti nthel argersoci alsy stem cr eatesnor msf or
deal i
ngwi thconf li
ct,
anddev elopsl inesofaut horityandj udiciar ysy stems.Cosersees
conf l
ictasi nstinctualf orhumans.Thus,asoci etymustal ways
cont endwi tht hepsy chol ogicalneedofi ndi vi
dualstoengagei n
conf l
ict.Coserappear st oar guet hatt hisneedcanbui ldupov er
timeandbecomeexpl osive.Low- lev el,f r
equentconf li
cttendst o
release host i
liti
es and t hus keepconf l
i
ctf r
om bui l
ding and
becomi ngdi sintegrati
vef orthesy stem.
Thi skindofconf li
ctalsocr eatespr essur esf orsocietytopr oduce
nor msgov erning
conf l
ict.Fr equent ,low- levelconf l
i
ctcr eat es mor aland soci al
structurest hatf aci
li
tatesociali ntegr ation.Coseral sonot esthat
notev eryi nternalconf lictwi llbef unct i
onal .Itdependsont he
typesofconf l
ictandsoci alstructuret hatar ei nvolved.

I
nCoser ’
stheory,t
herearetwobasictypesofi
nter
nalconf
li
ct:
thoset
hatthreat
en
or contr
adict t
he fundament
al assumpti
ons of the gr
oup
relati
onshi pandt hoset hatdon’ t.
Ev erygroupi sbasedoncer tai
n
beliefsregar dingwhatt hegr oupi sabout .Thegroupstruct
urewi l
l
alsohel pdet ermi newhet herornotaconf l
ictisfuncti
onal.As
Coser expl ai
ns,“socialst ructuresdi fferint hewayi nwhi cht hey
all
owexpr essiont oant agoni sti
cclaims” .Groupswhosemember s
i
nt eractf requentlyov erl ongper iodsoft i
meandhav ehighlev el
s
ofper sonaland per sonal i
tyi nvolv ementhav e high net wor k
densi ty
.Suchgr oupswi lltendt osuppr essordiscourageconf li
ct.
I
fconf l
ictdoeser uptinsuchagr oup,itwil
ltendtobev eryintense
fort wor easons.Fi rst
, thegr oupwi l
llikel
yhav ebuil
tupunresolved
grievancesandunr el
easedhost i
li
ti
es.Second,t hekindoft otal
per sonalinvolvementt hesegr oupshav emakest hemobi liz
at i
on
ofal lemot i
onst hatmucheasi er.

On the other hand,groups whose membersint

eract l
ess
fr
equentl
yandthatdemandlessi
nvol
vementwil
lbemor
el i
kel
yto
exper
iencet
hefuncti
onal
benefit
sofconf
li
ct.

ExternalConf l
ict
The di ffer
ent gr oups i nvol v
ed i n confli
ct also experi
ence
functi
onal result
s,
especiall
y when t he conflict is mor ev iol
ent.As a gr oup
experiences ext ernalconf l
ict,t heboundari
es surroundi
ng the
group become st ronger, t he member s of t he group
experiencegreatersolidari
ty,poweri sexerci
sedmor eeff
ici
ent
ly,
andt hegr oupt endst of ormcoal i
tionswi t
hot hergroups.The
mor ev i
olenttheconf li
ctis,themor eint
ensifi
edaretheseeff
ects.
Inorderf oranygr oupt oexist,itmusti ncl
udesomepeopl eand
excludeothers. Thi s i ncl
usion/excl
usion pr ocess involves
producingandr egulat
ingdiff
er ent
behavi
or s,way soffeel
i
ngand
thi
nking, cul tural sy mbols, and so f ort
h. These
dif
ferencesconst i
tut
eagr oupboundar yt hatclearlydemarcates
thosewhobel ongf r
om thosewhodonot .Asagr oupexperi
ences
confli
ct,theboundar i
essur r
oundingt hegr oupbecomest ronger
andbet terguarded.

Along wi th st rongerext ernalboundar i

es,conf li
ctenabl es the
groupt oal soexper iencehi gherl evelsofi nternalsol i
darity.When
a gr oup engages i n conf li
ct ,themember s wi lltend t of eela
greater sense of camar ader i
et han dur ing peacef ult imes.
They wi l
lseet hemsel vesasmor eal i
ke,mor epar toft hesame
fami l
y, existi
ngf orthesamer eason.Gr oup-speci f
icbehav i
orsand
symbol s wi llbe mor e cl osel y guarded andcel ebrated.Gr oup
ri
tualswi llbeengagedi nmor eoftenandwi thgr eaterf erv
ency ,
thuspr oduci ng gr eateremot ionalt i
es bet ween member s and
creating asenseofsacr ednessaboutt hegr oup. I
n addi ti
on,a
group exper i
encing conf lict wi llt end t o pr oduce a mor e
cent r
alizedpowerst r
uct ure.A cent r
ali
zed gov ernmenti smor e
effici
enti nt ermsofr esponset i
met odanger ,regulatingi nternal
stresses and needs,negot i
ati
ng ext ernalr elations,and so
on.Violent conf li
ct al so t ends t o produce coal i
tions wi t
h
prev i
ousl yneut r
alparties.

Q.No(
b)Cl
assconf
li
ctt
heor
y. Mar
ks06
Dahr
endor
fdevel
oped,cult
ivat
ed,and adv
anced hi
stheor
yof
cl
assconf
li
ct.Heproposesasy mbol
i
cmodelofcl assconf
li
ct
withauthor i
tyasthegener i
cform ofdomi nation,combi nedwitha
strongsy stemati
cv iew ofsocietyandt hest ruct
urationofcl ass
rel
ationships.Thisnew t heoryi ssai dt o havet akenpl acei n
reacti
ont ost r
uctur
alfuncti
onalism andinmanyway srepresents
i
ts ant i
thesis. The conf l
ict t heory at tempt s t o br ing
together 
structur
alfunct
ionali
sm  andMar xi
sm.
Accor dingt oDahr endor f,functional ism i sbenef i
cialwhi let r
y i
ng
to under standconsensuswhi let heconf li
ctt heor yi susedt o
under st
and conf li
ct and coer cion. I n or der t o under stand
struct uralfunct ionalism, west udyt hreebodi esofwor k:Dav i
sand
Moor e,Par sons,andMer ton. 
Dahr endor fst atest hatcapi tali
sm
hasunder gonemaj orchangessi nceMar xini t
iall
ydev elopedhi s
theor yon  classconf li
ct.Thisnew sy stem ofcapi t
alism,( known
as post -capitalism) ,i schar acterizedbydi versecl assst r
ucture
andaf luidsy st em ofpowerr elations.Thus,i tinv olvesamuch
mor e compl ex sy stem of i nequal it
yt han Mar x or i
ginally
outlined.  
Dahr endor fcont ends t hatpost -capitalistsoci et
y has
i
nst ituti
onal i
zedcl assconf li
cti ntost ateandeconomi cspher es.
Forexampl e,cl assconf li
cthasbeenhabi t
uat edt hr oughuni ons,
collect i
vebar gai ning,t hecour tsy st em,andl egislativedebat e.In
effect ,thesev er ecl assst ri
fet ypicalofMar x'st imei snotl onger
rel
ev ant .Dahr endor f'stheor yof t
en t ookt heopposi tev i
ew of
funct ionali
sts.
Confli
cttheori
sts,li
keDahr endorf,of tent ookt heexactopposi te
viewoffuncti
onalists.Whereasf unct i
onal istsbeliev
et hatsociety
was oscill
ati
ng v er
ysl i
ghtly,ifnotcompl etelystati
c,conf l
ict
theori
stssaidt hat" ev
erysoci etyatev er ypoi ntissubj ectt o
processofchange" .Hebel i
evest hatt her ei s" di
ssension and
confl
ictateverypoi ntinthesoci alsy stem"and" manysoci etal
elements as cont r
ibuti
ng to di sintegration and change" .
They
beli
eveordercomesf r
om coer cionf rom t hoseatt het op.They
beli
evet hatpoweri s an impor tantf actori n socialor der.
Dahr
endorfbel
ieves t
hatboth conf
li
cttheoryand consensus
t
heoryar
enecessarybecauset
heyref
lectt
hetwopar
tsofsociety
.
In dev eloping hi s conf li
ct t heor y, Dahr endor fr ecogni zed
consensust heor ywasal so necessar ytof ullyr eflectsoci ety.
Consensust heor yf ocusesont hev aluei nt egr ationi ntosoci ety,
whi l
econf l
ictt heor yf ocusesonconf lictsofi nt erestandt hef orce
thathol dssoci etyt oget herdespi tet hesest resses.I nt hepast ,
structural f
unct ional ism wast hecommandi ngt heor yinsoci ology ,
untilt he conf lictt heor ycame al ong as i ts maj orchal lenger .
Howev er,bot hst ruct uralf uncti
onal ism andt heconf lictt heor y
hav er eceivedmaj orcr iticisms.I nf act ,Dahr endor fasser t
edt hat
therehast obeconsensust ohav econf l
ict,ashesai dt hatt he
twower epr erequi sitesf oreachot her .Theopposi tei sal sot rue,
he bel ieved –– conf l
ict can r esul t i n cohesi on and
consensus.  Howev er ,Dahr endorfdidnotbel iev et het wot heor i
es
couldbecombi nedi nt oonecohesi v eandcompr ehensi v et heor y.
Instead,Dahr endor f'
st hesi swas" thedi f
fer ent i
aldi stribut ionof
author it
yinv ar iablybecomest hedet er mi ni
ngf act orofsy stemat i
c
]
socialconf lict s". "I
nt heend,conf li
ctt heoryshoul dbeseenasa
l
itte mor et han a t ransi tionaldev elopmenti nt he hi stor y of
sociologicalt heor y.Al thought het heor yf ail
edbecausei tdi dn'tgo
farint hedi rect ionofMar xiant heory, itwasst i
llear lyint he1950s
and 1960s f orAmer ican soci ol
ogy t o accepta f ul l-
fledged
Mar xianappr oach.Howev er,conf l
i
ctt heor ywashel pi
ngi nset ting
thest agef ort hebegi nni ngoft heaccept ancebyt hel ate1960s" .
Aut
hor
it
y
Dahrendorfopposed those who wer e on an i ndi
viduall evel
.
Dahrendorfbeli
eved thatMar x'
st heory could be updated t o
refl
ectmodernsociet
yandRomansoci ety.Her ej
ectsMar x
'st wo-
classsystem astoosi mpli
sti
candov erl
yf ocusedonpr operty
ownership.
 Duetotheriseofthejointst
ockcompany ,owner ship
doesnotnecessar i
lyrefl
ectcontrolofeconomi cproductioni n
moder n soci et y.
 Inst ead of descr ibing t he f undament al
dif
ferencesofcl assi nt ermsofpr oper ty,Dahr endor fclaimst hat
wemust" repl acet hepossessi on,ornon- possessi on,ofef f
ective
pri
vatepr oper tybyt heex erciseof , orexcl usionf rom, author it
yas
the cr i
terion of cl ass f or mat ion" .
 A cr uci
al component t o
Dahrendor f'
sconf lictt heor yi st hei deaofaut hor i
ty.Althoughi t
i
niti
allyappear st o be an i ndividuali ssue and psy chol ogical,
Dahrendor far guest hataut hor i
tyi sr elatedt oposi ti
onsandnott o
i
ndividuals.  
Int hi sway ,subor dinat ionandaut hor it
yar epr oduct s
ofexpect ationspeci fiedbysoci ety,andi fthoser olesar enot
adheredt o,sanct ionsar eimposed.Dahr endorfexpandsont hi s
i
deawi tht henot i
ont hatr ol esofaut horitymayconf l
ictwheni n
dif
ferentposi tionst hatcal lfordi ff
erentt hi
ngs.Accor ding t o
Dahrendor f,t hese di ff
erentdef ined ar eas ofsoci ety wher e
people's r oles may be di ffer ent ar e cal led i mper ati
v ely
coordinated associ at i
ons The gr oups of soci etyi n di f
ferent
associations ar e dr awn t oget herby t heircommon i nterest s.
Dahrendor fexpl ainst hatlat enti nter estsar enat uralinterest sthat
ari
se unconsci ousl yi n conf l
ictbet ween super ordinates and
subordinat es.Hedef inesmani festi nterest sasl atenti nterests
whent heyar er eal ized.I nconcl usi on,Dahr endor fbel i
ev est hat
understandi ngaut hor ityt obet hekeyt ounder standingsoci al
confl
ict.
Dahr endorf,li
keMer ton,lookedatl at
entandmani f estinter
ests
and f urthercl assi
fi
ed t hem as unconsci ous and consci ous
i
nt er
ests.Hef oundt heconnectionbet weent heset woconcept s
tobepr oblematicfortheconfli
ctt heory
. 
Dahr endorfbel i
evedthat
thebasi sofcl assconf l
ictwast hedi visi
onoft hreegr oupsof
society:quasigr oups,int
erestgroups,andconf li
ctgr oups.Thus,
societycanbespl i
tupi ntothe" commandcl ass"andt he" obey
class".Thecommandcl assexer cisesaut horit
y,whi l
et heobey
classnotonl yhasnoaut hori
ty,
andbuti salsosubser vi
enttothat
ofot her s.Wi thacl eari nterplaybet weenbot hcl asst ypescl ass
conf l
ictt heor ysoughtt oexpl ainthatint erplay.
 Quasigr oupsar e
"aggr egat es of i ncumbent s of posi tions wi thi dent icalr ol
e
i
nt erests" .
 Interestgr oupsar eder ivedfrom t hequasigr oupsand
theyar eor gani zedwi thmember s,anor gani zat
ion, andapr ogram
orgoal .Themai ndi fferencebet weenquasigr oupsandi nt
erest
groupsar et hati nterestgr oupsar eabl et oor gani zeandhav ea
senseof" belongi ng"ori dent it
y  Darhendor facknowl edgedt hat
othercondi ti
onsl ikepol iti
cs, adequateper sonnel, andr ecr uit
ment
woul dpl ayar oleal ongwi tht hegr oups.Heal sobel iev edt hat,
underi dealci rcumst ances,conf li
ctcoul dbeexpl ai
nedwi thout
reference t o ot herv ariables Unli
ke Mar x,howev er,hedi d not
believet hatr andom r ecruit
menti ntothequasigr oup, i
twoul dnot
startaconf l
ictgr oup.I ncont r
astt oLewi sCoser '
si deast hat
funct i
ons ofconf li
ctmai ntained the st atus quo,Dahr endorf
believedt hatt hatconf l
ictalsol eadstochange( insoci al structure)
and dev el opment  His bel i
efi n a changi ng soci ety separ ated
Dahr endor f'
si deasf rom Mar xwhosuppor tedtheconceptofa
utopia
Mar
xandDahr
endor
f'
sper
spect
ivesoncl
assf
ormat
ion
Mar x beli
ev ed hist
oryt o be def i
ned as cl
ass str
uggle.Mar x
defi
nedcl assast hedif
ferencebet weenthedominati
ngclassand
thosewhodomi nate.Hebel iev
edt hatinmoder nsocietythere
weret hree t ypes ofcl asses:Capi tal
i
sts,worker
s and pet i
te
bourgeoisie.Thepr olet
ariatandt hebourgeoi
siearethepil
larsin
theformat ionofcl asses.Mar xbel i
evedthatthebatt
lebetween
thediffer
entclassesf ormedt heconceptofclassphenomenon.
Marxunder st
ood thatt her
e aret wo cl
asses:t he r
ulers who
contr
olthemeansofpr oducti
on,andtheruledwhowor kedwi th
themeansofpr oducti
on.Everysociet
yneedsbot h.Theconf l
icts
betweenthem causesadest ruct
ionoftheexist
ingsocietalorder
sothati
tcanber epl
acedbyanewone.
Ont heot herhand,Dahr endorfbel i
evedt hatt hef ormati
onof
classeswast heor gani
zati
onofcommoni nterests.Thisfurt
her
meanst hatpeoplewhoar einposi t
ionsofaut horit
yar esupposed
tocont r
ol subordi
nati
on,meaningt hatsanctionscoul dbeputinto
effectagai nstpeopl e who fai
lt o obeyaut horit
ycommands,
resulti
ngi nf i
nesandf urt
herpuni shments.Dahr endorfargues
thatsoci etyi s composed ofmul ti
ple unitst hatar e call
ed
i
mper at
ivelycoordi
natedassociations.Hesaw soci alconfl
ictas
the di f
ference between domi nati
ng and subj ect groups in
i
mper at
ivelycoordi
natedassociati
ons.
Mar xbel i
ev edt hatclassformat ionwasbasedont heowner ship
ofpr i
vatepr oper ty
.Ont hecont r
ary,Dahrendor far guedt hatcl ass
formationwasal waysbasedonaut horit
y.Hedef i
nedaut hor it
yas
af acetofsoci alorganizationsandasacommonel ementof
socialstruct ur
es.Ther eisal soanot herdifferencebet weenMar x
andDahr endor fconcerningt hest r
uctureofsoci eties.Dahr endorf
beli
evedt hatsoci etyhadt woaspect s:consensusandconf li
ct,
stati
candchange, or
deranddi ssension,cohesi onandt her ol
eof
power ,i ntegration and conf li
ct,and l ast l
y consensus and
constraint.Hesaw t hem al lasequal l
yt hedoubl easpect sof
society.Ont hi
spoi nt,Dahrendor fassertedt hatsoci etycoul dnot
surviv
ewi thoutbot hconsensusandconf l
ict.Hef el
tt hisway
because wi t
houtconf l
ict
,t here can be no consensus,and
alt
hough consensus l eads t o confl
ict
,conf l
ictal so leads t o
consensus.

OR

(
b) EVOLUTI
ON/EMERGENCEOFCONFLI
CTTHEORY.
Marks06

The ev
olut
ion ofconf
li
ctt
heor
ycan be t
raced backt
o ear
ly
phi
l
osophy
.

TheancientChinesephil
osopherstaughtthatmenar einnately
weakandl azy.Thi
sassumptionleadstotheobviousconcl
usion
thatthe only way men can be controll
ed,then i
st hrough
puni
shment .Thosewhohav et hepowert opunishcancont rol
soci
ety.

Thef
earoft
hepowerofpuni
shmentkeepsmeni
ncheck.

Poly
bius,aGreekphi losopherfocused hi
sst udi
eson Roman
Republi
c.Hebel i
eved thatpeoplewer eli
keher dsofanimal
s
weaknesses l
ead man t of orm communi t
ies in whi
ch t
he
st
rongestandbravestpersonbecamet hel
eader.

Manyphil
osophershadsimi
lari
deasaboutconfl
ictandsoci
ety
.
Theybel
i
evedthatconf
li
ctwasanecessar
ypartofsoci
ety
.

Confli
ctasasoci
ologi
calt
heorywasformali
zedi
nthe19th and
20thcent
uri
es,
bui
l
dinguponthei
deasofpeopl
e.

Many sociologi
sts hav
e contr
ibut
ed t
ot he dev
elopmentof
confl
ict t
heory Kar
lMar x,John Rex,Lewis.A.Coser
,Max,
Gluckman,RalfDahr
endorf
,Geor
gesimmel.

(
c) KARLMARX’
S-CONFLI
CTTHEORY

KarlMarxwasaGer manphi l
osopher
,sociol
ogi
st,economi
stand
rev
oluti
onarysoci
ali
st.Marxoff
eredatheoryofcapit
ali
sm based
onhisideathathumanbeingsarebasi
call
yproducti
ve-i
norderto
survi
ve,peopl
ehavetowork.

Heal
sobel
i
evedt
hatpeopl
ehav
etwor
elat
ionshi
pst
othemeans
ofpr
oduct
ions:

 Youei
therownt
hepr
oduct
ivepr
oper
tyor

 Youwor
kforsomeonewhodoes.

Thecl ashbetweent heowner sandt heworkersisattheheartof

Mar x’
st hi
nki
ng.I
nani ndustr
ialweal
thysoci
ety,howcansomany
peoplebepoor ?Att heheartofMar x’
sthi
nkingissocialconf
li
ct,
which ist hestrugglebet ween groupsin societ
yov erscarce
resources.

Marx’
spri
maryconcer
nwasclassconfl
i
ct,whi
char
isesf
rom t
he
waysoci
etypr
oducesmat
eri
algoods.

KarlMar xli
ved intheear l
ystagesofi ndustr
ialcapit
ali
sm in
Europe.Marxbelievedtheownersoft heseindustri
eswer ethe
capit
ali
sts,t
hosepeoplewho ownand oper at
ebusi nessesin
pursui
tofprofi
ts.Thesystem ofcapit
alism t
urnsmostpeopl ein
anysocietyt
osel lt
hei
rlaborforwages.ToMar x,suchasy st
em
wil
linevi
tabl
yleadt ocl
assconf l
ictbetweent heempl oyersand
employees.

Conf l
icttheor y stat es thatt ensions and confl
ictar ise when
resources,st atus andpowerar e unevenl
ydi st
ributed between
groupsi nsoci ety,andt hattheseconfli
ctsbecomet heenginef or
socialchange. I nt hiscont ext,powercan beunder stood as
controlofmat eri
alr esour cesandaccumul atedweal th,contr
olof
poli
ticsandt hei nstituti
onst hatmakeupsoci ety,andone’ ssocial
statusrelat
ivet oot her s(determinednotjustbeclassbutbyr ace,
gender ,
sexual it
y,cult ur
eandr el
i
gion,amongot herthings).
  CONCLUSI
ON

Conf
li
ctTheor
yassumest
hatt
hosewhohav
eweal
thper
pet
ual
l
y
t
ryt
oincr
easet
hei
rweal
thatt
heex
penseandsuf
fer
ingoft
hose
whohav
enot
.Iti
sapowerst
ruggl
ewhi
chi
smostof
tenwonby
weal
thyel
i
teandl
ostbyt
hecommonper
sonofcommonmeans.
Poweri
stheabi
l
ityt
ogetwhatonewant
sev
eni
nthepr
esenceof
opposi
ti
on.
Aut
hor
it
y i
s t
he i
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zed l
egi
ti
mat
e power
. The
Bour
geoi
sie,orweal
thyel
i
tehav
ethemostpower
.Bour
geoi
sie
ex
ploi
tthePr
olet
ari
atst
omaxi
mizet
hei
rpr
ofi
t.
ThePr
olet
ari
ats
ar
ethecommonwor
kingcl
ass,
lowercl
ass,
andpoormember
sof
soci
ety
.

UNI
T-4

Q.No.( a)Def
ineFemi
nism andExpl
aint
het
heor
yofMar
xist
femi
nism. Mar
ks10

Sy
nopsis
Introducti
on
 Defini
ti
on
 TheoryofMarxi
stf
emi
nism.
 Conclusi
on
 I NTRODUCTI ON
Thewor dsfemini
stfirstappearedinFranceandtheNether
lands
i
n1872.Gr eatBri
taininthe1890’ sandtheUnit
edstat
esin1910
andtheOxf or
dEngl i
shDi ct
ionaryli
st1852astheyearofthe1st
appearanceoffeministand1895f orfemi
nism.

Dependi
ngonhistor
icalmoment ,cul
tur
eandcount
ryf
emi
nist
ar
oundthewor
ldhaddiff
erentcausesandgoal
s.

Mostwester
nf emi
nisthi
stor
ians asser
tthatallmov
ement s
wor
kingtoobtai
nwomen,ri
ghtsshouldbeconsider
edfemi
nist
movement
s.

 Defi
nit
ion:-
Femini
st:
-adv ocati
ngsocial
,pol
i
tical
,legalandeconomi
cri
ght
s
forwomenequal t
othoseofmen.

Femini
sm i
sarangeofpol
iti
cal
mov ements;i
deologi
esandsoci
al
movementthatshareacommongoalt odef i
neest abl
i
shand
achi
eveequalpoli
ti
cal
,economic,cul
tur
al,personalandsoci
al
ri
ght
sforwomen.

Thi
sincl
udesseeki
ngtoestabl
i
shequaloppor
tuni
ti
esf
orwomen
i
neducati
onandemployment.

 TheoryofMar xi
stf
emi ni
sm.
Iti
sabr anchoffemini
sm focusedoninvest
igati
ngandexpl
aini
ng
the waysi n whi
ch women ar e oppr
essed thr
ough sy
stem of
capi
tal
ism andpriv
atepropert
y.

Accor
dingt
oMar
xistf
emi
nist
s,women’
sli
ber
ati
oncanonl
ybe
achi
evedt
hrougharadi
calr
est
ruct
uri
ngofthecur
rentcapi
tal
i
st
economyi
nwhichmuchofwomenlabori
suncompensat
ed.

Marxi
stf
emini
stvi
ewthecapit
ali
stdr
iveforprof
it
sisr
esponsi
ble
forwomen’
ssecondcl
assstatusandotherformsofoppr
essi
on
suchasr
aci
sm andhomophobia.

Womenwor ker
sareexploit
edatahi gherl
evelthanmal
es,wi
th
women ofcol oursuff
eri
ng thehighestdegreeofexpl
oit
ati
on
becauseofgenderandracediscr
imi
nati
on.

Womenar
eal
soasour
ceofunpai
ddomest
icl
abour
.

Mar
xistFemi
nism

a.Capital
istclassrelat
ionshipisthe r ootcause offemale
oppression,exploi
tati
on and di scr
imi nati
on. Men ar e
soci
al i
zedintoexploi
tati
v erel
ati
onshipi nr el
ati
ont
owor k
andtheycar ryt
hissocial
izat
ionoverintot hehomeandthei
r
rel
ati
onshiptowomen.

b.Patr
iar
chyi
sanideology(asetofrelatedbeli
efsaboutthe
worl
dinthi
sinst
ancemale-femalerelati
onshi
p)thatstems
fr
om maleatt
emptstojusti
fytheeconomi cexploi
tat
ionof
women.

c.Thefami l
ysy st
em character
sofmoder nsociet
iesbenefi
ts
capi
tali
sm (andbyextension,t
hemenwhot endtodominate
posi
tionofpowerandi nfl
uence)becauseofwomen,

 Canbef
orced/
soci
ali
zedi
ntounpai
ddomest
icl
abour

 Canbef
orced/
soci
ali
zedi
ntor
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orchi
l
d
 r
ear
ing.

This benef
it
st he capi
tal
istbecause theydon’thaveto pay
woment operfor
mt hi
srole(ther
eproductionofl
abourpower
”in
soci
ety)

Thi
sbenef i
tsmenbecausewomenper for
m adomesti
cser
vant
rol
eforallmen.Mar
xistdon’
tseemenast heenemyofwomen.
Tocreateacommunist/soci
ali
stsoci
etymenandwomenhaveto
co-
operatei
nto.

OR

(
a) Expl
ainHI
STORI
CALROOTSOFFEMI
NISTTHEORY

Femi
nism 
compr
isesanumberofsoci
al,cul
tur
aland pol
i
tical
mov
ement
s,t
heor
ies and 
mor
alphi
l
osophi
es 
concer
ned wi
th
genderi
nequal
i
tiesandequalr
ight
sforwomen.I
nit
snar
rowest
i
nter
pret
ati
on,i
tref
erst
otheef
for
ttoensur
elegalandpol
i
tical
equal
i
tyf
orwomen;i
nit
sbr
oadestsensei
tcompr
isesanyt
heor
y
whi
chi
sgr
oundedont
hebel
i
eft
hatwomenar
eoppr
essedor
di
sadv
ant
agedbycompar
isonwi
thmen,
andt
hatt
hei
roppr
essi
on
[
5]
i
sinsomewayi
l
legi
ti
mat
eorunj
ust
if
ied.

Thet
erm“
femi
nism”or
igi
nat
edf
rom t
heFr
enchwor
d“f
emi
nisme,
”
coi
nedbyt
heut
opi
ansoci
ali
stChar
lesFour
ier
,andwasf
ir
stused
i
nEngl
i
shi
nthe1890s,i
nassoci
ati
onwi
tht
hemov
ementf
or
[
6]
equalpol
i
ticalandl
egalr
ight
sforwomen. Ther
eissomedebat
e
ast
owhet
hert
het
erm“
femi
nism”canbeappr
opr
iat
elyappl
i
edt
o
t
he t
houghtand act
ivi
ti
es ofear
li
erwomen (
and men)who
ex
plor
edandchal
l
engedt
het
radi
ti
onal
rol
esofwomeni
nsoci
ety
.

Cont
empor
aryf
emi
nisthi
stor
iansdi
sti
ngui
sht
hree“
wav
es”i
nthe
hi
stor
y off
emi
nism.The f
ir
st-
wav
eref
erst
othe f
emi
nism
mov
ementoft
heni
net
eent
hthr
oughear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
uri
es,
whi
chdeal
tmai
nlywi
tht
heSuf
fragemov
ement
.Thesecond-
wav
e(1960s-
1980s)deal
twi
tht
hei
nequal
i
tyofl
aws,aswel
l
as 
cul
tur
al 
i
nequal
i
ties.The t
hir
d-wav
e of Femi
nism (
1990s-
pr
esent
),i
sseenasbot
hacont
inuat
ionofandar
esponset
othe
[
7]
per
cei
vedf
ail
uresoft
hesecond-
wav
e.

Si
monedeBeauv
oirwr
otet
hat"
thef
ir
stt
imeweseeawoman
t
akeupherpeni
ndef
enseofhersex
"wasChr
ist
inedePi
zanwho
wr
oteEpi
tr
eauDi
eud'
Amour(
Epi
stl
etot
heGodofLov
e)i
nthe
15t
hcent
ury
.Hei
nri
chCor
nel
i
usAgr
ippaandModest
adiPozzodi
For
ziwor
kedi
nthe16t
hcent
ury
.Mar
ieLeJar
sdeGour
nay
,Anne
Br
adst
reetandFr
ancoi
sPoul
l
aindel
aBar
rewr
otedur
ingt
he17t
h.

Femi
nist
sandschol
arshav
edi
vi
dedt
hemov
ement
'shi
stor
yint
o
t
hree"
wav
es"
.Thef
ir
stwav
eref
ersmai
nlyt
owomen'
ssuf
frage
mov
ement
s oft
he ni
net
eent
h and ear
lyt
went
iet
h cent
uri
es
(
mai
nlyconcer
nedwi
thwomen'
sri
ghtt
ovot
e).Thesecondwav
e
r
efer
stot
hei
deasand act
ionsassoci
ated wi
tht
hewomen'
s
l
i
ber
ati
onmov
ementbegi
nni
ngi
nthe1960s(
whi
chcampai
gned
f
orl
egalandsoci
alr
ight
sforwomen)
.Thet
hir
dwav
eref
erst
oa
cont
inuat
ionof
,andar
eact
iont
otheper
cei
vedf
ail
uresof
,second
-
wav
efemi
nism,
begi
nni
ngi
nthe1990s.

 Fi
rstwav
e

Fi
rst
-wav
efemi
nism r
efer
sto an ext
ended per
iod off
emi
nist
act
ivi
tydur
ingt
heni
net
eent
hcent
uryandear
lyt
went
iet
hcent
ury
i
ntheUni
tedKi
ngdom andt
heUni
tedSt
ates.Or
igi
nal
l
yitf
ocused
ont
hepr
omot
ionofequalcont
ractandpr
oper
tyr
ight
sforwomen
andt
heopposi
ti
ont
ochat
telmar
ri
ageandowner
shi
pofmar
ri
ed
women(
andt
hei
rchi
l
dren)byt
hei
rhusbands.Howev
er,byt
he
end oft
he ni
net
eent
h cent
ury
,act
ivi
sm f
ocused pr
imar
il
yon
gai
ningpol
i
ticalpower
,par
ti
cul
arl
yther
ightofwomen'
ssuf
frage.
Yet
,femi
nist
ssuchasVol
tai
ri
nedeCl
eyr
eandMar
gar
etSanger
wer
est
il
lact
ivei
ncampai
gni
ngf
orwomen'
ssexual
,repr
oduct
ive,
andeconomi
cri
ght
satt
hist
ime.I
n1854,Fl
orenceNi
ght
ingal
e
est
abl
i
shedf
emal
enur
sesasadj
unct
stot
hemi
l
itar
y.

I
n Br
it
aint
he Suf
fraget
tesand,possi
blymor
e ef
fect
ivel
y,t
he
Suf
fragi
sts campai
gned f
ort
he women'
svot
e.I
n 1918 t
he
Repr
esent
ati
onoft
hePeopl
eAct1918waspassedgr
ant
ingt
he
v
otet
owomenov
ert
heageof30whoownedhouses.I
n1928
t
hiswasext
endedt
oal
lwomenov
ert
went
y-one.I
ntheUni
ted
St
ates,l
eader
soft
hismov
ementi
ncl
udedLucr
eti
aMot
t,Lucy
St
one,El
i
zabet
hCadySt
ant
on,andSusanB.Ant
hony
,whoeach
campai
gned f
ort
heabol
i
tion ofsl
aver
ypr
iort
o champi
oni
ng
women'
sri
ghtt
ovot
e;al
lwer
est
rongl
yinf
luencedbyQuaker
t
hought
.Amer
icanf
ir
st-
wav
efemi
nism i
nvol
vedawi
der
angeof
women.Some,
suchasFr
ancesWi
l
lar
d,bel
ongedt
oconser
vat
ive
Chr
ist
ian gr
oupssuch ast
heWoman'
sChr
ist
ian Temper
ance
Uni
on.Ot
her
s,suchasMat
il
daJosl
ynGage,wer
emor
eradi
cal
,
andexpr
essedt
hemsel
veswi
thi
ntheNat
ionalWomanSuf
frage
Associ
ati
on ori
ndi
vi
dual
l
y.Amer
ican f
ir
st-
wav
efemi
nism i
s
consi
der
edt
ohav
eendedwi
tht
hepassageoft
heNi
net
eent
h
Amendmentt
otheUni
tedSt
atesConst
it
uti
on(
1919)
,gr
ant
ing
woment
her
ightt
ovot
einal
lst
ates.

Thet
ermf
ir
stwav
ewascoi
nedr
etr
ospect
ivel
yaf
tert
het
erm
second-
wav
efemi
nism begant
obeusedt
odescr
ibeanewer
f
emi
nistmov
ementt
hatf
ocusedasmuchonf
ight
ingsoci
aland
cul
tur
ali
nequal
i
tiesaspol
i
tical
inequal
i
ties.

 Secondwav
e

Second-
wav
efemi
nism r
efer
stot
heper
iodofact
ivi
tyi
ntheear
ly
1960sandl
ast
ingt
hrought
hel
ate1980s.Theschol
arI
mel
da
Whel
ehansuggest
sthatt
hesecondwav
ewasacont
inuat
ionof
t
heear
li
erphaseoff
emi
nism i
nvol
vi
ngt
hesuf
fraget
tesi
ntheUK
andUSA.Second-
wav
efemi
nism hascont
inuedt
oexi
stsi
nce
t
hatt
imeandcoexi
stswi
thwhati
ster
medt
hir
d-wav
efemi
nism.
Theschol
arEst
ell
eFr
eedmancompar
esf
ir
standsecond-
wav
e
f
emi
nism say
ingt
hatt
hef
ir
stwav
efocusedonr
ight
ssuchas
suf
frage,wher
east
hesecondwav
ewasl
argel
yconcer
nedwi
th
ot
heri
ssuesofequal
i
ty,
suchasendi
ngdi
scr
imi
nat
ion.

Thef
emi
nistact
ivi
standaut
horCar
olHani
schcoi
nedt
hesl
ogan
"
ThePer
sonali
sPol
i
tical
"whi
chbecamesy
nony
mouswi
tht
he
secondwav
e.Second-
wav
efemi
nist
ssaw women'
scul
tur
aland
pol
i
tical
inequal
i
tiesasi
next
ri
cabl
yli
nkedandencour
agedwomen
t
ounder
standaspect
soft
hei
rper
sonall
i
vesasdeepl
ypol
i
tici
zed
andasr
efl
ect
ingsexi
stpowerst
ruct
ures.

Si
monedeBeauv
oirandTheSecondSex

TheFr
enchaut
horandphi
l
osopherSi
monedeBeauv
oirwr
ote
nov
els;monogr
aphsonphi
l
osophy
,pol
i
tics,andsoci
ali
ssues;
essay
s;bi
ogr
aphi
es;and an aut
obi
ogr
aphy
.She i
s now best
knownf
orhermet
aphy
sicalnov
els,i
ncl
udi
ngSheCamet
oSt
ay
and The Mandar
ins,and f
orhert
reat
ise The Second Sex,a
det
ail
edanal
ysi
sofwomen'
soppr
essi
onandaf
oundat
ionalt
ract
ofcont
empor
aryf
emi
nism.Wr
it
teni
n1949,
itsEngl
i
sht
ransl
ati
on
waspubl
i
shedi
n1953.I
tset
soutaf
emi
nistexi
stent
ial
i
sm whi
ch
pr
escr
ibesamor
alr
evol
uti
on.Asanexi
stent
ial
i
st,sheaccept
ed
Jean-
PaulSar
tre'
spr
eceptexi
stencepr
ecedesessence;hence
"
one i
s notbor
n a woman,butbecomes one.
"Heranal
ysi
s
f
ocusesont
hesoci
alconst
ruct
ionofWomanast
heOt
her
.Thi
s
deBeauv
oiri
dent
if
iesasf
undament
alt
owomen'
soppr
essi
on.
Shear
gueswomenhav
ehi
stor
ical
l
ybeenconsi
der
eddev
iantand
abnor
mal
andcont
endst
hatev
enMar
yWol
l
stonecr
aftconsi
der
ed
men t
o bet
hei
dealt
owar
d whi
ch women shoul
d aspi
re.De
Beauv
oirar
guest
hatf
orf
emi
nism t
omov
efor
war
d,t
hisat
ti
tude
mustbesetasi
de.

TheFemi
nineMy
sti
que

Bet
tyFr
iedan'
sTheFemi
nineMy
sti
que(
1963)cr
it
ici
zedt
hei
dea
t
hatwomencoul
donl
yfi
ndf
ulf
il
lmentt
hroughchi
l
drear
ingand
homemaki
ng.Accor
dingt
oFr
iedan'
sobi
tuar
yint
heTheNewYor
k
Ti
mes, The Femi
nine My
sti
que “
igni
ted t
he cont
empor
ary
women'
s mov
ement i
n 1963 and as a r
esul
t per
manent
ly
t
ransf
ormedt
hesoci
alf
abr
icoft
heUni
tedSt
atesandcount
ri
es
ar
oundt
hewor
ld”and“
iswi
del
yregar
dedasoneoft
hemost
i
nfl
uent
ialnonf
ict
ion booksoft
he20t
h cent
ury
.”I
nthebook
Fr
iedanhy
pot
hesi
zest
hatwomenar
evi
cti
msofaf
alsebel
i
ef
sy
stem t
hatr
equi
rest
hem t
ofi
ndi
dent
it
yandmeani
ngi
nthei
r
l
i
vest
hrought
hei
rhusbandsandchi
l
dren.Suchasy
stem causes
woment
ocompl
etel
yloset
hei
rident
it
yint
hatoft
hei
rfami
l
y.
Fr
iedanspeci
fi
cal
l
ylocat
est
hissy
stem amongpost
-Wor
ldWarI
I
mi
ddl
e-cl
asssubur
bancommuni
ti
es.Att
hesamet
ime,
Amer
ica'
s
post
-wareconomi
cboom hadl
edt
othedev
elopmentofnew
t
echnol
ogi
est
hatwer
esupposedt
omakehousehol
dwor
kless
di
ff
icul
t,butt
hatof
tenhadt
her
esul
tofmaki
ngwomen'
swor
k
l
essmeani
ngf
ulandv
aluabl
e.

Women'
sLi
ber
ati
oni
ntheUSA

Thephr
ase"
Women’
sLi
ber
ati
on"wasf
ir
stusedi
ntheUni
ted
St
atesi
n 1964 and f
ir
stappear
ed i
n pr
inti
n 1966.By1968,
al
though t
he t
erm Women’
sLi
ber
ati
on Fr
ontappear
ed i
nthe
magazi
neRampar
ts,
itwasst
art
ingt
oref
ert
othewhol
ewomen’
s
mov
ement
. Br
a-bur
ning al
so became associ
ated wi
th t
he
mov
ement
,though t
he act
ualpr
eval
ence of br
a-bur
ning i
s
debat
abl
e.Oneoft
hemostv
ocalcr
it
icsoft
hewomen'
sli
ber
ati
on
mov
ement has been t
he Af
ri
can Amer
ican f
emi
nist and
i
ntel
l
ect
ualGl
ori
aJeanWat
kins(
whousest
hepseudony
m"bel
l
hooks"
)whoar
guest
hatt
hismov
ementgl
ossedov
err
aceand
cl
assandt
husf
ail
edt
oaddr
ess"
thei
ssuest
hatdi
vi
dedwomen.
"
She hi
ghl
i
ght
ed t
he l
ack ofmi
nor
it
yvoi
ces i
nthe women'
s
mov
ementi
nherbookFemi
nistt
heor
yfr
om mar
gint
ocent
er
(
1984)
.

 Thi
rdwav
e

Thi
rd-
wav
efemi
nism began i
nthe ear
ly1990s,ar
isi
ng as a
r
esponset
oper
cei
vedf
ail
uresoft
hesecondwav
eandal
soasa
r
esponse t
othe backl
ash agai
nsti
nit
iat
ives and mov
ement
s
cr
eat
ed by t
he second wav
e.Thi
rd-
wav
efemi
nism seeks t
o
chal
l
engeorav
oidwhati
tdeemst
hesecondwav
e'sessent
ial
i
st
def
ini
ti
ons of f
emi
nini
ty,whi
ch (
accor
ding t
o t
hem) ov
er-
emphasi
zet
heexper
iencesofuppermi
ddl
e-cl
asswhi
tewomen.

A post
-st
ruct
ural
i
sti
nter
pret
ati
on ofgenderand sexual
i
tyi
s
cent
ralt
omuchoft
het
hir
dwav
e'si
deol
ogy
.Thi
rd-
wav
efemi
nist
s
of
tenf
ocuson"
micr
o-pol
i
tics"andchal
l
enget
hesecondwav
e's
par
adi
gm ast
owhati
s,ori
snot
,goodf
orf
emal
es.Thet
hir
dwav
e
hasi
tsor
igi
nsi
nthemi
d-1980s.Femi
nistl
eader
sroot
edi
nthe
secondwav
eli
keGl
ori
aAnzal
dua,bel
lhooks,Chel
aSandov
al,
Cher
ri
eMor
aga,Audr
eLor
de,Maxi
neHongKi
ngst
on,andmany
ot
herbl
ackf
emi
nist
s,soughtt
onegot
iat
easpacewi
thi
nfemi
nist
t
houghtf
orconsi
der
ati
onofr
ace-
rel
atedsubj
ect
ivi
ti
es.

Thi
rd-
wav
efemi
nism al
so cont
ains i
nter
naldebat
es bet
ween
di
ff
erencef
emi
nist
ssuchast
hepsy
chol
ogi
stCar
olGi
l
li
gan(
who
bel
i
evest
hatt
her
ear
eimpor
tantdi
ff
erencesbet
weent
hesexes)
and t
hosewho bel
i
evet
hatt
her
ear
eno i
nher
entdi
ff
erences
bet
weent
hesexesandcont
endt
hatgenderr
olesar
eduet
o
soci
alcondi
ti
oni
ng

Li
ber
alFemi
nism

Femini
sm sinceitsincept
ionint
hemid1800’shasbranchedint
o
manymov ement s,allofwhichi
denti
tythemsel
vesas‘femini
st’
,
butv
aryintheirphil
osophical
per
spect
ives’
.

They bel i
evet hatt he difference between mal e and femal e
becauseofhow t heirenv i
ronmentcondi t
ionst hem t obe.They
beli
evet hatgenderi denti
tyandbehav i
orarecul turalconstructs,
productsofthedi screpanciesinthelegalandsoci alopportuniti
es
avail
abletomenandwomen, andoft hediff
erencei nhowgender
normf orbehavior,choices,expectat
ionsetcar esetbysoci etyfor
gi
rlsandboy sandmenandwomen.

 Def
ini
ti
on

I
tisani ndi
vi
duali
sti
cfor
m offemi
nistt
heory
,whichf
ocuseson
women’s abil
i
tyt o mai
ntai
nthei
requali
tythr
ough t
hei
rown
act
ionsandchoices.

Li
ber
alf
emi
nistar
guet
hatsoci
etyhol
dst
hef
alsebel
i
eft
hat
womenar e,bynat
ur elessi
ntel
lectuall
yandphysi
cal
l
ycapabl
e
thanmen;thusittendst odi
scriminateagai
nstwomeninthe
academy
,thefor
um, andthemarketplace.

Liberalf
eministbel
iev
ethat‘femal
esubordinat
ionisroot
edina
setofcust omar yand l
egalconstrai
ntsthatblocks women’
s
entrancetoandsuccessi
nt hesocal
ledpubli
cworld’
.Theyst
ri
ve
forsexualequali
tyv
iapol
it
icalandl
egalref
orm.

I
tisaparti
cularapproachtoachi
eveequal
i
tybetweenmenand
womenthatemphasizesthepowerofani
ndi
vidual
persont
oal
ter
di
scr
imi
natorypract
icesagai
nstwomen.

 Theor
y:-

Liber
alfemi
nism ai
msf orindi
vi
dualstousethei
rownabili
ti
es
andthedemocrati
cprocesst ohelpwomenandmenbecome
moreequali
ntheeyesoflaw,i
nsociet
yanditt
heworkpl
ace.

Byorgani
zingwomeni ntolargergroupsthatcanspeakatahigher
l
evel
.Lobby i
nglegisl
atorsandraisingawarenessofi
ssues,l
i
beral
femi
nistuseavai
lableresour
cesandt ool
stoadvocat
eforchange.
Theybeli
evethatdemocr ati
cprocessi t
sel
fneedstobechanged.

I
n1960’sdur i
ngthecivi
lri
ght
smovementl
iberalf
emini
stdrew
par
all
els between sy
stemati
c r
ace di
scr
iminati
on and sex
di
scri
minati
on.

Gr
oupssuchastheNationalor
gani
zat
ionf
orwomen,
theNat
ional
women’
spoli
ti
calcaucus,andthewomen’
sri
ght
s.

I
nU.Sthesegroupshav
eworkedf ort
herat
if
icat
ionoft
heequal
r
ight
s amendmentorconst
itut
ionalequi
tyamendmentinthe
hopesi
twil
lensurethatmenandwomenar etr
eat
edasequals
undert
hedemocrati
clawsthatal
soinf
luencei
mport
antspher
es
ofwomen’sli
ves,incl
udi
ng repr
oduct
ive,wor
kand equalpay
i
ssues.

 CONCLUSI
ON

The f ocus of l i
beralf
emi nist
st heref
oreis on cr eating a
compl et
elylevelpl
ayingf
iel
df orthegendersi
ntermsofl egaland
socialsystems,andgendernor msandgendersocial
izat i
onsfor
thatiswhatt heybeli
evei
sthekeyt othegenderequal
i
ty.

(
b) Br ief
lyexplai
naboutLiber
alFemi
nism. Mar
ks06
Sy
nopsi s
I ntr
oduct i
on
 Definit
ionofLiberalFemini
sm
 Theor yofLiberalFemini
sm
 LiberalFeminism:-

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Femini
sm sinceitsincept
ionint
hemid1800’shasbranchedint
o
manymov ement s,allofwhichi
denti
tythemsel
vesas‘femini
st’
,
butv
aryintheirphil
osophical
per
spect
ives’
.

They beli
evet hatthe dif
fer
ence between male and female
becauseofhow t hei
renvi
ronmentcondit
ionst
hem t obe.They
bel
ievethatgenderident
it
yandbehav i
orarecul
turalconst
ruct
s,
productsofthediscrepanci
esinthelegalandsoci
alopport
unit
ies
avail
abletomenandwomen, andoft hedif
fer
enceinhowgender
normf orbehavi
or,choices,
expectat
ionsetcaresetbysoci
etyfor
gi
rlsandboy sandmenandwomen.

 Def
ini
ti
on

I
tisani ndi
vi
duali
sti
cfor
m offemi
nistt
heory
,whichf
ocuseson
women’s abil
i
tyt o mai
ntai
nthei
requali
tythr
ough t
hei
rown
act
ionsandchoices.

Liber
alf
emi ni
starguet hatsocietyhol dst
hef alsebeli
efthat
womenar e,bynatur elessintel
lectuall
yandphy sical
l
ycapable
thanmen;thusi ttendst odi
scriminateagainstwomeni nt he
academy,
theforum, andt hemarketplace.

Liberalf
eministbel
iev
ethat‘femal
esubordinat
ionisroot
edina
setofcust omar yand l
egalconstrai
ntsthatblocks women’
s
entrancetoandsuccessi
nt hesocal
ledpubli
cworld’
.Theyst
ri
ve
forsexualequali
tyv
iapol
it
icalandl
egalref
orm.

I
tisaparti
cularapproachtoachi
eveequal
i
tybetweenmenand
womenthatemphasizesthepowerofani
ndi
vidual
persont
oal
ter
di
scr
imi
natorypract
icesagai
nstwomen.

 Theor
y:-

Liber
alfemi
nism ai
msf orindi
vi
dualstousethei
rownabili
ti
es
andthedemocrati
cprocesst ohelpwomenandmenbecome
moreequali
ntheeyesoflaw,i
nsociet
yanditt
heworkpl
ace.

Byor
ganizi
ngwomeni nt
olargergroupsthatcanspeakatahigher
l
evel
.Lobbyi
nglegi
slat
orsandraisingawarenessofi
ssues,
li
beral
femi
nistuseavai
labl
eresour
cesandtool
stoadvocat
eforchange.
Theybeli
evethatdemocrati
cpr
ocessit
sel
fneedstobechanged.

I
n1960’sdur i
ngthecivi
lri
ght
smovementl
iberalf
emini
stdrew
par
all
els between sy
stemati
c r
ace di
scr
iminati
on and sex
di
scri
minati
on.

Gr
oupssuchastheNationalor
gani
zat
ionf
orwomen,
theNat
ional
women’
spoli
ti
calcaucus,andthewomen’
sri
ght
s.

I
nU. Sthesegroupshav eworkedf ortherat
if
icat
ionoft heequal
ri
ghts amendmentorconst i
tut
ionalequityamendmenti nthe
hopesitwil
lensur ethatmenandwomenar et r
eatedasequal s
underthedemocr ati
clawsthatalsoinfl
uenceimportantspheres
ofwomen’ sli
v es,incl
udi
ng reproducti
ve,workand equalpay
i
ssues.

 CONCLUSI
ON

(
a)Thef ocusofl i
beralfemi
nist
st heref
oreisoncreati
nga
completel
ylevelpl
ay i
ngfi
eldfort hegender
sint er
msof
l
egaland socialsy st
ems,and gendernormsand gender
soci
ali
zati
onsforthatiswhattheybeliev
eisthekeytothe
genderequal
it
y

OR

(
b) Mar
xistf
emi
nism. Mar
ks06

Thewordsfemini
stfi
rstappear
edinFranceandtheNether
lands
i
n1872.GreatBri
tai
ninthe1890’sandtheUnit
edstat
esin1910
andtheOxfor
dEngli
shDi ct
ionar
yli
st1852asthey he1st
earoft
appear
anceoffemi
nistand1895forfemi
nism.

Dependi
ngonhistor
icalmoment ,cul
tur
eandcount
ryf
emi
nist
ar
oundthewor
ldhaddiff
erentcausesandgoal
s.

Mostwester
nf emi
nisthi
stor
ians asser
tthatallmov
ement s
wor
kingtoobtai
nwomen,ri
ghtsshouldbeconsider
edfemi
nist
movement
s.

 Defi
nit
ion:-
Femini
st:
-adv ocati
ngsocial
,pol
i
tical
,legalandeconomi
cri
ght
s
forwomenequal t
othoseofmen.

Femini
sm i
sarangeofpol
iti
cal
mov ements;i
deologi
esandsoci
al
movementthatshareacommongoalt odef i
neest abl
i
shand
achi
eveequalpoli
ti
cal
,economic,cul
tur
al,personalandsoci
al
ri
ght
sforwomen.

Thi
sincl
udesseeki
ngtoestabl
i
shequaloppor
tuni
ti
esf
orwomen
i
neducati
onandemployment.

 TheoryofMar xi
stf
emi ni
sm.
Iti
sabr anchoffemini
sm focusedoninvest
igati
ngandexpl
aini
ng
the waysi n whi
ch women ar e oppr
essed thr
ough sy
stem of
capi
tal
ism andpriv
atepropert
y.

Accordi
ngtoMarxi
stfemini
sts,women’sli
berat
ioncanonlybe
achi
evedthr
ougharadicalr
estr
ucturi
ngofthecurrentcapi
tal
i
st
economyinwhi
chmuchofwomenl abori
suncompensated.

Mar
xistf
emini
stvi
ewthecapit
ali
stdr
iveforprof
it
sisr
esponsi
ble
f
orwomen’ssecondcl
assstatusandotherformsofoppr
essi
on
suchasr
aci
sm andhomophobi
a.

Womenwor ker
sareexploit
edatahi gherl
evelthanmal
es,wi
th
women ofcol oursuff
eri
ng thehighestdegreeofexpl
oit
ati
on
becauseofgenderandracediscr
imi
nati
on.

Womenar
eal
soasour
ceofunpai
ddomest
icl
abour
.

Mar
xistFemi
nism

a.Capital
istclassrelat
ionshipisthe r ootcause offemale
oppression,exploi
tati
on and di scr
imi nati
on. Men ar e
soci
al i
zedintoexploi
tati
v erel
ati
onshipi nr el
ati
ont
owor k
andtheycar ryt
hissocial
izat
ionoverintot hehomeandthei
r
rel
ati
onshiptowomen.

b.Patr
iar
chyi
sanideology(asetofrelatedbeli
efsaboutthe
worl
dinthi
sinst
ancemale-femalerelati
onshi
p)thatstems
fr
om maleatt
emptstojusti
fytheeconomi cexploi
tat
ionof
women.

c.Thefami l
ysy st
em character
sofmoder nsociet
iesbenefi
ts
capi
tali
sm (andbyextension,t
hemenwhot endtodominate
posi
tionofpowerandi nfl
uence)becauseofwomen,

 Canbef
orced/
soci
ali
zedi
ntounpai
ddomest
icl
abour

 Canbef or
ced/
soci
ali
zedi
ntor
esponsi
bil
i
tyf
orchi
l
d
rear
ing.

This benef
it
st he capi
tal
istbecause theydon’thaveto pay
woment operfor
mt hi
srole(ther
eproductionofl
abourpower
”in
soci
ety)
Thi
sbenef i
tsmenbecausewomenper for
m adomesti
cser
vant
rol
eforallmen.Mar
xistdon’
tseemenast heenemyofwomen.
Tocreateacommunist/soci
ali
stsoci
etymenandwomenhaveto
co-
operatei
nto.

UNI
T-5

Q.No.(
a)Expl
aint
hecl
assi
calt
heor
yofmoder
nit
ybyKar
lMar
x
andMaxWeber
. Mar
ks10

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Soci
ologi
calt
heor
yai
mst
ounder
standwhatweknow ast
he
moder
nwor
ld.
 Thi
sisappr
oachedt
hroughunder
standi
ngt
he
t
ransi
ti
on f
rom pr
e-moder
n ort
radi
ti
onalsoci
eti
est
o moder
n
soci
eti
es.
 Thet
heor
ist
scommonl
yknownast
hef
ounder
sor
f
ather
s ofsoci
ologi
calt
heor
y ar
e al
so t
hree key f
igur
es i
n
under
standi
ngt
hist
ransi
ti
on,i
tsconsequences,andul
ti
mat
ely
whati
twi
l
lleadt
oint
hef
utur
e. Bef
oret
hist
ransi
ti
oncanbe
under
stood,
thechar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatdef
inet
radi
ti
onalandmoder
n
soci
eti
esmustbeoper
ati
onal
i
zed.
 Put
ti
ngi
tint
othecol
oni
al
cont
extt
henwecanunder
standpar
toft
hedef
ini
ngchar
act
eri
sti
c
oft
het
ransi
ti
ont
omoder
nit
yast
hedev
elopmentoft
henat
ion
st
ate(
thr
oughwhatCedr
icJ.Robi
nson(
2005)r
efer
redt
oast
he
monopol
yoff
orcet
hatbegani
nthe16t
hcent
ury
). Moder
nit
yis
def
inedbyt
her
iseofnat
ionst
atesandal
soanewconcept
ionof
t
he i
ndi
vi
dualwhose t
hought
s and desi
res i
sindependentof
ot
her
s. Thechar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatmot
ivat
ed t
hatt
ransi
ti
on has
beenpr
esent
edbyt
hreesoci
ologi
stscommonl
yref
err
edt
oas
‘
foundi
ngf
ather
s’ofcl
assi
csoci
ologi
cal
thought
.

Thecl
assi
calsoci
ologi
calcanoni
sfr
amedbyt
hewor
ksofKar
l
Mar
x,MaxWeber
,andEmi
l
eDur
khei
m. Kar
lMar
xrel
i
edona
par
ti
cul
arunder
standi
ngofhi
stor
icalmat
eri
ali
sm and‘
l
awsof
hi
stor
y’(
Tucker 1978; Sei
dman 2004)
.  Max Weber
’s 
The
Pr
otest
antEt
hic and The Spi
ri
tofCapi
tal
i
sm 
i
s a cr
it
ique of
Mar
x’shi
stor
ical
mat
eri
ali
sm t
oar
guet
hatt
hemat
eri
alcondi
ti
ons
r
equi
redt
ofuelcapi
tal
i
sm ar
enotenoughandt
hatcapi
tal
i
sm
al
so r
equi
res i
deol
ogi
cal f
ormul
ati
ons t
o hel
p cr
eat
e t
he
condi
ti
ons needed t
o t
ransi
ti
on f
ull
y f
rom f
eudal
i
sm t
o
capi
tal
i
sm.
 Emi
l
e Dur
khei
m on t
he ot
herhand ar
gued t
hat
t
ransi
ti
on f
rom t
radi
ti
onal
/pr
imi
ti
ve t
o moder
n/adv
anced
soci
eti
esi
sanev
olut
ionar
ypr
ocesst
hatr
equi
resi
nter
vent
ioni
nto
pr
imi
ti
ve soci
eti
es by adv
anced soci
eti
es as wel
las nat
ural
changes.

1.MARX
Wi
tht
he nat
ion st
ate bei
ng among t
he cent
ralmar
ker
s
def
ini
ng t
he di
ff
erence bet
ween t
radi
ti
onaland moder
n
soci
eti
es,wecant
hencomet
ounder
standhow Kar
lMar
x
ut
il
izedhi
stor
icalmat
erial
i
sm t
ounder
standsoci
ety
.Mar
x’s
phi
l
osophyofhi
stor
yis an i
nver
sion ofHegel
’
s‘i
deal
i
st
concept
ionofhi
stor
y’t
hatar
guest
hatsoci
etyi
sdet
ermi
ned
atanygi
vent
imebyi
tsmat
eri
alcondi
ti
ons.Mar
x’shi
stor
ical
mat
eri
ali
sm r
eveal
sthatnomeansofsoci
alr
epr
oduct
ion
canexi
stwi
thoutt
henecessar
ymat
eri
alcondi
ti
ons. Thi
s
ar
ti
cul
ati
onal
sor
eveal
sthatt
hev
eryci
rcumst
ancest
hat
cr
eat
esoci
alphenomenaal
sohar
bort
hemeansf
ort
hei
r
demi
se:t
hei
rcont
radi
cti
on. Mar
x’shi
stor
icalmat
eri
ali
sm
andt
hedi
alect
icf
ocusonmat
eri
alcondi
ti
onsandt
hei
rrol
e
i
nshapi
ngsoci
alandpol
i
ticalcondi
ti
ons. Mar
xadv
anced
hi
smat
eri
ali
stconcept
ionofhi
stor
ythr
oughdi
alect
icst
o
r
evealt
hatev
eryphenomenahascont
radi
cti
ons,pr
ocesses,
and hi
stor
ies. Di
alect
ics pl
aces t
he not
ion of any
phenomena wi
thi
n i
ts cont
ext or wi
thi
n t
he mat
eri
al
condi
ti
onsandci
rcumst
ancesi
nfr
om whi
chi
tar
ri
ved.Thi
s
meanst
hatev
ery
thi
nghasahi
stor
yandmustbest
udi
ed
wi
thi
nthecont
extofi
tsmat
eri
alcondi
ti
ons.
Mar
x’sanal
ysi
sofr
elat
ionsbet
weenpeopl
eandl
andi
sa
cr
it
icalr
eadofhi
stor
yandcont
empor
ary
.Mar
xanal
yzest
he
pl
ace of cl
ass st
ruggl
e wi
thi
n f
eudal
i
st r
elat
ions t
o
under
standt
heor
igi
nsoft
hecapi
tal
i
stnat
ionst
ate.Mar
x
di
scussest
her
iseofcapi
tal
i
stmoder
nit
yint
het
ermsof
l
aborr
elat
ionsandpr
ivat
epr
oper
ty.I
nTheGer
manI
deol
ogy
,
Mar
xst
atest
hatunderf
eudal
i
sm,

…pr
oper
tyconsi
stedchi
efl
yint
hel
abourofeachi
ndi
vi
dual
per
son.Thust
hechi
eff
orm ofpr
oper
tydur
ingt
hef
eudal
epochconsi
stedont
heonehandofl
andedpr
oper
tywi
th
ser
flabourchai
nedt
oit
,andont
heot
heroft
hel
abouroft
he
i
ndi
vi
dualwi
th smal
lcapi
talcommandi
ng t
he l
abourof
j
our
ney
men.Theor
gani
sat
ionbot
hwasdet
ermi
nedbyt
he
r
est
ri
cted condi
ti
ons ofpr
oduct
ion– t
he smal
l
-scal
e and
pr
imi
ti
veaccumul
ati
onoft
hel
and,andt
hecr
aftt
ypeof
i
ndust
ry.Ther
ewasl
i
ttl
edi
vi
si
onofl
abouri
nthehey
dayof
f
eudal
i
sm (
Tucker1978)
.

Underf
eudal
i
sm nobi
l
ityhadpowerov
erser
fsandser
fs
wer
eat
tachedt
othel
and.Themat
eri
alcondi
ti
onst
hatbor
e
t
he r
ise ofcapi
tal
i
sm l
i
e wi
thi
n pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty. Mar
x
ar
guest
hatt
het
ransf
ormat
ionf
rom f
eudal
i
sm t
ocapi
tal
i
sm
har
bor
sini
tthecont
radi
cti
onsofcapi
tal
i
stexpl
oit
ati
onand
pl
antt
heseedsf
ort
her
evol
toft
hewor
kingcl
assandgi
ve
way t
o communi
sm (
Sei
dman 2004; Tucker 1978)
.
Accor
dingt
oMar
x,t
hecondi
ti
onsf
orcapi
tal
i
stmeansof
pr
oduct
ionandexchangewer
egener
atedi
nfeudal
i
stsoci
ety
.
I
nMani
fest
ooft
heCommuni
stPar
ty,
Mar
xandEngel
sst
ate,

Thef
eudalor
gani
sat
ionofagr
icul
tur
eandmanuf
act
uri
ng
i
ndust
ry,i
n one wor
d,t
he f
eudalr
elat
ions ofpr
oper
ty
becamenol
ongercompat
ibl
ewi
tht
heal
readydev
eloped
pr
oduct
ivef
orces;
theybecamesomanyf
ett
ers.Theyhadt
o
bebur
stasunder
;theywer
ebur
stasunder
.Int
othei
rpl
ace
st
epped f
ree compet
it
ion,accompani
ed bya soci
aland
pol
i
ticalconst
it
uti
onadapt
edt
oit
,andbyt
heeconomi
cal
andpol
i
tical
swayoft
hebour
geoi
scl
ass(
Tucker1978)
.

Thet
ransi
ti
ont
omoder
nit
yli
esi
nther
elat
ionshi
pbet
ween
t
he pr
oper
ti
ed and l
abor
ing cl
ass t
hus t
he r
elat
ions of
pr
oduct
ion.Theser
elat
ionshav
eexpl
oit
ati
veconsequences
t
hatal
i
enat
e wor
ker
sfr
om t
hemsel
ves,nat
ure,and t
he
pr
oduct
soft
hei
rlabor
.Mar
xar
guest
hatpr
ivat
epr
oper
tyi
s
t
heendpr
oductofal
i
enat
edl
abour
.Pr
ivat
epr
oper
tyi
sthen
t
he pr
oductofal
i
enat
ed l
abourand t
he means t
hrough
whi
ch l
abour “
ali
enat
es i
tsel
f,t
he r
eal
i
zat
ion of t
his
al
i
enat
ion”(
Tucker
,1978:
79)
.Capi
tal
i
sm r
isest
hrought
he
commodi
fi
cat
ionofl
abourpowerandt
heobj
ect
if
icat
ionof
nat
ure.

Ast
heser
fswer
efr
eedf
rom t
hei
rlandt
heyhadnot
hingt
o
sel
lbutt
hei
rlabor
.Andt
ogener
ateapr
ofi
t,capi
tal
i
sm ai
ms
t
o pr
oduce a pr
ofi
tfort
he owner
s oft
he means of
pr
oduct
ionandpr
ovi
dingamer
emeansofsubsi
stencet
hat
ensur
est
hatwor
ker
sshow upeachday
.Thesemeansof
expl
oit
ati
on t
hathar
bort
hedemi
seofcapi
tal
i
sm. Mar
x
ar
guedt
hatt
hef
utur
eofcapi
tal
i
sm i
sthusi
tsdest
ruct
ion,

Theweaponswi
thwhi
cht
hebour
geoi
sief
ell
edf
eudal
i
sm t
o
t
hegr
oundar
enow t
urnedagai
nstt
hebour
geoi
siei
tsel
f.
Butnotonl
yhast
hebour
geoi
sief
orgedt
heweaponst
hat
br
ingdeat
htoi
tsel
f;i
thasal
socal
l
edi
ntoexi
stencet
hemen
whoar
etowi
eldt
hoseweapons-
themoder
nwor
kingcl
ass-
t
hepr
olet
ari
ans(
Tucker1978)
.

Thus,t
hef
utur
eofmoder
nit
yforMar
xist
her
iseoft
he
wor
king cl
ass r
esul
ti
ng i
nthe abol
i
shment of pr
ivat
e
pr
oper
ty.
 2.WEBER

Thet
ransi
ti
onf
rom t
radi
ti
onalt
omoder
nsoci
eti
esaccor
dingt
o
MaxWeberr
est
sonamul
ti
facet
edexpl
anat
ionf
ort
het
ransi
ti
on
f
rom f
eudal
i
sm t
o capi
tal
i
sm. Weber
’s under
standi
ng oft
he
t
ransi
ti
ont
omoder
nsoci
etyi
sbasedonhi
sunder
standi
ngof
cul
tur
e,bur
eaucr
acy
,andr
ati
onal
i
ty.Whi
l
ether
ear
econnect
ions
bet
weeneconomyandsoci
ety
,theyar
en’
tbasedonaonet
oone
di
rectl
i
nearr
elat
ionshi
p. Mar
xseest
het
ransi
ti
ont
omoder
n
soci
etyasaconsequenceoft
hedi
rectpur
poseandi
ntentof
bour
geoi
sie act
ions,Weber poi
ntst
o a mor
e compl
i
cat
ed
r
elat
ionshi
p wher
e ot
her soci
al f
act
ors cont
ri
but
ed t
o i
ts
dev
elopmentbutnotnecessar
il
yonpur
pose.I
nThePr
otest
ant
Et
hicandt
heSpi
ri
tofCapi
tal
i
sm,
Weberseekst
ounder
standwhy
andhow capi
tal
i
sm camet
obet
hedomi
nanteconomi
csy
stem
when i
tsv
alues ar
ethe opposi
te of Cat
hol
i
cval
ues t
hat
domi
nat
ed pr
e-capi
tal
i
st Eur
ope. Weber asks why al
lthe
Pr
otest
ant
swer
epar
toft
hecapi
tal
i
stcl
assandwhyt
hei
rregi
ons
mor
eindust
ri
all
yadv
ancedt
hanCat
hol
i
cregi
ons.Weberar
gues
t
hatt
her
ati
onalet
hicofascet
icPr
otest
ant
ism wasneededt
o
encour
agepeopl
etopar
ti
cipat
eincapi
tal
i
sm andshi
ftf
rom t
he
cat
hol
i
cnot
ionsofav
oidi
ngt
empt
ati
onandwor
ldl
ydi
str
act
ions.
Weberar
guest
hatt
hePr
otest
antet
hicgi
vesr
iset
othespi
ri
tof
capi
tal
i
sm becausei
tal
l
owspeopl
etocandenyt
hewor
ldby
bei
ngi
nvol
vedi
nit
.Thev
aluesofsel
f-
sacr
if
icet
hrough“
cal
l
ing”
l
endt
hemsel
vest
owor
kfort
hesakeofwor
kandaccumul
ate
moneyf
ort
hesakeofmor
emoney
.“Cal
l
ing”i
sacal
ltowor
ldl
y
l
aborf
ort
he gl
oryofGod. Laborbecomes ext
ernalt
othe
sat
isf
act
ion ofneeds,t
hrough becomi
ng af
orm ofpr
ayeror
demonst
rat
ionofpi
ety(
Weber1930)
.Inor
dert
odemonst
rat
e
t
haty
ouar
echosenandf
avor
edbyGod,y
oumustwor
khar
dto
mat
eri
ali
zet
hepr
ooft
oshowt
hewor
ldy
ourpi
ety
.Cal
l
ingdi
rect
ly
under
minedt
heCat
hol
i
cChur
chbecauset
hePr
otest
antet
hic
cal
l
edf
orpeopl
etoengagewi
tht
hewor
ldt
otr
ansf
ormi
tver
sus
wi
thdr
awi
ngf
rom t
hewor
ld. Ther
esul
tist
hemoder
nspi
ri
tof
capi
tal
i
sm wher
e,“
Mani
sdomi
nat
edbyt
hemaki
ngofmoney
,by
acqui
sit
ion as t
he ul
ti
mat
e pur
pose of hi
sli
fe.Economi
c
acqui
sit
ioni
snol
ongersubor
dinat
edt
omanast
hemeansf
ort
he
sat
isf
act
ionofhi
smat
eri
alneeds”(
Weber1930)
.Laborbecame
asi
gnofpr
e-dest
inat
ionandoncey
ouhav
ehar
dlabor
,andno
consumpt
ion,y
ouhav
etheaccumul
ati
onofcapi
tal
. Thus,t
he
Pr
otest
antwor
ket
hicchangedhow peopl
emadesenseoft
he
wor
ldandhowt
heymadesenseoft
hei
rownexi
stence.
Weberunder
standscapi
tal
i
sm ast
hehi
ghestf
orm ofr
ati
onal
oper
ati
ons,
hence,
thehi
ghestf
orm ofbur
eaucr
acy
,“i
mpl
ement
ed
byt
wo i
rr
ati
onal
i
ties:t
he r
emai
ns ofan or
igi
nal
l
yrel
i
giousl
y
anchor
edat
ti
tude:t
hei
rr
ati
onalcal
l
inganddr
ivef
orcont
inuous
wor
k;andmoder
nsoci
ali
sm,seenast
he‘
utopi
a’oft
hosewho
cannotst
and up underwhatseems t
othem t
he sensel
ess
i
njust
iceofaneconomi
cor
derwhi
chmakest
hem dependent
upon pr
oper
ti
ed ent
repr
eneur
s”(
Ger
th and Mi
l
ls 1958)
. The
Pr
otest
antet
hicpr
ovi
dedameanst
hroughwhi
chpr
e-capi
tal
i
st
bodi
esl
aterconsentt
orout
ini
zedi
nvest
ment

ThePr
otest
antascet
ical
l
owedpeopl
etomakesenseoft
hei
r
pl
acei
nthewor
ldt
hroughwor
kingf
ort
hesakeofwor
kand
moneyf
ort
hesakeofmoney
. Moder
ncapi
tal
i
sm cr
eat
esa
condi
ti
on i
n whi
ch al
l act
ion i
s i
nst
rument
al act
ion.
I
nst
rument
all
yrat
ionalact
ioni
sconcer
nedwi
tht
heendandnot
t
hemeans(
Weber1978)
.“Webert
husi
dent
if
iesbur
eaucr
acy
wi
th r
ati
onal
i
ty, and t
he pr
ocess of r
ati
onal
i
zat
ion wi
th
mechani
sm, deper
sonal
i
zat
ion, and oppr
essi
ve r
out
ine.
Rat
ional
i
ty,i
nthi
s cont
ext
,is seen as adv
erse t
o per
sonal
f
reedom”(
Ger
thandMi
l
ls1958)
. Bur
eaucr
acydeper
sonal
i
zes
becausei
tact
sout
sideoft
heper
son.Thesour
ceofaut
hor
it
yin
bur
eaucr
ati
cor
gani
zat
ioni
snott
heper
son,butt
heof
fi
ce.The
of
fi
cecar
ri
est
heaut
hor
it
yandi
tsel
fisdeper
sonal
i
zedbecause
t
heper
soncannotcar
ryt
heaut
hor
it
yout
sideofi
t.Theof
fi
cei
s
t
hepoi
ntofaut
hor
it
yrat
hert
hant
heper
son;
theper
sonbecomes
i
rr
elev
ant
. Peopl
eacceptt
heexer
ciseofaut
hor
it
yov
ert
hem
because t
heywantorexpectt
o gai
n somet
hing f
rom t
hose
r
elat
ionsofdomi
nat
ion.

Ther
ati
onalet
hicsofascet
icPr
otest
ant
ism pr
ovi
dedawayf
or
mat
eri
algoodst
ohav
e,“
ani
nexor
abl
epowerov
ert
hel
i
vesof
men asatno pr
evi
ousper
iod i
n hi
stor
y”(
Weberst
atest
hat
mat
eri
algoods coul
d be easi
l
y setasi
de bef
ore butf
urt
her
r
ati
onal
i
zat
iont
urnedr
eli
anceonmat
eri
ali
tyi
ntoani
roncage
(
Bur
eaucr
acy i
s an al
l
-encompassi
ng st
ruct
uret
hatbecomes
mor
eandmor
eper
vasi
ve.Wheni
tbecomesal
lper
vasi
veandal
l
-
encompassi
ngi
nmoder
nsoci
eti
es,i
nst
it
uti
onalr
ati
onal
i
tybased
soci
alact
ionbecomesmor
eandmor
eaccur
atet
osuchadegr
ee
t
haty
oucannotov
ert
hrowi
t.“
Incr
easi
ngpubl
i
cowner
shi
pint
he
economi
c spher
e t
oday unav
oidabl
y means i
ncr
easi
ng
bur
eaucr
ati
zat
ion. Ev
en i
n or
gani
zed pol
i
tical act
ion, t
he
i
nst
rument
alr
ati
onal
i
zedor
gani
zat
ionusedt
oat
tai
ntheat
tent
ion
oft
hest
atet
oabsol
vepol
i
ticali
ssuest
hroughst
ateof
fi
cesdi
gs
t
hedomi
nat
edi
ntoanev
endeeperi
nescapabl
epi
t. Whatt
his
means i
sto combatt
he i
njust
ices ofbur
eaucr
acy
,fur
ther
r
ati
onal
i
zat
ioni
snecessar
y,t
husmor
ebur
eaucr
acyi
srequi
red.
Ther
efor
e,Weber pai
nted a bl
eak f
utur
e of moder
nit
y as
i
ncr
easi
ng bur
eaucr
ati
c soci
ety and t
hus r
educi
ng i
ndi
vi
dual
f
reedomsanddemocr
acy

OR

(
a) Expl
aint
heconceptofmoder
nit
ybyAnt
honyGi
ddens.

Mar
ks10

THEJUGGERNAUTOFMODERNI
TY:
-ANTHONYGI
DDENS

Moder
n or
gani
zat
ions wer
ethose t
hatcoul
d bal
ance t
he
newl
ywonf
reedom oft
hei
ndi
vi
dualwi
thasenseofcol
l
ect
ive
r
esponsi
bil
i
ty.Medi
ati
ngv
olunt
aryor
gani
zat
ions,
suchaspol
i
tical
par
ti
es,t
hatcoul
dreconst
it
utei
ndi
vi
dualpol
i
ticali
dent
it
yin
pr
ogr
essi
vef
orms wer
ethe means t
othi
s end.The moder
n
nat
ion-
stat
ein whi
ch t
hese pol
i
ticalpar
ti
es wer
e or
gani
zed
f
ormed t
he f
ramewor
k and t
he obj
ectoft
his new,moder
n
pol
i
tical i
dent
it
y. The st
ate was anot
her t
erm f
or t
he
r
eor
gani
zat
ion ofpol
i
ticall
i
fe.I
tconst
it
uted a new bal
ance
bet
weeni
ndi
vi
dualf
reedom andcol
l
ect
iver
esponsi
bil
i
tyandwas
t
heul
ti
mat
eobj
ectofi
ndi
vi
dualandcol
l
ect
ivepol
i
ticali
dent
it
y.
Recogni
zi
ngonesel
fasamemberofanat
ionandhav
ingasense
ofnat
ioni
dent
it
ywast
hehi
ghestf
orm ofpol
i
ticali
dent
it
yfor
Weber and t
hus an i
mpor
tant aspect of moder
n pol
i
tical
soci
ali
zat
ion.Thequest
ionofhow t
oreconst
it
utet
hepol
i
tical
i
dent
it
yoft
he moder
nindi
vi
duali
nto a nat
ionali
dent
it
ywas
cent
ral
toWeber
'ssoci
ologi
cal
andpol
i
tical
theor
y.

Thi
sishowmoder
nit
ywasunder
stoodi
ncl
assi
calsoci
ology
.
Onet
hemet
hatst
andsouti
nthi
saccountofsoci
alchangeand
i
tsef
fectonhumanexper
iencei
sthedev
elopmentofanew
sense of sel
f,of subj
ect
ivi
ty and i
ndi
vi
dual
i
ty. Thi
sidea
di
sti
ngui
shest
hemoder
nindi
vi
dualf
rom t
het
radi
ti
onalone.The
soci
ologi
calaccountoft
hisdi
ff
erencei
sbasedonchangesi
nthe
under
standi
ng of t
he r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween man and t
he
super
nat
ural
,changesi
npr
oper
tyr
elat
ions,andt
hedemogr
aphi
c
changes t
hataccompani
ed i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion.I
nthi
s chapt
erI
f
ocusont
hel
att
erchanges.I
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ioni
nvol
vedmor
ethan
t
hedev
elopmentofanewmeansofpr
oduci
ngt
henecessi
ti
esof
l
i
fe;i
tinv
olv
ed t
he cent
ral
i
zat
ion and coor
dinat
ion of t
he
pr
oduct
ion,di
str
ibut
ion,and consumpt
ion ofgoods.I
tdr
ew
massesofl
abor
ingi
ndi
vi
dual
sfr
om r
uralcommuni
ti
esandf
arm
l
abort
ocent
ral
i
zedur
banwor
kpl
aces.Thi
supr
oot
ingofr
elat
ivel
y
st
abl
e popul
ati
ons was i
nter
pret
ed bot
h posi
ti
vel
y and
negat
ivel
y—asl
i
ber
ati
ng,al
i
enat
ing,orbot
h—bysoci
ologi
stsand
t
hepeopl
ewhoseexper
iencet
hesoci
ologi
stssoughtt
ocapt
ure.
Li
ber
ati
on and al
i
enat
ion,howev
ert
heywer
eint
erpr
eted and
ex
per
ienced,
inv
olv
edbot
haphy
sicalandament
albr
eakwi
tht
he
r
ural
,fami
l
y-basedcommuni
ty.Theymeantt
hatt
het
radi
ti
onal
soci
alnet
wor
kst
hatf
ormedt
hebasi
sofsoci
ali
dent
it
ynol
onger
haddi
rectcont
rolov
ert
hemi
grat
ingi
ndi
vi
dual
.Al
i
enat
ionf
rom
t
het
radi
ti
onalcommuni
tyandi
tsf
ormsofi
dent
it
yandcont
rol
meantt
hatt
heal
i
enat
edi
ndi
vi
dualwasopent
onew i
nfl
uences.
The soci
alchanges associ
ated wi
th moder
nit
ythus made
possi
blet
he f
ormat
ion ofnew soci
alnet
wor
ks and pol
i
tical
i
dent
it
ies,f
orexampl
e,t
her
iseof"
vol
unt
aryassoci
ati
ons"(
whi
ch
st
oodi
ncont
rastt
othoset
radi
ti
onalassoci
ati
onsi
ntowhi
chone
wasbor
nandt
hatonet
ookl
argel
yforgr
ant
ed)
.Suchv
olunt
ary
associ
ati
ons,
whi
chpr
ovi
dedt
hebasi
sfornewsoci
alandpol
i
tical
i
dent
it
iesf
ort
he r
ecent
lyupr
oot
ed i
ndi
vi
dual
,coul
d be wor
k-
r
elat
ed,suchast
radeuni
ons,ornei
ghbor
hood-
based,suchas
communi
ty and r
eli
gious gr
oups. Of
ten t
hese v
olunt
ary
or
gani
zat
ions ov
erl
apped and compet
ed f
ort
he at
tent
ion of
i
ndi
vi
dual
sint
hei
rat
tempt
.
Ant
honyGi
ddens(
1938-)hasdescr
ibedt
hemoder
nwor
ldasa
j
ugger
naut
,thati
s,asanengi
neofenor
mouspowerwhi
chcanbe
di
rect
edt
osomeext
ent
,butwhi
chal
sot
hreat
enst
orunoutof
cont
rol
.Thej
ugger
nauti
sar
unawaywor
ldwi
thgr
eati
ncr
eases
ov
erpr
iorsy
stems i
nthe pace,scope,and pr
ofoundness of
change.

Gi
ddensdef
inesmoder
nit
yint
ermsoff
ourbasi
cinst
it
uti
ons.
Capi
tal
i
sm i
s char
act
eri
zed bycommodi
typr
oduct
ion,pr
ivat
e
owner
shi
pofcapi
tal
,wagel
abor
,andacl
asssy
stem der
ivedf
rom
t
hesechar
act
eri
sti
cs.I
ndust
ri
ali
sm i
nvol
vest
heuseofi
nani
mat
e
powersour
ces and machi
ner
yto pr
oduce goods,buti
tal
so
af
fect
s t
ranspor
tat
ion, communi
cat
ion, and ev
ery
day l
i
fe.
Sur
vei
l
lancer
efer
stot
hesuper
visi
onoft
heact
ivi
ti
esofsubj
ect
popul
ati
onsi
nthepol
i
ticalspher
e.Thef
our
thchar
act
eri
sti
cis
cont
rol
oft
hemeansofv
iol
encebyt
hest
ate.

Moder
nit
yisgi
vendy
nami
sm byt
hreepr
ocesses.Ti
meandspace
di
stanci
ati
onr
efer
stot
het
endencyf
ormoder
nrel
ati
onshi
pst
o
be i
ncr
easi
ngl
y di
stant
.Rel
atedl
y,di
sembeddi
ng i
nvol
ves t
he
l
i
fti
ngoutofsoci
alr
elat
ionsf
rom l
ocalcont
ext
sofi
nter
act
ion
andt
hei
rrest
ruct
uri
ngacr
ossi
ndef
ini
tespansoft
ime-
space.I
n
suchasy
stem,t
rustbecomesnecessar
ybecausewenol
onger
hav
eful
linf
ormat
ionaboutsoci
alphenomena.Fi
nal
l
y,r
efl
exi
vi
ty
meanst
hatt
hesoci
alpr
act
icesofmoder
nsoci
etyar
econst
ant
ly
r
eexami
nedandr
efor
medi
nthel
i
ghtofi
ncomi
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.

Gi
ddens t
hinks t
hatmoder
nit
yhas cr
eat
ed a di
sti
nct
iver
isk
pr
ofi
l
e.Ri
skbecomesgl
obali
nint
ensi
tyandi
ntheexpansi
onof
cont
ingentev
ent
sthataf
fectl
argenumber
sofpeopl
ear
oundt
he
wor
ld.Ourawar
eness oft
hese r
isks gi
ves us t
he sense of
i
nsecur
it
yimpl
i
edi
nthet
ermj
ugger
naut
.

Giddensar guesthatther efl

exiv
ityofmoder nit
yext endst ot he
core oft he sel
fand becomes a r efl
exive pr
ojectofi dent it
y
formati
on.Forexampl e,t he body is subj
ectt oav ar
iety of
regimesthathel pindi
vidualsmoldt hei
rbodies.Heal soar gues
thatint
imater el
ati
onshi
pshav ebeensetapar tf
rom t herout i
nes
ofor di
narylif
e(sequestered).Asar esult
,thereflexi
v eeffortto
createapur eint
imaterelati
onshi
pi susuall
yseparatef r
om larger
mor ali
ssues

(
b) MCDONALDI
ZATI
ON.Mar
ks06

I
tisat er
m usedbysoci ol
ogistGeor
geRi
tzeri
nhi
sbook“
The
McDonali
zat
ionofsoci
ety1993”.

The term McDonal

izat
ion was the term t o descr
ibe t
he
soci
ologi
cal
phenomenom thati
shappeningi
noursoci
ety
.

George expl
ains t
hatitbecomes mani
fested when a cul
tur
e
adoptst
hechar act
eri
sti
csofaf
ast
-f
oodrestaur
ant.
McDonali
zati
onistheprocessofrati
onali
zat
ion.Rational
i
zati
on
i
s a soci
ologi
calterm t
hatsimplymeans t he substi
tut
ion of
l
ogi
call
yconsist
entrul
esfort
radi
ti
onalr
ules.

Thef undamentalaspectofthister
misthatalmostanyt
askcan
ber at
ional
i
zed.Thepr ocessofMcDonoal
izat
iontakesat
askand
breaksisdowni nt
osmal l
ertasks.

Thi
si sr epeat
edunt i
lalltaskshav ebeenbr okendownt othe
small
estpossiblelevel
.Ther esult
ingtasksarethenrational
i
zed
tofi
ndthesi ngl
emostef fi
cientmet hodofcompl et
edeacht ask.
Theresultisaneffi
ci
ent,l
ogicalsequenceofmet hodsthatcanbe
completed the same wayev eryt i
me to pr
oduce the desir
ed
out
come.

Theoutcomeispredi
ctabl
e.Allaspect
soft
heprocessar
eeasi
ly
cont
rol
led. Addi
ti
onall
yquali
tybecomest hemeasurementof
goodperfor
mance.

Whent
heper
for
mancei
sgood.Sowhat
’si
sthepr
obl
em?

I
tturnoutthatover
-r
ational
i
zingaprocessinthi
smannerhasan
unexpect
edsideeff
ect.It
scall
edi
rr
ational
i
ty.

Ex:-McDonal
d’schainofrestaur
ants-
fastfoodt
urnsoutt
obejust
theopposi
te-
longwai t
sinlines.Fastfoodisnotagoodfood.It
i
sext r
emelyunheal
thyandt hetast
eisav er
agemill
i
onsoftr
ash.

Accor
dingt
oRi
tzert
hef
ourmai
ndi
mensi
onofMcdonal
i
diz
ati
on
ar
e.

1.Eff
ici
ency
:-the opti
mum method ofcompl
eti
ng t
ask. The
rati
onal deter
minat
ion of t
he best mode of product
ion.
I
ndi
vi
dual
i
tyi
snotal
l
owed.

2.Calculabi
l
ity:
-Assessmentofout
comesbasedonquant
if
iabl
e
ratherthansubj
ecti
vecri
ter
ia(
quant
it
yoverqual
i
ty)
.

3. Predi
ctabi
l
ity
:-the producti
on process i
s organi
zed t
o
guar
anteeunif
ormit
yofproductandst
andardi
zedout
comes.

4.Contr
ol:
-thesubst
it
uti
onofmor
epr
edi
ctabl
enon-
humanl
abor
forhumanlabor
.

OR

(
b)Conf
li
ctf
unct
ional
i
sm by
Coser
.Mar
ks06

Coserar guest hatconfli

ctisinsti
nctualforus,so wef ind i
t
everywherei nhumansoci et
y.Thereist heconf li
ctofwar ,but
therei s also the confl
ictthatwe f i
nd in ourdai l
yli
ves and
rel
ationships.ButCoseral soarguesthatconflictisdif
ferentfor
humanst hanf orotheranimalsi
nt hatourconf li
ctscanbegoal
rel
ated.Ther eisgener al
l
ysomet hi
ngthatwear etryi
ngtoachi eve
through conf l
ict,and t her
e are diff
erent possibl
e way s of
reachingourgoal .

The ex i
stence ofthe possi
bil
ityofdi f
ferentpat hs opens up
opportunit
ies f
ornegoti
ati
on and dif
fer
entt ypes and l evel
s of
confl
ict.BecauseCoserseesconf li
ctasanor malandf unctional
partofhuman l if
e,he can t al
k aboutitsv ar
iati
on i n ways
that
othersmi ssed,suchast helevelofv i
olenceandf unctional
consequences.
Cosermakest hecasef ort woki ndsoff uncti
onalconsequences
ofconfli
ct:confl
ict
thatoccurswi thinagr oupandconf l
ictt hatoccur sout si
det he
group.Anexampl eofi
nternalconf l
ictisthet ensiont hatcanexi st
betweeni ndi
genouspopul ati
onsorf i
rstnationsandt henat ional
government . Notice that t his internal conf li
ct i s actually
betweenoramonggr oupst hatf unctionwi t
hint hesamesoci al
system.Exampl es ofext ernalgr oupconf l
ict
s ar et he war si n
which a nat i
on may i nv ol
ve i tself. When consi deri
ng
theconsequencesf orinter
nalgr oupconf li
ct,Coseri sconcer ned
withlow-levelandmor efrequentconf l
ict.Whenexpl ai
ningt he
consequences f orexternalconf l
i
ct,he i sthinkingaboutmor e
viol
entconfli
ct.

Internal Conf l
i
ct
Internalconf l
icti nthel argersocialsy stem cr eatesnor msfor
deal i
ngwi thconf l
ict,
anddev elopsl inesofaut horityandj udi
ciarysy stems.Cosersees
conf l
ictasi nstinctualforhumans.Thus,asoci etymustal ways
cont endwi tht hepsy chologicalneedofi ndi vi
dualst
oengagei n
conf l
ict.Coserappear stoar guethatt hi
sneedcanbui ldupover
timeandbecomeexpl osive.Low- l
ev el
,fr
equentconf li
cttendsto
release host i
liti
es and t hus keepconf li
ctf r
om bui l
ding and
becomi ngdi si
nt egrati
veforthesy stem.
Thi skindofconf l
ictal
socr eatespressuresf orsociet
ytoproduce
nor msgov erning
conf l
ict.Fr equent ,low-levelconf l
i
ctcr eat es mor aland social
str
uct
uresthatfaci
li
tat
esocialintegr
ation.Coseralsonotest
hat
noteveryi
nternalconfl
ictwillbef unctional
.Itdependsonthe
ty
pesofconfl
ictandsocialst
ructurethatareinvolv
ed.

I
nCoser ’st heory ,therear et wobasi ct y
pesofi nter
nalconf li
ct:
thoset hatt hreaten
or cont radict t he f undament al assumpt i
ons of t he gr oup
relati
onshi pandt hoset hatdon’ t.
Ev erygroupi sbasedoncer tai
n
beliefsregar dingwhatt hegr oupi sabout .Thegr oupstruct
urewi l
l
alsohel pdet ermi newhet herornotaconf li
ctisf uncti
onal.As
Coser expl ai
ns,“soci alst ructuresdi fferint hewayi nwhi cht hey
all
owexpr essiont oant agoni sti
cclaims” .Groupswhosemember s
i
nt eractf requentlyov erl ongper iodsoft i
meandhav ehighlev el
s
ofper sonaland per sonal i
tyi nvolv ementhav e high net wor k
densi ty
.Suchgr oupswi lltendt osuppr essordi scourageconf li
ct.
I
fconf l
ictdoeser uptinsuchagr oup,itwillt
endt obev eryintense
fort wor easons.Fi rst
, thegr oupwi l
llikel
yhav ebui l
tupunresolved
grievancesandunr eleasedhost i
li
ti
es.Second,t hekindoft otal
per sonalinvolvementt hesegr oupshav emakest hemobi liz
at i
on
ofal lemot i
onst hatmucheasi er.

On the other hand,groups whose membersint

eract l
ess
fr
equentl
yandthatdemandlessi
nvol
vementwil
lbemor
el i
kel
yto
exper
iencet
hefuncti
onal
benefit
sofconf
li
ct.

Exter
nalConfl
ict
The differ
ent groups i
nvol
ved i
n conf
li
ct al
so exper
ience
funct
ionalr
esult
s,
especi ally when t he conf lict is mor ev iol
ent.As a gr oup
exper iences ext ernalconf l
ict,t heboundar i
es sur roundi
ng t he
group become st r
onger , t he member s of t he gr oup
exper iencegreatersol i
dar i
ty,poweri sexer ci
sedmor eef f
icient
ly,
andt hegr oupt endst of ormcoal iti
onswi t
hot hergr oups.The
mor ev i
olenttheconf l
ictis,themor eintensi fi
edar et
heseef fects.
Inor derf oranygr oupt oexi st,itmusti ncludesomepeopl eand
excludeot hers. Thi s i nclusion/ exclusion pr ocess i nv ol
ves
produci ngandr egul at
ingdi fferentbehav i
or s,way soff eel
ingand
thi
nki ng, cul tural sy mbol s, and so f orth. These
dif
fer encesconst it
uteagr oupboundar yt hatclearlydemar cates
thosewhobel ongf rom t hosewhodonot .Asagr oupexper iences
conflict,theboundar i
essur r
oundi ngt hegr oupbecomest ronger
andbet terguarded.

Along wi t
h st rongerext ernalboundar i
es,conf li
ctenabl es the
groupt oalsoexper i
encehi gherlevelsofi nternalsol i
darity.When
a group engages i n conf li
ct,themember s wi lltend t of eela
greater sense of camar aderi
et han dur ing peacef ult imes.
Theywi l
lseet hemsel v
esasmor eal i
ke,mor epar toft hesame
family, exi
sti
ngf orthesamer eason.Gr oup-speci f
icbehav i
orsand
symbol s willbe mor e cl osely guarded andcel ebrated.Gr oup
ri
tualswi l
lbeengagedi nmor eoftenandwi thgr eaterf erv
ency ,
thuspr oducing gr eateremot ionalt i
es bet ween member s and
creating asenseofsacr ednessaboutt hegr oup. I
n addi ti
on,a
group exper i
encing conf lict willt end t o pr oduce a mor e
centralizedpowerst ructure.A cent r
ali
zed gov ernmenti smor e
effi
cienti nt ermsofr esponset i
met odanger ,regulatingi nternal
stresses and needs,negotiat
ing ext
ernalr
elat
ions,and so
on.Violent confl
i
ct also t
ends to produce coali
ti
ons wi
th
previouslyneut
ralpar
ti
es.