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Southern Leyte State University

Vision

A high quality corporate University of Science, Technology and Innovation.

Mission

SLSU will:

a) Develop Science, Technology, and Innovation leaders and professionals;

b) Produce high-impact technologies from research and innovations;
c) Contribute to sustainable development through responsive community engagement
programs;
d) Generate revenues to be self-sufficient and financially-viable.

Quality Policy
We at Southern Leyte State University commit enthusiastically to satisfy our stakeholders’
needs and expectations by adhering to good governance, relevance and innovations of our
instruction, research and development, extension and other support services and to
continually improve the effectiveness of our Quality Management System in compliance to
ethical standards and applicable statutory, regulatory, industry and stakeholders’
requirements.

The management commits to establish, maintain and monitor our quality management system
and ensure that adequate resources are available.
COURSE
OVERVIEW
Course No. CROPS 1101

Course Code SA-2-A-5

Descriptive Title Principles in Crop Production

Credit Units 3

School Year/Term 2020-2021/First Semester

Mode of Delivery Modular

Name of Instructor BOBBY M. AÑORA

Course Description Classification, origin and economic importance of crops;

principles, concepts, processes and factors influencing plant
growth and development and sustainable crop production.

Course Outcomes Identify and categorize crops according to the types, uses,
importance, origin and geographical distribution.

Discuss the basic processes and factors in crop production.

Discuss the basic components in sustainable crop production.

Discuss the socio-economic, cultural and political issues in crop

production in relation to agricultural sustainability.
MODULE
GUIDE
This module will serve as your guide to the different topics covered in
the course and to the learning activities that you are expected to perform to
enhance your understanding. This is organized into several parts and each
part is briefly explained below:

At the beginning of each module, you will be required to answer a Pre-

Test. This will test your stock knowledge before giving you the actual
intervention. Please answer it and submit your answer to your
Instructor/Professor. The second part, What Will You Learn?, contains a
brief statement of what are the possible learnings you can get in the module.
This is a short overview of the module content. The third part, What Will
You Know? gives you the full content of the reading materials. The content
is given in topics and sub-topics ranging from 5- 15 pages.

After going through the module content, you will be asked to answer a
few questions or perform some activities in What to Process? section to
enrich your learning experience. Another question or set of questions are
given in What to Reflect and Understand? whose purpose is to deepen
further your understanding of the course content. Remember that your
output for these two sections should be submitted to your
Instructor/Professor.

A Post-Test is required to be accomplished in the latter part of the

module. You will notice that the test items here are the same with that given
in the Pre-Test. Well it’s because there is a need to compare your
performance before and after the intervention. Again, you need to submit
your answers to your Course Controller. Finally, should you find it necessary
to read the original materials used in the module, please go to the
References section. In the said section, the webpages of the materials are
listed.

Thank you and God bless.

TABLE OF
CONTENTS
PAGE

PRELIMINARIES

Cover Page i

Disclaimer ii

SLSU Vision, Mission, Quality Policy iii

Course Overview iv

Module Guide v

Table of Contents vi

MODULE I CLASSIFICATION, ORIGIN AND

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
AGRICULTURAL CROPS
LESSON

1 CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS

2 ORIGIN OF WORLD’S MAIN CULTIVATED CROPS

AND THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

MODULE II ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS

LESSON

3 ANATOMY OF PLANTS

4 MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS
 PRE-TEST- MODULE I
A. Multiple Choice. Read the statements carefully and choose the best answer among
the options.
1. Classifying crops according to their morphological characteristics as well as on
their anatomy, physiology and DNA sequences will fall under ________classification.
a. Descriptive b. Agricultural c. Botanical d. Cultural
2. Biennial crops are those that require two growing seasons to complete their life
cycle. Which of the following doesn’t belong to the group?
a. bulb onion b. cabbage c. carrot d. squash
3. These are woody climbing or twining plants which depend on other plants for
vertical support to climb up to the top of the canopy.
a. Shrubs b. Herbs c. Lianas d. Vines
4. Epiphytic plants are plants that grow aboveground on another plant usually
deriving physical support from the host and obtaining nourishment from the air and
other sources. Which one is an epiphyte?
a. fern (Manaol) b. sugarcane (tubo) c. nipa d. corn
5. Crops that are often consumed fresh and their calorie content is low.
a. Horticultural b. Agronomic c. both a and b d. none of these
6. Cabbage, cauliflower, mustard, pechay, Chinese cabbage, and raddish belong to
this family of vegetables.
a. Solanaceous b. Crucifers c. Lilies d. Fabaceae
7. Sugar beets and sugar cane both produce sugar but they have different
temperature requirement and physiologies. The former prefers cool environment
and it’s a C3 plant while the latter favors tropical climate and a C 4 plant. In sugar
cane the sugar is stored in the stalk, while in beets it is stored in the ______.
a. leaves b. bark c. roots d. seeds
8. Mexico is the center of origin of this crop.
a. Cotton b. Maize or corn c. Rice d. Soybean
 9. It is considered to be one of the earliest and largest independent centres of origin
of cultivated plants.
a. Mediterranean b. Asia minor c. Himalayan d. Chinese

10. Potato, sweet potato, lima bean, and tomato have their wild relatives in this
center of origin.
a. South America b. North America c. Central America d. Africa
B. True or False. Write True if the statement is correct and False if it’s wrong.
1. The Sahel region in Africa, with low rainfall, is dominated by rice and corn.
2. Rice dominates the Asian region with 24% of the cropland.
3. Chicle tree or chico (Manilkara zapota) is a latex or gum crop.
4. Garlic, onion and tobacco are the dominant crops in Ilocos Region.
5. The largest plantation of abaca can be found in the Province of Romblon in
Luzon.
6. Oil palm is the dominant crop of Malaysia.
7. The information on the origin of crop plants is important in plant breeding.
8. There are nine (9) centers of origin of crop plants in the whole world at
present, according to Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov, a Russian scientist
studying the origin of crops.
9. Planting marigold (Calendula officinalis) in the garden would help control
aphids.
10. Any crop which is planted simultaneously with or before the flowering
season of the main crop in intercropping is called relay crop.
 MODULE I
CLASSIFICATION, ORIGIN AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
AGRICULTURAL CROPS

LESSON 1 CLASSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

In this lesson, you will learn to classify crops according to established criteria
whether botanical, morphological and agricultural and of course, you will know the
reason why there is a need to classify them in the first place.

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

1. Why Classify Crops?

A common, well-defined system of crop classification is important in crop

science and agriculture. Grouping of plants following established systems will simplify
plant collection initiatives, research, breeding and specialized development efforts.
Having standardized botanical names will also facilitate efficient communication,
dissemination and retrieval of scientific information. Additionally, the grouping of
crops will indicate that these crops may have similar uses, adaptation, growth habits
and methods of culture. Classifying crops by family is likewise important in
intergeneric grafting as practiced with eggplant and tomato of the family Solanaceae,
and bottle gourd and other cucurbits with watermelon and melon (Leonardi and
Romano, 2004). In disease control and prevention, such classification is important
due to commonality of some diseases as in potato and tomato. Both are affected by the
fungal disease called late blight (Miles, undated). To students of crop science, a list of
crops under the various agricultural classifications will be a useful reference in crop
names and identification and as a review guide. To the farm manager himself, the
same list will offer innumerable benefits in finding alternative crops for specific uses.

Plants can be classified according to the following criteria: (1) botanical, (2)
descriptive, and (3) agricultural. Botanical classification is based on the morphological
characteristics of plants as well as on their anatomy, physiology and DNA sequences.
Descriptive classification is based on the environmental adaptation, growth habit and
other observable features. In agriculture, plants can be broadly classified as either
useful or unuseful. Those which are useful are called crops while those which are not
useful are called weeds.

2. Botanical Classification of Crops

The rules on the botanical classification of crop plants are laid down under the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) and the International Code of
Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). However, like other international codes of
nomenclature, the ICBN has no legal status and is dependent on the voluntary
acceptance of its rules by authors, editors, and other users of plant names (Mcneill, et
al., 2007).
The ICBN was first formulated in 1935 by authorities in taxonomy but only
after many years of debate to reconcile divergent rules, starting in 1867 in a congress
that was held in Paris. In 1905, botanists in Europe convened in Vienna to create a
code of botanical nomenclature. During this meeting it was decided that Carl
Linnaeus' Species Plantarum, which was published in 1753, would serve as the
starting point for priority of botanical names. In 1907, American botanists created a
code of their own where they introduced type specimens and allowed tautonyms
(identical genus and species names), now only allowed in zoology. Finally, the
European and American codes were merged into one international code of botanical
nomenclature in 1935 (Manktelow, undated).
The ICBN is revised every 6 years, the last being called the Vienna Code. It was
adopted by the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress in Vienna, Austria in
July 2005, 100 years after the congress in the same place in 1905. The next congress
will be in Melbourne, Australia, July 23-30, 2011. Salient provisions of the Code
(Mcneill, et al., 2007) are summarized as follows:

Art. 3.1- The principal ranks of taxa in descending sequence are:

1. kingdom (regnum)
2. division or phylum (division, phylum)
3. class (classis)
4. order (ordo)
5. family (familia)
6. genus (genus)
7. species (species)
Art. 4.1 and 4.2- The secondary ranks in descending sequence are: tribe (tribus)
between family and genus, section (section) and series (series) between genus and
species, and variety (varietas) and form (forma) below species. If a greater number of
ranks of taxa is desired, the terms for these are made by adding the prefix ”sub-“ to
the terms denoting the principal or secondary ranks.
 Art. 18.5 and 18.6- The following family names of long usage, although not
consistent with the rule on “-aceae” termination, remains valid with the new ones (in
parentheses) to be used as alternative names:
1. Compositae (Asteraceae; type, Aster L.)
2. Cruciferae (Brassicaceae; type, Brassica L.)
3. Gramineae (Poaceae; type, Poa L.)
4. Guttiferae (Clusiaceae; type Clusia L.)
5. Labiatae (Lamiaceae; type, Lamium L.)
6. Leguminosae (Fabaceae; type, Faba Mill. [=Vicia L.])
7. Palmae (Arecaceae; type, Areca L.)
8. Umbelliferae (Apiaceae; type, Apium L.)
Following hierarchical ranking, a synopsis of the plant categories (taxa), which
serve as criteria of botanical classifications, is presented in tabular form. Each taxon
is subdivided by the one below it.

Taxon Abbreviation Ending (suffix)

Kingdom
Subkingdom
Division -phyta
Subdivision -phytina
Class cl. -opsida
Subclass subcl. -idae, but not -viridae
Order ord. -ales, but not -virales
Suborder subord. -ineae
Family fam. -acea
Subfamily subfam. -oideae
Tribe tr. -eae
Subtribe subtr. -inae, but not -virinae
Genus (pl. genera) gen. any but not -virus
Section sect.
Series ser.
Species sp. (singular), spp. (plural)
Subspecies subsp.
Variety var.
Form f.

For example, maize crop (corn) which is a monocotyledon, belongs to the order
“herbaceous”; family “Gramineae”; genus Zea; species mays; varieties; S.C. 10 as
follows:

Kingdom Plant
Division Spermatophyte
Subdivision Angiosperms
Class monocotyledons
Order Herbaceous
Family Gramineae
Genus Zea
Species mays
Variety S.C. 10
The scientific name of maize crop is Zea mays, L. Single cross (S.C.) 10 is a
variety of maize. Note that each crop has distinct scientific name. Also, field bean crop
belongs to the family leguminosae: genus: Vicia; species: faba; variety: Giza 402 as
follows:

Kingdom Plant
Division Spermatophyte
Subdivision Angiosperms
Class dicotyledons
Order Herbaceous
Family Leguminosae
Genus Vicia
Species faba
Variety Giza 402
The scientific name of field bean is Vicia faba, L. or Vicia faba L.

3. Descriptive Classification of Crops

A. Crop Classifications According to Mode of Reproduction

1. Sexual- plants that develop from a seed or spore after undergoing union of
male and female gametes. Examples: palms and ferns.
2. Asexual- plants which reproduce by any vegetative means without the union
of the sexual gametes or by apomixis. Examples: red mombin (sineguelas), breadfruit,
mangosteen.

B. Crop Classifications According to Mode of Pollination

1. Naturally self-pollinated crops- the predominant mode of pollination in these
plants is self-pollination in which both pollen and embryo sac are produced in the
same floral structure or in different flowers but within the same plant. Examples: rice,
most pulses, okra, tobacco, tomato.
2. Naturally cross-pollinated crops- pollen transfer in these plants is from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower in a separate plant, although self-
pollination may reach 5 percent or more. Examples: corn and many grasses, avocado,
grape, mango, many plants with unisexual or imperfect flowers.
3. Both self- and cross-pollinated crops- these plants are largely self-pollinated
but varying amounts of cross-pollination occur. Examples: cotton and sorghum.

C. Crop Classifications According to Life Span

1. Annual- a plant which live within a short period of time, for a few weeks or
months, perpetuated by seed, and which die soon after producing seeds; a plant which
germinate, grow, flower, produce seed, and die all in one season. Examples: rice, corn,
cowpea, mungbean, squash.
 2. Biennial- a plant which requires two growing seasons to complete its life
cycle, the first for vegetative growth and accumulation of food reserves, and the second
for the production of reproductive parts. It grows from a seed, produces flower and
seed and then dies in two growing seasons. Examples: bulb onion, cabbage, carrot,
celery, raddish.
3. Perennial- a plant that lives indefinitely, including all trees and shrubs and
many herbaceous plants with underground stems (e.g. corm, rhizome, tuber) like
banana and clump-forming grasses. Perennial plants continue growing and produce
seeds year after year, either from a single plant or, in herbaceous plants, from
succeeding regrowth.

D. Crop Classifications According to Growth Habit

1. Herbs- succulent plants with self-supporting stems. Examples:

aglaonema, banana, dumbcane, sugarcane, tomato.
2. Vines- herbaceous climbing or twining plants without self-supporting
stems. Examples: charantia (ampalaya), cucumber, luffa (patola), pole sitao, yam.
3. Lianas- woody climbing or twining plants which depend on other plants
for vertical support to climb up to the top of the canopy. These climbers often form
bridges between the forest canopy (Wikipedia, 2010). Examples: Climbing bamboo,
grape, Jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys), rattans, passion fruit.
4. Shrubs- small trees or tree-like plants, generally less than 5 meters in
height but by other authorities it is restricted to small, erect, woody plants which
produce several trunks from the base. Examples: Barbados cherry, pink jasmine
(kamuning), Siam weed (hagonoy), santan, Lantana.
5. Trees- plants having erect and continuous growth with a large
development of woody tissue, with a single distinct stem or trunk, reaching a height of
5 meters or more. Examples: durian, mango, molave (Vitex parviflora), narra
(Pterocarpus indicus), tamarind.

E. Crop Classifications According to Leaf Retention

1. Evergreen- plants that maintain their leaves throughout the year.

Abscissed leaves are continually replaced by new flushes. Examples: pines, banana,
papaya, palms and most tropical plants.
2. Deciduous- plants which naturally shed off or lose leaves annually for
extended periods. Natural leaf shedding is pronounced in deciduous trees of temperate
regions. In the Philippines, defoliation occurs during summer months in Fire Tree
(Delonix regia) and red mombin or siniguelas. Many other plants exhibit partial
defoliation during drought periods.

F. Crop Classifications According to Ecological Adaptation or Habitat

1. Aquatic, hydrophyte or hydrophytic plant - a plant adapted to growing

in water or waterlogged soil. It may grow entirely submerged, partly submerged or
floating, or anchored to the ground in bogs, swamps, or beside the edges of ponds,
lakes or streams. Examples: azolla, kangkong (Ipomea aquatica), bulrush (Cyperus
spp.), lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), water lily (Nymphaea spp.), mangrove species.
2. Epiphyte or epiphytic plant- a plant that grows aboveground on
another plant but is not parasitic, usually deriving only physical support from the host
and obtaining nourishment from the air and other sources. Some have roots that take
moisture and minerals leached from the canopy of trees and others catch rain and
debris in special hollow leaves. The most common epiphytes belong to the pineapple
(bromyliad), orchid, and fern families; also called air plant or tree dweller.
Where a plant, e.g. strangler fig (balete), initially grows as an epiphyte but
later becomes rooted to the soil, it is especially called a hemiepiphyte.
3. Halophyte or halophytic plant- a plant that is able to grow in habitats
excessively rich in salts or under saline conditions. Examples: nipa, talisay, bakawan
(Rhizophora mucronata) and other mangrove species. Coconut, cashew and tamarind
have varying levels of tolerance to saline conditions.
4. Lithophyte or lithophytic plant- a plant adapted to growing on rocks or
in rocky terrain with little humus, absorbing nutrients from the atmosphere, rain, and
decaying matter which accumulate on the rocks. Vanda, Ascocenda, Ascocentrum,
and Trudelia orchids can be grown as lithophytes (McKinley, 2005). Dendrobium has
also been grown in pots filled with gravel or stone.
5. Mesophyte or mesophitic plant-a terrestrial plant which is adapted to
moderate conditions for growth, i.e. not too dry and not too wet (e.g. corn and most
commercially-grown crops).
6. Parasite or parasitic plant- a plant which grows on another plant from
which it takes part or all nourishment (e.g. Cassytha, Loranthaceae (mistletoe family),
Rafflesia; Neottia and Corallorhiza orchids).
7. Saprophyte or saprophytic crop- grows on decaying organic matter and
has no green tissue. This classification applies to the mushrooms, which are fungi.
8. Sciophyte or sciophytic plant- a plant that is adapted to low light
intensity or shade, e.g. most ferns and mosses, black pepper, cacao, coffee, lanzones,
mangosteen, hot pepper, gingers, and many orchids can tolerate or require shade.
9. Terrestrial or land plant- a plant which grows on land, rooting in the
soil. It has aerial parts, collectively called shoot, and an underground part called root
which absorbs most of its water and nutrient needs from the soil. Most agricultural
crops are terrestrial and are further subclassified into various groups such as
halophytes, mesophytes, sciophytes and xerophytes depending on climatic and special
adaptations.
10. Xerophyte, xerophytic or xeric plant- a plant which is adapted to
conditions with little or no water. Examples: adelfa, bromyliads, euphorbias, cacti and
many succulents.

Note: According to Went and The Editors of Life (1963), pygmy cedar
(Peucepyllum) can live without soil water. It obtains its water need from the water
vapor in the air alone, replenishing its supply during the night. They also noted that
the caper plant (Capparis spinosa) of the Sahara seems to have the same ability.
However, it is now known that caper has one of the deepest root systems among
plants (Ozkahraman (1997), cited by Sakcali, et al., 2008).
 Uncultivated caper plants are more often seen hanging, draped over soil
and rocks but their vegetative canopy covers soil surfaces which helps to conserve soil
water reserves (D’Urzo, et al., 1998).

4. Agricultural Classification of Plants

A. Crop vs. Weed

1. Crop. In agriculture, plants are classified as either crop or weed. A crop

is any useful plant, or a plant which is grown for any purpose. It is utilized by man
directly or indirectly, raw or processed. Direct utilization is exemplified by the use of
cereal grains as staple while they are indirectly consumed by man when they are first
fed to livestock for meat, or processed into sugar for human consumption . These
plants are intentionally grown or managed for various uses such as for food, spices,
sugar, drinks, fiber, clothing, beverages, medicines, oils, tannins, rubber,
ornamentation, fuels, construction materials, soil improvement, organic farming,
landscaping and many more.
2. Weed. Unlike crop, a weed is an unintended plant or any plant which
grows where it is not wanted. It competes with the intended crop for space, soil water,
nutrients and light or becomes a nuisance in any manner. Many have allelopathic
effect on other plants, both crop and weed, by releasing harmful allelochemicals which
are considered plant-produced herbicides. Such plants include Lantana and neem tree
(Ferguson and Rathinasabapathi, 2003), hagonoy (Chromolaena odorata) (PCA, 2003)
and yellow nutsedge (Culquhoun, 2006).
Any plant can be a weed, depending on where it grows and how man is
affected. Corn is a crop and commercially grown worldwide. But it may become a weed
if it grows in a garden plot which is intended for the growing of leafy vegetables or any
crop. A tree may also become a weed if it becomes invasive, prevents light penetration,
and suppresses the growth of certain crops including pasture grasses.

B. Agronomic vs. Horticultural Crops

On the basis of tradition, extent of cultivation and intensity of culture,

agricultural crops are classified into two main divisions: agronomic and horticultural.
1. Agronomic crops are also called “field crops”. They are mostly annual
herbaceous plants that are grown under extensive or large-scale culture. The usable
products are usually in high dry matter form. By tradition, cereals, seed legumes, root
and tuber crops, sugar crops, latex and rubber crops, pasture and forage crops, and
fiber crops are classified under agronomic crops.

2. Horticultural crops have been referred to as “garden crops”. Included

in this classification are those grown under any of the fields of horticulture such as
olericulture or vegetable crops production, pomology or fruit crops production, and
ornamental horticulture (floriculture and landscape horticulture), as well as spices
and medicinal plants. Horticultural crops are annual and perennial plants which are
grown under an intensive system of culture. Horticultural products are generally
utilized with high moisture content and are therefore highly perishable. From Janick
(1972), these crops can be defined as “intensively cultured plants directly used by man
for food, for medicinal purposes, or for esthetic gratification”. Intensive culture means
a large input of capital, labor and technology per unit area of land.
However, there is no exact demarcation between agronomic and
horticultural crops. No definite distinctions can be made of the different crops based
on the area of cultivation and intensity of culture. The extent of cultivation varies from
place to place and depends on such factors as the level of mechanization, adoption of
technological advances, farm size, market stability and availability of capital.
Changing market demands and prices may also cause shifts in the preferences of
farmers and in the intensity of care to be adopted.
Both agronomic and horticultural crops are further subclassified into
specific groups according to the primary purpose of growing them or their intended
major uses. Based on this criterion, a crop species may have different classifications.
For example, corn (maize) is an agronomic crop if it is grown for its edible seeds which
are harvested mature, or grown for silage; but it is horticultural if utilized primarily as
vegetable as in the case of young corn and sweet corn. Another example is pineapple.
Pineapple is generally classified as horticultural being commercially grown as a fruit
crop but it becomes agronomic when the primary purpose of growing it is for the
extraction of fiber which is used in making piña cloth. Papaya is a fruit crop but it can
also be grown for vegetable or as a source of the industrial product papain. The basis
of classification, therefore, should be “primary usage,” disregarding the other minor
uses.

A summary of the distinctions between agronomic and horticultural crops

is further given in the following table from Janick (2005) for breeding purposes:

Characteristic Horticultural crops Agronomic crops

Ultimate consumers Human Typically animals

Appearance Important Non-critical
Taste Critical/subjective Non-critical
Final product Often consumed fresh Consumed processed in
living state or dried
Market type Choice (non-commodity) Commodity
Calories Low density High density
Vitamins and minerals High Low
Price per unit High Low
Total value per crop Relatively low High
Variability of cvs High Low
Breeding objectives Quality, appearance High yield, yield stability

C. Agricultural Classifications Based on Primary Uses

 1. Food Crops – plants grown primarily for the harvesting of any part which is
used by man as food or processed into food product. This classification is a collective
term for crops which are variously subclassified into smaller groups such as cereals,
root and tuber crops, legume seed crops, sugar crops, beverage crops, fruit crops and
vegetables.
2. Non-food Crops- plants grown for the production of non-food products such
as fiber, fodder, alcohol, tobacco, industrial oil, rubber, gums and resins, drugs, etc.
or for ornamentation. Included in this classification are fiber crops, pasture and forage
crops, rubber crops, latex and gum crops, dye and tannin crops, biofuel crops,
essential-oil crops, biocidal crops and most industrial crops.
3. Staple Crops- plants grown for the harvesting of parts which are used as
staple food. A staple food is one that is regularly consumed in such quantities as to
form the basis of a traditional diet and from which people obtain a major proportion of
their energy and nutrient requirements. In the Philippines, the top staple crop is rice
followed by corn. Cassava is also consumed as staple by some ethnic groups.
Examples of other staple crops: wheat, banana and plantains, breadfruit, millet, white
potato, sweet potato, yam.
4. Cereal or Grain Crops - annual, herbaceous plants belonging to the grass
family Gramineae (Poaceae) and some graminoids which are grown for their seeds or
grains. The grains are harvested mature and utilized primarily as staple or feed or
processed into carbohydrate-rich products. The word “cereal” is derived from Ceres,
the ancient Roman goddess of harvest. The grain of cereals is technically a type of
single, dry, indehiscent fruit called caryopsis, which has a hard outer pericarp fused
to the seed coat. The endosperm predominantly consists of starch.
Examples: corn, millet, rice, sorghum, wheat.

FAO (2010) definition: Cereals are annual plants, generally of the gramineous family,
yielding grains used for food, feed, seed and industrial purposes, e.g., ethanol. They
exclude legumes, such as pulses, but include rice, canary seed, buckwheat and
triticale. It has been recommended that the denomination of "cereal crops" be limited
to crops harvested for dry grain only, excluding, therefore, crops harvested green for
forage, silage, grazing, etc.; and, in the case of maize, harvested green, also for food.

Note: According to researchers writing in the journal Science, perennial grain

crops, which grow with less fertilizer, herbicide, fuel, and erosion than grains planted
annually, could be available in two decades. The paper is a call to action as half the
world's growing population lives off marginal land at risk of being degraded by annual
grain production. The authors say research into perennial grains can be accelerated
by putting more personnel, land and technology into breeding programs. Perennial
grain research is underway in Argentina, Australia, China, India, Sweden and the
United States (Washington State University, 2010).

5. Legume Seed Crops or Pulses- leguminous plants which produce edible,

protein-rich seeds. The seeds are utilized in the mature, dry form as food or feed or
processed into various products. However, protein quality is inferior compared to meat
because methionine content is generally insufficient. Being leguminous, they are
capable of fixing nitrogen from the air through symbiotic relation with Rhizobium
bacteria.
Examples: cowpea, mungbean, peanut, peas, pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan).

FAO (2010) definition: Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding grains or seeds
used for food, feed and sowing purposes. The denomination "pulses" should be limited
to crops harvested for dry grain only, excluding, therefore, crops harvested green for
forage, used for grazing or as green manure, and also crops harvested green for food
(green beans, green peas, etc.), which are considered vegetables. They exclude those
used mainly for extraction of oil, e.g., soybeans. Also excluded from this group should
be those leguminous crops whose seeds are used exclusively for sowing purposes,
such as alfalfa and clover.
6. Root and Tuber Crops or Tuberous Crops- plants with modified, swollen root
or underground stem. These organs are rich sources of carbohydrate and are
commonly used as staple, livestock feed, or as raw materials for industrial purposes,
such as starch and alcohol production, or processed into various food products.
Crops with modified roots are distinct from those having modified stems.
Examples of modified roots are the tuberous and fleshy roots while the tuber and corm
are examples of modified stems. A tuberous root is a thickened secondary root as in
arrowroot, cassava, sweet potato and yam bean. A fleshy root is usually an enlarged
primary root, as in carrot, ginseng (Panax spp.) and sugar beet. The upper portion on
which secondary roots develop is hypocotyl or the first internode of the stem. In
raddish, the fleshy root consist mainly of the hypocotyl.
A tuber is an enlarged tip of an underground stem with leaves reduced to scales
or scars subtending the auxillary buds, as in white potato and yam. The “eyes”
represent buds in nodes, arranged in spiral pattern from base to the apical end of the
tuber. Aerial tubers are called tubercle. A corm, as in gabi, elephant’s ear and tannia,
is a short, solid, underground stem. The corms are usually flattened from top to
bottom with numerous roots at the lower part, and a tuft of leaves on the upper.

These crops are capable of producing high yields. However, they generally
contain low amount of protein, minerals and vitamins than cereal crops.

FAO (2010) definition: Roots and tubers grow generally as annual crops and yield
roots, tubers, rhizomes, corms and stems which are used largely for human food,
either as such or in processed form, but also for animal feed. In certain countries, they
are used to manufacture starch and alcohol.

7. Oil Seed Crops- plants grown for their seeds which are rich source of edible
and industrial oil. The important oil seed crops in the world include soybeans, peanut,
sunflower, oil palm, sesame and cotton. However, the leading crop in the Philippines is
the coconut, followed far behind by oil palm.

FAO (2010) definition: Temporary oil-bearing crops are usually called oilseeds. These
are annual plants whose seeds are used mainly for extraction of culinary and
industrial oils, excluding essential oils.
 As in the case of cereals and pulses, the denomination of "oilseed" should be
limited to crops harvested for the dry seed only, excluding crops harvested green and
used for food or feed, or used for grazing and green manure.
The oil content of oilseeds varies widely from one to the other. It can be as low as 17
percent (soybeans) and as high as 50 percent (sesame seed).
Both cotton seed and cotton lint (but not seed cotton) are considered by FAO to be
primary crops and are classified in the oil crops and fibre crops groups. This is
because seed cotton is a mixture of both food (seed) and non-food (fibre).
Permanent oil-bearing crops are perennial plants whose seeds (kapok), fruits or
mesocarp (olives) and nuts (coconuts) are used mainly for extraction of culinary or
industrial oils and fats. Consequently, dessert or table nuts, such as walnuts, are
excluded because although they are high in oil content, they are not used mainly for
extraction of oil.
8. Sugar and Sweetener Crops - plants grown primarily for the production of
sugar or other sweet-tasting products.
Sugars, such as sucrose, glucose and fructose, are simple carbohydrates. Sucrose is
the common table sugar. Glucose is also called dextrose and grape sugar while
fructose is called levulose and fruit sugar. Other organic compounds with sweet taste
are the mannitol (a colorless crystalline alcohol), stevioside (a complex mixture of
diterpene glycosides) and monellin (a protein). These are derived from various parts of
certain plants such as from stems, bulb and other underground organs, leaves,
flowers, fruits, seeds, sap and resin (Hagelberg, 2003).
Examples: sugarcane, sugar beet (a temperate crop), sweet sorghum, Stevia,
corn, sweet potato, cassava, rice, many palms.

FAO (2010) definition: Sugar crops are those crops cultivated primarily for the
manufacture of sugar, secondarily for the production of alcohol (food and non-food)
and ethanol. There are two main sugar crops: sugar beets and sugar cane. Sugar cane
is a perennial grass (replanted at certain intervals using pieces of the cane stalks);
sugar beets is an annual crop, propagated by the seed of the flowers. In certain
countries, sugar cane is eaten raw in significant quantities. Both sugar cane and
sugar beets are used for feed. Sugar and syrups are also produced in North America
from the sap of certain species of Maple trees, and, in a few countries, from maize and
sorghum which are primarily cereal crops, except sweet sorghum when it is cultivated
explicitly for making syrup.
9. Beverage Crops- plants which are sources of various drinks including fruit
juices, tea, coffee, cocoa, toddy, beer and wine. They supply water which is essential to
human nutrition. Some of these drinks also provide vitamins and minerals. Others
have stimulating or relaxing effects.
Examples: cacao, coconut, coffee, soursop, tea.

10. Rubber Crops- plants grown for the production of latex which is processed
into the industrial product called rubber. Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer
constructed of isoprene units. It has widespread uses, from household to industrial
products, with the main bulk in the transportation sector.
Examples: para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), Castilla rubber (Castilla elastica),
Ceara rubber (Manihot glaziovii), guayule (Parthenium argentatum), Lagos Silk Rubber
(Funtumia elastica).
11. Latex and Gum Crops- plants grown for the collection of latex which is
processed into chewing gum, inelastic rubber and other industrial products such as
surgical tapes and dental supplies, insulation, splints, pipes, golf balls, waterproofing,
adhesives, etc.
Examples: chicle tree or chico (Manilkara zapota), gutta-percha (Palaquium spp.),
balata (Manilkara bidentata), jelutong (Dyera costulata).
12. Dye and Tannin Crops- plants grown as sources of tannin and coloring
substances. Tannin is an aromatic, phenolic substance which is obtained from barks
and other plant organs and variously used in tanning, medicines, dyeing, ink
manufacture, etc.
Examples: anatto or achuete, Indian almond or talisay, indigo (Indigofera
tinctoria), bakawan (Rhizophora and Bruguiera).
13. Fiber Crops- plants grown as sources of fiber, a strong, thread-like material
used in making textiles, rope, twine and similar materials. The fiber is extracted from
the bark, leaves, or other organs including the husk of coconut.
Examples: abaca, jute, kenaf, maguey and ramie.

FAO (2010) definition: Fibre crops are annual crops yielding vegetable fibres, mostly
soft fibres, which are utilized by the textile industry to produce first thread and yarn,
and, from these, innumerable fabrics or manufactures. The primary fibre crops are
cotton, jute and flax.

14. Pasture and Forage Crops – plants grown or managed as vegetable feed for
grazing animals. They are classified as either native or improved species, grasses or
legumes, and may be fed fresh or dry or in processed form.
Examples: carabao grass, paragrass, napier, ipil-ipil, renzoni.
Soilage Crops- grasses grown, cut and directly fed to animals.
Silage Crops- grasses grown, cut, fermented and preserved before being fed to
animals.

FAO (2010) definition: Fodder crops are those cultivated explicitly or primarily for
feeding animals. By extension, natural grasslands and pastures, whether somewhat
cultivated or not, also are included in this category.
Fodder crops may be classified as temporary or as permanent crops; the former are
cultivated and harvested like any other crop, the latter relate to land used
permanently (five years or more) for herbaceous forage crops, either cultivated or
growing wild (wild prairie or grazing land). They may include some areas of forest
lands that are used for grazing.
Temporary crops grow in artificial meadows which are normally used very intensively,
with various cuttings per year. They contain three major groups of fodder: grasses,
including cereals harvested green; legumes, including pulses harvested green; and
root crops that are cultivated for fodder. All can be fed to animals as green feed; as
hay, i.e. crops harvested dry or left to dry if harvested green; or as silage products.
Silage or ensilage is a method of preservation of green fodder through fermentation to
retard spoiling.

15. Biofuel Crops- plants grown for the production of fuel that is used as
additive or replacement for petroleum products. The main biofuels are bioethanol, an
alcohol derived from fermented sugar or starch, and biodiesel from vegetable oils.
Examples: sugarcane, cassava, corn, coconut, castor bean, Jatropha.
Note: Researchers at the North Carolina State University have developed a more
efficient technique for producing ethanol, butanol or other biofuels from woody plant
parts such as the inedible corn stalks and switchgrass. The technique degrades the
plant’s lignin and frees the carbohydrates. The carbohydrate thus becomes available
for biofuel production (North Carolina State University, 2010).

16. Olericultural or Vegetable Crops – plants (except mushroom) grown for their
succulent and edible parts such as the roots, stems, leaves, young tops, fruits or
seeds for use in culinary preparations either fresh or preserved in the fresh state. They
are nearly all rich in vitamins A and C with high amounts of dietary fiber. These crops
are further classified into different groupings according to similarities in edible parts,
growth habits, methods of culture and botanical family. Melons are generally included
in this crop classification.

FAO (2010) definition: Vegetables are plants cultivated both as field crops and garden
crops, both in the open and under glass.
Certain gramineous and leguminous plants which, if harvested for the dry grain, are
classified among cereals and pulses, belong to this group as far as they are harvested
green for the green grains and/or for the green pods (e.g., green maize, green peas,
green beans, string beans, etc.).
Moreover, only those vegetables which are cultivated principally for human
consumption belong to this group. Consequently, vegetables grown principally for
animal feed should be excluded, as should vegetables cultivated for seed.
This group includes also melons and watermelons which some countries classify as
fruit crops. As with all other vegetables, melons and watermelons are temporary crops,
while fruit crops are permanent crops.

Vegetable Classifications Based on Edible Part:

a. Leafy Vegetables- these crops are grown mainly for their leaves. They are rich
in vitamins and minerals and they also look decorative. Examples: Malabar
nightshade (alugbate), amaranth (kulitis), lettuce, jute (saluyot), (horse raddish tree)
malunggay.

b. Shoot Vegetables- plants grown primarily for their edible shoot, mainly the
young, succulent stem. Examples: asparagus, bamboo, celery.
c. Pod and Seed Vegetables- Generally members of Leguminosae or Fabaceae
family, these plants are grown for their young pods and seeds. Examples: snap bean,
pole sitao, winged bean, okra, sweet corn.
 d. Root and Bulb Vegetables- plants grown for their swollen underground roots
and stems. Examples: carrot, potato, onion, raddish, tannia
e. Flower Vegetables- plants with edible flowers. Examples: horse raddish tree
(malunggay), katuray (Sesbania grandiflora), squash, rose, sunflower
f. Fruit Vegetables- grown for their fleshy, succulent fruits. Examples:
ampalaya, eggplant, tomato, peppers, melons.

Vegetable Classifications by Family:

a. Cole Crops or Crucifers- these vegetable crops belong to the Cruciferae or
Brassicaceae (Mustard) family, with edible leaves or heads. Examples: cabbage,
cauliflower, mustard, pechay, Chinese cabbage, raddish.
b. Cucurbits- belong to the Cucurbitaceae (Gourd and Squash) family. They are
grown mainly for their fruits but some have edible young shoots and flowers; also
called Vine Crops. Examples: bottle gourd, charantia, cucumber, luffa, melons,
squash.
c. Legume Vegetables- members of the Leguminosae or Fabaceae (Bean) family.
The seeds are rich in protein. Examples: bush sitao, katuray, kidney bean, lima bean,
pea, pole sitao.
d. Lilies- members of the Liliaceae (Lily) family. Examples: asparagus, garlic,
onion.
e. Solanaceous Crops- belong to the Solanaceae (Nightshade or Eggplant) family
and, with the exception of white potato, are also called Fruit Vegetables. Examples:
eggplant, tomato, peppers, white potato.
f. Mushrooms- these are edible fungi belonging to the division Basidiomycota
(club fungi). The edible part commonly consist of an upright stalk and an umbrella-
shaped cap. Examples: straw mushroom, Shiitake mushroom, puffball, termite
mushroom, “kabuting-higante”.

17. Pomological or Fruit Crops and Nuts– plants grown primarily for their edible
fruits or closely related structures which, as a rule, are consumed raw. Fruits borne
on trees are called tree fruits, among which are the duhat, durian, jackfruit, mango,
mangosteen and papaya. Fruits borne on low-growing plants such as shrubs, vines,
lianas and some herbs are called small fruits (e.g. grape, passion fruit, pineapple,
strawberry).
Fruits are often important sources of vitamin C, and many contain carotene.
They are high in cellulose but usually has little fat or protein and little to no starch. A
parcel of land that is planted to fruit crops is called an orchard.
Nuts are grown for their fruits which are high in fat. The nut is a simple, dry,
indehiscent fruit with a hard outer covering. Examples: cashew, macadamia, pili.

FAO (2010) definition: Fruit crops are those yielding fruits and berries which generally
are characterized by their sweet taste and their high content of organic acid and
pectin. Apart from strawberries, all fruits and berries are permanent crops, mainly
trees, bushes and shrubs, but also vines and palms. Fruits and berries are generally
found in great numbers attached to the branches or stalks or trunks of the plants, in
most cases singly, in other cases grouped in bunches and clusters (e.g. bananas and
grapes). Commercial crops are cultivated in well ordered orchards and compact
plantations, but significant quantities are also collected from scattered plants, either
cultivated or growing spontaneously.
Bananas, plantains, grapes, dates and carobs are considered fruit crops by FAO, while
nuts, olives, coconuts, melons and water melons are not considered fruit crops.
Nuts are tree crops yielding dry fruits or kernels. They are characterized by
their woody shells or hard husks which are generally covered by a thick,
fleshy/fibrous outer husk which is removed at harvesting time. The weight of the
shells or husks ranges from as little as 20 percent for chestnuts to as much as 70
percent in the case of cashew nuts of the total weight of unshelled/unhusked nuts.

18. Spice Crops- plants grown for the production of aromatic materials or
substances which are used as food flavoring or for other purposes because of their
fragrance or preservative qualities. Spices are in solid or liquid forms.
Examples: black pepper, garlic, ginger, hot pepper, onion, turmeric.

FAO (2010) definition: Spices are plants which, in one or the other of their components
(rhizome, bark, fruits, berries, seeds, etc.), contain strongly flavoured and aromatic
substances, and for that reason are used mainly as condiments. Most of them are
perennial.
Spices are rich in essential oils which, in addition to be used in the food industry, are
also used in cosmetic and medicinal preparations. The nutritive value of spices is
insignificant, but their commercial value is high.
A partial listing of some of the main spices includes peppers, pimento, vanilla,
cinnamon, canella, cloves, nutmeg, mace and cardamons, ginger and anise, badian
and fennel.
19. Essential-oil Crops- plants grown for the extraction of essential oils which
are volatile, aromatic substances for perfumery and other uses.
Examples: citronella, eucalyptus, ilang-ilang, peppermint, sampagita.
20. Ornamental Crops – plants which are grown primarily for decoration or
landscaping or to be appreciated because of their attractive flowers or foliage. They are
further classified as cutflowers, cut foliage, turfgrasses, groundcovers, hedges,
accents, specimen plants, avenue trees, screens, topiaries, fillers and others.
Floricultural crops are valued for their attractive flowers, foliage ornamentals for their
leaves.
a. Lawn or Turf Grasses- grasses grown for aesthetic purpose in the landscape
or for any outdoor recreational use. They are usually maintained at a low height.
Examples: Bermuda grass, carabao grass, zoysiagrass, creeping bent grass, perennial
rye grass.
b. Cutflowers- plants grown for their attractive flowers with long shelf life.
Examples: anthurium, chrysanthemum, gladiolus, orchids, rose.
c. Cutfoliage- plants grown for their attractive foliage which are cut for floral
decoration. Examples: ferns, fishtail palm, kamuning, Song of India, Song of Jamaica.
 d. Edge Crops- short statured plants grown to serve as barrier between the lawn
and garden, to highlight gardens, or to create stand-alone gardens; also called border
plants. Examples: mondo grass, dwarf cucharita, dwarf sansevieria.
e. Groundcovers- low-lying, aesthetically appealing plants grown in the
landscape primarily to suppress weed growth and to control, retard or prevent soil
erosion by covering and binding loose, bare soil. It is oftenly used en masse to produce
a carpeting effect. Examples: cucharita (Alternanthera versicolor) , Cuphea, travelling
jew, creeping peanut, Vietnam rose.
f. Hedges- plants grown at the edges of pathways or boundaries and
continuously pruned to knee-high height or upper but below eye level. Examples:
Duranta, hedge bamboo, Chinese holly, dwarf santan, papua.
g. Accents- plants with showy features distinct from the rest of the other plants.
It immediately attracts attention and becomes a focal item in the landscape garden
and at the same time provides the contrast which gives attention to other plants.
h. Specimens- plants having showy features, or with unique characteristics
which make them pieces of conversation or botanical curiosity, or otherwise desired as
collector’s item. They are ideally planted in isolation rather than massed with other
plants, and easily become focal point in the landscape. Examples of potential
specimens: queen of flowering trees (Amherstia nobilis), palms, Mussaenda ‘Doña Eva’.
i. Screens- plants grown to serve as barrier against sun rays, to conceal certain
parts of the landscape, or to obstruct view. Examples: Indian tree, shrubs, trellised
vines.
j. Shade crops- generally trees, shrubs, trellised vines and lianas which are
grown mainly to provide shade singly or with supporting trellis.
k. Avenue Trees- trees and shrubs grown, more or less equidistant, beside
roads and streets. Palms are also used. Examples: acacia (raintree), katuray, narra,
Norfolk Island pine, date palm.

21. Biocidal Crops- plants containing organic compounds with pesticidal or

anti-microbial properties. The effective parts are either directly applied or seeped in
water for foliar spray. Many have been commercially exploited by extracting the active
ingredients.
Examples: chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum cineriaefolium), kayos (Dioscorea
hispida), lagtang, makabuhay (Tinospora crispa), tobacco, tubli (Derris elliptica),
neem.
22. Industrial Crops – plants grown to provide materials for industrial
processing and production of non-food products such as biofuel, sugar, rubber,
starch, industrial oil, aromatic compounds, steroids, medicinal drugs, organic
pestides, tannins and dye. This is a special classification based on the method of
processing and the nature of the product (non-food) and not on the part of the plant
which is harvested and used as raw material. Based on these criteria, both agronomic
and horticultural crops can be classified as industrial crops. Corn (grain crop) and
legume seed crops (e.g. soybean) can be classified as industrial if they are grown
primarily for industrial processing to produce biofuel or industrial oil.
23. Plantation Crops – plants grown in large tracts of land under intensive
culture, usually in a tropical or subtropical country, where products are sold in
distant markets rather than for local consumption. This classification is based on the
extensiveness of production, system of culture required, and market location. It
requires plenty of labor and large investment of capital. Many of those who are
engaged in the growing of plantation crops are corporate organizations and
multinational companies like Dole Philippines and Del Monte.
Any crop can be suited for growing in a plantation. Thus there are plantations
which are devoted to fiber crops (cotton, abaca), trees (e.g. falcata, mahogany), bamboo
(e.g. giant bamboo, thorny bamboo), industrial crops (e.g. sugarcane, coconut, palm
oil, rubber), beverage crops (coffee, cacao, tea), fruit crops (e.g. banana, pineapple),
nuts (e.g. cashew), vegetables (e.g. asparagus), spices (e.g. turmeric), aromatic crops
(ilang-ilang, vanilla), and tobacco.

D. Special-Purpose Classifications of Crops

There are other groupings of agricultural crops or crop-epithets which are

commonly used but cannot be appropriately placed under either agronomic or
horticultural classification. These classifications do not consider the direct benefit of
the crop to the ultimate consumer, nor to the extent of cultivation and the intensity of
care required. These classifications are used to refer to plants having special
advantages to the farmer himself in relation to his farming practices.
1. Main Crop- any crop which is intended by the grower to become his main
source of revenue.
2. Nursery crop- a plant which is temporarily grown in the nursery and later
planted in the field or garden or used for ornamental display when it reaches the
proper age and size (e.g. most fruit crops and ornamental crops.
3. Intercrop- any crop which is planted simultaneously with or before the
flowering season of the main crop in intercropping.
4. Filler Crop- any crop which is planted to fill a gap. In quincunx system of
planting arrangement, the space at the center of four hills of a main crop is commonly
intended for a filler crop which is of a different variety or species.
5. Relay Crop- the crop which is planted after the flowering period or harvest of
the main crop in relay cropping.
6. Ratoon crop- the crop consisting of the regrowth from shoots retained on the
plants after harvest or from cut stalks of the previous crop (e.g. pineapple, sorghum,
sugarcane).
7. Cash crop- any short maturing crop which is grown to generate income while
the main crop is still in its vegetative stage of growth; any crop grown to generate cash
rather than for subsistence.
8. Catch crop- any short maturing plant that is grown simultaneously with, or
between successive plantings of a main crop to utilize residual fertilizer and soil
moisture. It is often used as a green manure or to provide supplemental livestock feed;
also called emergency crop.
9. Nurse crop- any crop which is grown to provide shade and increase humidity
for the benefit of the main crop during its seedling and early stages of growth.
 10. Companion crop- any crop which is planted close to the main crop to
complement the latter’s growth and production, or to maximize utilization of space
because they do not compete. Examples:
a. Black pepper is planted with live madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium) to serve
as trellis.
b. Lettuce acts as a living mulch to keep the soil moist while sunflowers to the
south or west provide shade for the vegetable.
c. Planting squash and onions will maximize production per unit area of land.
These crops occupy different root zones, squash being deep rooted while onion is
shallow rooted.
11. Cover crop- a crop grown mainly to control soil erosion, regulate soil
temperature, control weeds and reduce evaporative losses. Leguminous vines such as
improved pasture and forage crops are excellent cover crops. As legumes they can
enrich the soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen.
12. Green manure crop- a leguminous crop grown to be plowed under the soil
to increase organic matter and serve as organic fertilizer. Mungbean (mungo) is ideal
for this purpose. Seeds of mungbean are commonly broadcasted in a field of rice
immediately after harvest and allowed to grow using residual water, thus also
becoming a catch crop. In time for tillage in preparation for the next rice crop, the
mungbean plants are plowed under and allowed to decompose.
13. Agroforest Crop – any crop which is suited under a cropping system
consisting of mixed agricultural and forest crops.
14. Contour Hedgerow Crop- nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs which are grown
along contour lines in sloping lands under the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology
(SALT). These crops are grown mainly to produce green manure and mulch, to serve as
firebreak, to stabilize the soil and to control soil erosion.
Examples:
a. Madre de Cacao, kakawate (Gliricidia sepium)
b. Giant Ipil-ipil (Leucaena latisiliqua)
c. Acid Ipil-ipil (Leucaena diversifolia)
d. Flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla)
e. Renzoni (Desmodium renzonii)
f. Red Powderpuff (Calliandra calothyrsus)
g. Yellow Cassia (Senna spectabilis)
15. Trap crop or Decoy crop- plants grown to attract certain insect pests or
parasites because they are favorite hosts. They act as decoys to lure pests away from
the main crop. Also, they make pest control easier because the insects are
concentrated on a few plants. Control measures will be concentrated to the infested
plants including spraying of appropriate pesticides or these plants can be simply
pulled out and destroyed together with the pests. Examples of trap crops and the
insect pests that they attract:
a. Basil (Ocimum basilicum)- green, loopy tomato caterpillar.
b. Garlic (Allium sativum)- greenfly.
c. Chive (Allium schoenoprasum)- greenfly and cutworms.
d. Corn (Zea mays)- cotton bollworm.
e. Marigold (Calendula officinalis)- caterpillars and cutworms.
 f. Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)- aphids.
g. Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus)- loopy caterpillar.
h. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)- cotton bollworm.
16. Insect pest repellant crop- plants grown along the borders and at strategic
places in the farm to repel insect pests because of their strong aroma and anti-
herbivory properties.
Examples:
a. Anise or Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)
b. Basil (Ocimum basilecum)
c. Chive (Allium schoenoprasum)
d. Garlic (Allium sativum)
e. Marigold or Amarillo (Tagetes sp.)
f. Marjoram (Origanum majorama)
g. Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)-
h. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)-
i. Sesame (Sesamum indicum)
j.Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)
17. Natural enemies attractant crop- flowering plants grown at strategic places
in the farm to attract natural enemies of insect pests.
Examples:
a. Dill (Anethum graveolens)- can be grown to attract spiders, lacewings and
parasitic wasps which eat or parasitize caterpillars, beetles and aphids.
b. Tagetes, Calendula and Nasturtiums- attract hoverflies whose larvae
feed on aphids.

WHAT TO PROCESS?

1. Give the 2 classes of flowering plants, at least 3 orders each of the 2

classes, 3 families each of at least 3 orders, and 3 genera each of at least 6
families. Organize your answer in a smart art graphic of the Microsoft Word.

2. Give the complete taxonomic classification of rice.

KINGDOM _________
DIVISION ___________
CLASS ___________
ORDER _____________
FAMILY ____________
GENUS __________
SPECIES ____________

3. Complete the table below.

 Crop Life Span Mode of Growth Ecological Leaf Agronomic/ Primary
Reproduction Habit Adaptation Retention Horticultural Usage
Jackfruit Evergree Food
n crop
Coconut Perennial
Corn Herb
Tomato Sexual/asexual
Jathropa biofuel

(Submit a copy of your answer to your Instructor/Professor)

WHAT TO REFLECT AND UNDERSTAND?

Why do we classify plants? Discuss at least 3 reasons.
(Submit a copy of your answer to your Instructor/Professor)

REFERENCES:
 MODULE I
CLASSIFICATION, ORIGIN AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
AGRICULTURAL CROPS

LESSON 2 ORIGIN OF WORLD’S MAIN CULTIVATED CROPS AND THEIR

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

The world’s main cultivated crops like wheat, rice, corn have their respective
places of origin. These places of origin are also the areas where you can find until now
the wild relatives of these crops. You will learn in this lesson what is the role of these
centers of origin to our quest for food security and where on Earth can we find the
most suitable agroclimatic zones for the cultivation of the said crops.

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

Centers of Origin of World’s Important Crops

The centre of origin is a geographical area where the particular group of
organisms (either domesticated or wild) first originated on earth. Many people believed
that centres of origin are also centres of diversity. But, the centres of diversity may not
represent the centres of origin of crop plants. Although a few species may have been
originated separately at more than one place, but most species had their origin at a
certain place and then spread elsewhere. In other words, in the centre of origin a crop
is generally confined to one place, whereas the centre of diversity may be found at
more than one place. The exact location of origin of species is only a matter of
speculation based on indirect evidences. The information on origin of crop plants is
important in plant breeding to locate wild relatives, related species and new genes.
Knowledge of the origins of crop plants is important to avoid genetic erosion, the loss
of germplasm due to the loss of ecotypes and habitat. The Russian scientist Nikolai
Ivanovich Vavilov and his colleagues visited several countries and collected a large
number of crop plants and their wild relatives. They used this collection in Russian
breeding programme of developing improved varieties. His deductions were based on
evidences from morphology, anatomy, cytology, genetics, plant geography and
distribution. He considered that great centres of origin were always located in lower
mountains and hills of tropical, sub-tropical regions. He also recognizes some
secondary centres of origin where two or more species crossed together. Secondary
centres of origin are the places where natural and artificial selection occurred on after
another. He stated that plants were not domesticated at random but it was a
continuous process.
Centers of Origin of Cultivated Plants (Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov)
Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov published his results in 1926 and developed a theory
on the centres of origin of cultivated plants. He proposed 8 centres of origin of crop
plants:
1. Chinese centre: It is considered to be one of the earliest and largest
independent centres of origin of cultivated plants. This centre includes mountain
regions of central and western China. The endemic species listed from this centre
include Soya bean, radish, Turnip, Pear, Peach, Plum, Colacasia, Buckwheat, opium
poppy, brinjal, apricots, oranges, china tea etc.
2. Himalayan centre: It also known as the Indian centre of origin. This centre
includes regions of Assam, Burma, Indo-china and Malayan Archipelago. The endemic
species listed from this centre include Rice, red gram, chick pea, cow pea, Mung dal,
brinjal, cucumber, sugar cane, black pepper, Moth bean, rice bean, cotton, turmeric,
indigo, millets etc.
3. Mediterranean centre: This centre includes borders of Mediterranean Sea.
Most of the cultivated vegetables have their origin in this region. The endemic species
listed from this centre include Durum wheat, emmer wheat, oat, barley, lentil, pea,
grass pea, broad bean, cabbage, asparagus, pepper mint etc.
4. Abyssinian centre: This region includes Ethiopia and parts of Somalia. The
endemic species listed from this centre include Wheat, sorghum, bajra, safflower,
castor, broad bean, okra, coffee etc.
5. Central Asian centre: This centre includes north-west India, Afghanistan,
Uzbekistan and western China. The endemic species listed from this centre include
Bread wheat, club wheat, sesame, linseed, muskmelon, carrot, onion, garlic, apricot,
grape, hemp, cotton etc.
6. Asia minor centre: This centre covers near East Asian regions like Iran and
Turkmenistan. The endemic species listed from this centre include Wheat, rye,
Pomegranate, Almond, Fig, Cherry, Walnut, Alfa Alfa, Persian clover etc.
7. Central American centre: This centre includes southern parts of Mexico,
Costa Rica, Guatemala and Honduras region. The endemic species listed from this
centre include Maize, rajma, lima bean, melon, pumpkin, sweet potato, arrow root,
chilly, cotton, papaya, guava, avocado etc.
8. South American centre: This centre includes Peruvian regions, islands of
southern Chile, Brazil and Paraguay regions. The endemic species listed from this
centre include Potato, sweet potato, lima bean, tomato, papaya, tobacco, quinine,
cassava, rubber, Ground nut, Cocoa, pineapple etc.

Global Distribution of Crops

1. North America

North America is composed of large, agriculturally homogeneous regions. Three

major features stand out: two wheat belts and a maize belt in the north
gradually transitioning into a soybean belt in the south (Figure 8a). The North
American wheat belt dominates this region by far; wheat makes up 30% of the
cropland in this region. There are two wheat belts extending west of the
Mississippi and spanning the southern Prairie Provinces in Canada and the
Great Plain states in the United States (the two belts being separated by the
states of South Dakota and Nebraska). Winter wheat is cultivated
predominantly south of Nebraska, where it is planted in September through
October and harvested in June through July of the next year. In contrast,
spring and durum wheat, which are cultivated predominantly north of
Nebraska, are planted in April through May and harvested in mid-July through
mid-September of the same year. Although wheat dominates these two belts,
there are a variety of secondary crops cultivated; barley and canola are grown
in the northern portions of the North American wheat belt, maize is grown in
the central part, and sorghum and cotton are grown in the south. The maize
belt is dominant in the lower half of the Missouri River basin and the entire
region east of the Mississippi. Here maize is planted April through May and
harvested October through November. Throughout the maize belt, there is a
single secondary crop, soybeans, which often rivals maize for dominance. In the
Midwest, the maize belt in Wisconsin transitions into a maize-soybean belt in
Iowa and Illinois, and then into a soybean belt in Missouri. Soybeans make the
third most prominent crop belt in North America. This crop dominates the
lower half of the Mississippi as far east as the Carolinas. This region has a
similar but somewhat wetter and warmer climate than that of the maize belt.
Soybeans are planted slightly later than maize (May through June) but
harvested around the same time (October through November). Throughout the
soybean belt, the secondary crops are cotton and wheat. The other important
crops in North America are barley (which together with wheat forms a wheat-
barley belt in the Canadian province of Alberta) and cotton (which dominates
the cropland along the Gulf Coast with the exception of Florida, and forms a
cotton or cotton-sorghum belt in Texas and cotton-groundnuts belt in Georgia).
Florida is dominated by sugar cane, making this region agriculturally similar to
the rest of the Caribbean, rather than to continental North America. The state
of Georgia also contains a small groundnuts belt.

Central America and the Caribbean

Central America has varied agroclimatic settings. However, a single crop,

maize, dominates the region from central Mexico to Nicaragua inclusively
(Figure 8a). In the dry climate of northwestern Mexico, maize is planted in
September and October and harvested January through March of the next
year. In Mexico, maize forms crop belts with three other crops: sorghum in the
state of Tamaulipas, pulses in Coahuila, and wheat in Sonora. Throughout the
Central American maize belt, pulses are the next most dominant crop, followed
by sugar cane. Costa Rica’s croplands are a transitional area with a mixture of
maize, pulses, and rice being cultivated throughout the country. Rice forms a
much smaller second crop belt in Costa Rica and Panama, with maize as the
secondary crop, although the average annual temperature and precipitation in
this region are not much different from those to the north. The Caribbean is
dominated by sugar cane. In this region with a steady year round climate,
sugar cane is planted and harvested almost throughout the entire year
(November through May). Rice and maize are the secondary crops throughout
the Caribbean. Although not considered a major crop in this study, coffee is a
key commodity in the Caribbean and accounts for 7% of the cultivated land (a
percentage higher than that of the third most dominant major crop).

South America

South America has far more diverse cultivation than North and Central
America. Here maize and soybeans rival for dominance in the northern portions
of the continent, while wheat dominates in the south. One maize belt is draped
over the entire Andes and the lowlands to their west from the Columbian
highlands all the way into Argentina’s Patagonia, and another centers on the
Brazilian Highlands in southeastern Brazil. Here maize is planted March
through May and harvested October through December. While maize is a major
dominant crop in Central America, the Andes, and the Brazilian Highlands, it is
surpassed by wheat and soybeans in the La Plata region of South America.
Throughout the Andean maize belt the secondary crops are rice (in the
Columbian and Ecuadorian lowlands west of the Andes), potatoes (throughout
the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes), and sunflowers (in the southern Andes of
Argentina). In the Brazilian Highlands, sugar cane and soybeans complement
the maize belt. Soybeans form the next largest belt in South America. This crop
is extensively cultivated in the central portion of the continent from the
Brazilian state of Mato Grosso in the north to the Argentinean state of Cordoba
in the south, in the Gran Chaco region and the area east of it. Soybeans in this
region are planted in the beginning of the wet season (October through
December) and harvested at the end of it (March through May). The secondary
crops throughout this soybean belt are maize in Brazil, cotton in Paraguay, and
a combination of wheat, maize, and sunflower in Argentina. Wheat forms the
third largest crop belt in South America, but it is the major crop in the
southern part of the continent in Argentina and Chile. Wheat covers the
pampas of Argentina and the Western Coastal Plain of Chile. As opposed to the
maize and the soybean cultivation areas in South America, the regions of wheat
cultivation do experience frosts. Wheat in this region is planted May through
July and harvested mid-November through mid-January. Throughout the
South American wheat belt in the pampas of Argentina, soybeans and
sunflowers form the secondary crops, while throughout the South American
wheat belt in Chile, the secondary crop is maize. In addition to maize,
soybeans, and wheat, there are several other major crop belts in South
America. Although sunflowers are cultivated in other parts of the world, South
America has the only sunflower belt. In fact sunflowers are the third-ranking
crop in southern South America, surpassing maize, with 12% of the cropland.
Also, the northern coastline of the continent and the Tocantins river basin are
regions of rice cultivation, while the Xingu´ river basin is a region of cassava
cultivation. In Brazil the region between Serra do Piaui and the town of Recife
makes up a small pulses belt, while south of Sao Paulo has a sugar cane belt.

Europe

Europe, like North and Central America, is also composed of large

homogeneous agricultural zones. The top five most common major crops for the
continent as a whole (wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, and sunflower) represent
63% of the croplands. The top five most common major crops for the continent
as a whole (wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, and sunflower) represent 63% of the
croplands. Most locations in Europe can benefit from two harvests. Winter
grains (winter wheat, winter barley, and rye) are planted September through
October and harvested mid-June through August of the next year, and spring
grains (maize, spring barley, and most oats) are planted April through May and
harvested September through October of the same year. Wheat is cultivated
across the entire European continent, except for the Iberian Peninsula,
Belarus, and the Baltic Republics. While most of the wheat cultivated
throughout this region is winter wheat, durum wheat is also grown here.
Winter wheat is most often cultivated in combination with winter barley and
rye, and is also most often cultivated on the same land (double cropped) with
maize, oats and to a lesser extent with spring barley Throughout southern
Europe, spanning France, Italy, Hungary, Moldova, and all countries south of
there, the secondary crop is maize. To the north, in Croatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, northern Serbia, and Romania, can be found a maize-wheat belt.
In Poland, the much more cold-tolerant rye can be found as the secondary
crop. In this northern sub-region, barley and rye are also found. Throughout
Poland, the Russian oblast of Nizhny Novgorod, and the surrounding regions
the croplands can be described as a mixture of wheat, barley, rye, and
potatoes. Second in size in Europe is the area of barley cultivation. Winter
barley is the dominant crop on the Iberian Peninsula, especially in Spain, and
is surrounded by barley-wheat and wheat alone belts. The spring barley belt is
found in Belarus, the Baltic Republics, and the European part of Russia.
Ireland stands alone in having both spring and winter barley cultivation.
Throughout the barley belts, the secondary crops are wheat, potatoes, and rye.
The region along the Mediterranean Sea has a distinct climate. While wheat
and barley are the top crops, a minor crop, olives, occupies a large portion of
the region’s cropland (over 43,000 km2 or 15%). In this region, fruits come next
in the other categories with 40,600 km2, of which area 65% is in grapes, 7% in
oranges, and 6% in peaches and nectarines.

Africa

With 13% of the global harvested area, Africa has less cropland than any other
part of the world. The agro climatological zones in Africa are very diverse,
ranging from the dry and barren desert, through the rich soil of the Rift, Nile,
and Niger Valleys, to the southern extremes. But unlike any other parts of the
world, there are no large crop belts in Africa. Rather, there are agricultural
regions within which different combinations of crops are cultivated. Northern
Africa is characterized by a Mediterranean climate with the alternation of
pronounced warm dry and cool wet seasons. Morocco, Algeria, Libya, and
Tunisia have large crop areas along the coast, dominated by a mixture of wheat
and barley (Figure 8b). With a single growing season, both winter wheat and
barley are planted November through December and harvested May through
June of the next year. In the Nile delta and Nile Valley, wheat, maize, and rice
form a unique agricultural belt. Again, akin to southern Europe, olives are a
major crop in this region, representing 11% of the cropland. The Sahel region,
with low rainfall, is dominated by the drought resistant millet and sorghum. In
Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau another drought resistant crop,
groundnuts or peanuts, is grown. Maize and a mixture of other crops are also
found in northern Nigeria. With a single growing season in the Sahel, most
crops are planted May through July and harvested October through November.
Coastal West Africa has a more moderate climate because of the oceanic
influence and thus benefits from two growing seasons. The dominant crops
here are hydrophilic: rice from Guinea to Liberia and maize from the Ivory
Coast to Nigeria. Here the first crop of rice is planted April through May and
harvested August through October, and a second crop of rice is planted
November through December and harvested March through April. Maize is also
cultivated in two crops, with the first one being planted March through April
and harvested June through August, and the second being planted August
through September and harvested December through January. The secondary
crop throughout Africa’s West Coast rice belt is cassava, while in the maize belt
it is a mixture of sorghum, rice, cotton, and millet. Since the agricultural area
along the western coast of Africa is much smaller than the one in the Sahel,
rice is not one of the top five crops in Sahelian Africa. However, maize is the
third most dominant crop, after sorghum and millet, occupying 11% of the
cropland in this region. Directly east of the Sahel, in Ethiopia, is the northern
tip of the African Rift Valley. Throughout the Rift Valley, maize is the dominant
crop. The only locations where maize is not dominant are Zaire (where cassava
and cassava-maize-pulses are the prevalent combinations), Mozambique (where
cassava dominates), and the drier Botswana and Namibia (where sorghum and
millet, respectively, are the crops of choice). Throughout eastern Africa, maize
is a winter crop generally planted March through June and harvested August
through December, while in South Africa, maize is a summer crop planted
October through December and harvested April through June. With water
being the limiting factor throughout eastern Africa, the secondary crop is
cassava (in Tanzania, Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique), pulses (in Uganda
and Tanzania), sorghum (in Mozambique), and cotton (in Zimbabwe, with
somewhat better irrigation facilities). South Africa, on the other hand, benefits
from a second crop of winter wheat that is planted May through July and
harvested October through December. The island of Madagascar benefits from
two growing seasons, and the most dominant crop is rice, followed by cassava
and maize. Rice here is planted November through mid-January and harvested
April through June. The two winter crops in this area are wheat and sweet
potatoes. The former is planted in May and harvested in November, and the
later is planted mid-February through mid-May and harvested mid-May
through mid- December. There is a ’’minor’’ crop that should be included for a
more complete regional picture; plantains occupy a significant portion of the
croplands in both eastern and central Africa, representing about 6% of the
cropland.

Middle East

The dominant crop in the Middle East is wheat, cultivated from Turkey in the
west to Iran in the east and along the Mediterranean coast, briefly interrupted
by a combination of barley and wheat in Syria. Winter wheat and barley are
planted mid-September through December and harvested April through
August. With a far smaller proportion (7% of the cropland) pulses are the third
major crop in the Middle East, cultivated in the summer together with maize in
northern Turkey, with cotton along the Turkey-Syria border, and with
sunflowers in western Turkey.

Asia

Rice dominates this region with 24% of the cropland. The Asian rice belt
stretches from India and Nepal on the west to Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan
on the east, from the Yangtze River in the north to Timor in the south. This
area receives ample precipitation from the monsoons. Throughout this region,
farmers plant a single crop of rice in April and May and harvest it in August
through October; however, several sub-regions plant multiple crops of rice. Rice
is double cropped in southeastern China, along the final stretches of the Xun
Xi River, throughout most of Indochina, in the eastern half of India and the
Ganges floodplain, and on the island of Java. Throughout parts of Bangladesh,
in the Ganges-Brahmaputra floodplain, three crops of rice are cultivated. This
large crop belt is dominated almost exclusively by rice, but there is a large
number of diverse secondary crops: wheat, maize, groundnuts, and sugar cane
in China; maize, cassava and pulses in Indochina; wheat in Nepal; wheat,
pulses, and groundnuts in India; and maize in Indonesia. With only a slightly
smaller area (19% of the cropland), wheat forms the second largest crop belt in
Asia. This crop is characteristic of the Indus River Valley in Pakistan, the
Huang He River Valley in China, and most of Central Asia with the exception of
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and the southern parts of Kazakhstan. In Pakistan
and northwestern India, winter wheat is planted October through December
and harvested March through May. In the Huang He River Valley, spring wheat
is planted in March and April and harvested in mid-July through mid- August,
but winter wheat accounts for 85–90% of the wheat and is planted mid-
September through October and harvested in June. In Kazakhstan and the
Russian oblasts north of it, winter wheat is planted in September and
harvested mid-July through August, but spring wheat is the larger crop and is
planted in May and harvested mid- August through September. Unlike in the
Asian rice belt, secondary crops are far fewer in the wheat belt. In the Indus
River Valley, the major secondary crop is cotton, in the Huang He River Valley
it is maize, and in Kazakhstan and the Russian oblasts north of it the major
secondary crop is barley. In Asia, maize is grown in small pockets of
dominance. It is the dominant crop in two of the northeastern Chinese
provinces of Jilin and Liaoning. To the north, this area transitions into a maize-
wheat-soybean area and then into a soybean-maize-wheat area, while to the
west, it progresses into a wheat-maize and later into a wheat cultivation area.
The secondary crop throughout this area is rice. China has another maize
pocket in the southern province of Yunnan; this stands alone in the middle of
the Asian rice belt, and the secondary crop here is wheat. Finally, together with
rice, maize forms the dominant crop combination in the Philippines, where
cassava and sugarcane compete for third and fourth place. While for Asia as a
whole, maize represents 7% of the cropland, this crop is one of the top five only
in East and Southeast Asia.
Together with rice and wheat, pulses form a dominant crop complex in western
India. In Asia as a whole, they represent 6% of the cropland, but in India, this
proportion is 12%. Here they are the third most important major crop after rice
and wheat, and the area they cover is about half that of rice and about equal to
the area of wheat. Pulses are also the secondary crop in Myanmar and a
tertiary crop in North Korea and several southern Russian oblasts. Several
other crops form a number of small crop belts. Potatoes dominate in far
northeastern Russia, barley is the most dominant crop in parts of southeastern
Kazakhstan, a combination of cotton and wheat dominates Uzbekistan, and oil
palm fruit stands out in Malaysia. India alone has the most diverse
combination of crop belts. Groundnuts stand out in Gujarat; millet in Gujarat
and Rajasthan; a combination of pulses, rice, and wheat exists in Madhya
Pradesh, with the agriculture of the rest of this state being a mixture of more
than three crops; sorghum dominates the state of Maharashtra; while rice
spreads along the southern and eastern coast.

Australia and New Zealand

The agriculture of this region closely resembles that of the other temperate
regions of the world. Wheat dominates Australia, it is interrupted only briefly
by a combination of wheat and barley in the area around Adelaide. Winter
wheat here is planted May through July and harvested October through
December. In the western portion of the Australian wheat belt, pulses are the
most prominent secondary crop, while barley is the secondary crop in the
eastern portions. Winter barley is also the most dominant crop in New Zealand,
forming its own belt there; it is planted April through June, and harvested
November through January. Wheat is the secondary crop in New Zealand.
Pulses are the third crop category with a significant enough proportion to be
included here (11%).
Geographic Distribution of Major Crops Around the World
 PRE TEST (Module II-Lesson 1 and 2)
Multiple Choice. Read the statements carefully and choose the best answer among the
choices.
1. The distinguishing character of imparipinnate leaf is that _________.
a. Leaflets are large c. Rachis is terminated by an unpaired odd leaflet
b. Rachis is strong d. All leaflets are borne in pairs
2. The ovary is half inferior in _______.
a. Guava b. Peach c. Cucumber d. Cotton
3. Which one of the following statements is correct?
a. Flower of tulip is a modified shoot c. In tomato, fruit is capsule
b. Seeds of orchids have oil-rich endosperms d. Placentation in primrose is
basal
4. The ‘eyes’ of the potato tuber are______
a. axillary buds b. root buds c. flower buds d. shoot buds
5. The adventitious root which arises from the stem, penetrates into the soil, and
helps support the stem is called_____.
a. prop root b. stilt root c. climbing root d. clinging root
6. The fruit is chambered, developed from inferior ovary and has seeds with
succulent testa in:
a. cucumber b. pomegranate c. orange d. guava
7. The layer of meristematic cells at the tip of the plant root, which continually
cuts off new cells to its outer edge is called
a. Procambium b. Calyptrogen c. Ground meristem d. Tunica
8. The most reduced stem is found in _______.
a. Bulb b. Corm c. Rhizome d. Stem tuber
9. The part of the root which grows in length.
a. Root cap b. Zone of elongation c. Meristematic zone d. Zone of maturation
10.The root in mangrove tree is
a. Respiratory b. Tuberous c. Buttress d. Fibrous
11. Which meristem helps in increasing girth?
a. lateral meristem b. primary meristem d. intercalary meristem
c. apical meristem
12.Cork is formed from ________.
a. Xylem b. phloem c. vascular cambium d. cork cambium
13. Pericycle of roots produces
a. mechanical support b. vascular bundles c. lateral roots
d. adventitious roots
14. Cork cambium and vascular cambium are _________.
a. parts of secondary xylem and phloem b. parts of pericycle
c. lateral meristem d. apical meristem
15. Where do the casparian bands occur?
a. epidermis b. pericycle c. endodermis d. phloem
16. Bordered pits are found in___________.
a. sieve cells b. vessel wall c. companion cells d. sieve tube wall
17. A common structural feature of vessel elements and sieve tube elements is
a. thick secondary walls b. pores on lateral walls
c. presence of P protein d. enucleate condition
18. The apical meristem of the root is present
a. only in radicals b. only in tap roots
c. only in adventitious roots d. in all the roots
19. Four radial vascular bundles are found in
a. dicot root b. monocot root c. monocot stem d. dicot stem
20. The periderm includes
a. cork b. cambium c. secondary phloem d. all of these
 MODULE II
ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY OF PLANTS
LESSON 1 ANATOMY OF PLANTS

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

This lesson familiarizes you to the internal structure of plants. You will learn
the building blocks of the plant body and how do they function to make the whole
plant a functioning organism. This lesson helps you to explore plant parts at cellular
or microscopic level.

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

General Anatomical Organization of Plants

Like animals, plant bodies are made up of a variety of cell types that are
organized into tissues. Tissues are organized into organs, and organs function
together within systems. Within this hierarchy of structure, emergent
properties arise at each level. An emergent property is a characteristic or
function that can be found at one level that is not present at lower levels. For
example, an individual cell of a leaf cannot perform all of the functions of the
leaf, but the cells of the leaf collectively perform the function of a leaf.
Therefore, the function of each lower level is best understood in the context of
the system in which it exists. For this reason, this article begins by exploring
the gross anatomical features of a plant and proceeds to examine the anatomy
in progressive detail.

Plants are made up of two organ systems: the shoot system and the root
system. For terrestrial plants the shoot system is above ground and consists of
a number of organs. These include stems, leaves, and flowers. On the other
hand, the root system is most often underground and consists of organs such
as roots, underground stems (tubers), and rhizomes.
Each of these organs performs a different function. Stems are support
structures and mediate the growth of the plant. Shoot tips contain actively
dividing regions called meristems, which produce auxin, a hormone that
regulates the growth and shape of the plant. Leaves are the primary sites of
photosynthesis, so they are the food production centers of the plant. Flowers
are reproductive structures, where eggs and sperm (pollen) are produced and
where pollination and fertilization occur. Roots, tubers, and rhizomes are the
main system for nutrient and water acquisition and storage. All of these organs
are made up of cells that can be categorized into three major tissue types:
dermal, ground, and vascular tissue.

Fig. 1 Major organ systems of the plant body

Fig. 2 Two views of the structure of the root and root meristem.

Plant cell types rise by mitosis from a meristem. A meristem may be defined as a
region of localized mitosis. Meristems may be at the tip of the shoot or root (a type
known as the apical meristem) or lateral, occurring in cylinders extending nearly the
length of the plant. A cambium is a lateral meristem that produces (usually) secondary
growth. Secondary growth produces both wood and cork (although from separate
secondary meristems).
Dermal Tissue
Dermal tissue makes up the outer layers of the plant and contains epidermal cells that
secrete and are coated with a waxy layer. This waxy coating, the cuticle, prevents
excessive water loss from the plant. While the dermal tissue primarily serves a
protective role, it also has a variety of other specialized functions depending on the
particular organ where it is located.
In leaves, dermal tissue contains specialized cells called guard cells that make up
structures called stomata . Stomata facilitate the exchange of gases in the leaf. Carbon
dioxide (CO 2 ) diffuses into the leaf through the stomata for use in photosynthesis,
and oxygen (O 2 ), the waste product of photosynthesis, diffuses out of the leaf
through stomata. Stomata are also crucial for water transport through the xylem .
Stomatal opening results in the evaporation of water from the air spaces of the leaf.
This creates negative water pressure that pulls on the column of water in the xylem.
The evaporation of water from the stomata is the main driving force for water transport
through the water. In roots, epidermal cells have a specialized structure that facilitates
water and nutrient absorption, the main function of the root. Some of the root
epidermal cells have long membranous extensions called root hairs that increase the
absorptive surface area of the root. Root epidermis also interacts with symbiotic fungi
that form mycorrhizae , which increase nutrient absorption.
Ground Tissue
Many different functions are performed by ground tissue including photosynthesis,
storage, and support. Ground tissue makes up the majority of the plant structure and
is composed of three cell types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells.
Parenchyma cells are the least specialized cells in a plant. These cells are responsible
for the production and storage of nutrients. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts
of parenchyma cells in leaves. Parenchyma cells in stems, roots, and fruits have
structures that store starch. Most developing plant cells are structurally similar to
parenchyma cells. During their differentiation, they become specialized in form and
function and lose the potential to divide. Mature parenchyma cells do not usually
divide, but they retain the ability to divide and differentiate into different cell and
tissue types in the event of an injury to the plant.
Collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells provide structural support for the plant.
Collenchyma cells have thick, yet pliable, cell walls. These cells give structural support
to newly formed portions of a plant without restricting growth. Collenchyma cells are
stacked end on end and are oriented in strands just beneath the epidermis of the
young structure. The relatively soft cell wall allows the collenchyma cells to elongate
as the structure grows.
Fig. 3 Diagram of leaf structure. Note the arrangement of tissue layers within the leaf.

Fig. 4 Cross-section of a stained leaf of Syringia.

Fig.5 Lily Parenchyma Cell (cross-section) (TEM x7,210). Note the large nucleus and
nucleolus in the center of the cell, mitochondria and plastids in the cytoplasm.
Fig. 6 Collenchyma cells. Note the thick walls on the collenchyma cells occurring at the
edges of the Medicago stem cross section.
A common type of schlerenchyma cell is the fiber.

Fig. 7 Sclerenchyma cells.

Vascular Tissue
Vascular tissues make up the organs that transport water, minerals , and food
throughout the plant. Vascular tissue can be divided into two functional units. Xylem
transports water and minerals from root to shoot, phloem transports nutrients (such
as sugar and amino acids ) from leaves and other production sites to roots, flowers,
stems, and other tissues that need them (see Table 1). The cells that make up vascular
tissue are unique in their structure. Their specialized characteristics allow them to
transport material through the plant efficiently while providing structural support to
the plant.

Xylem tissue contains two types of cells: tracheids and vessel elements. Like
sclerenchyma, both of these cell types are dead at functional maturity and therefore
lack protoplasm. Tracheids are long, thin cells that have tapered ends. They overlap
on another, and water passes from tracheid to tracheid via small pores. Vessel
elements are shorter and are stacked end to end, forming more of a tube structure.
Water flows in the tube by passing through perforated end walls between cells.

Phloem tissue is made up of two different types of cells: sieve tube members and
companion cells. Sieve tube members are the main conducting cells, and are named
for the sievelike areas along their cell walls through which the phloem sap moves from
cell to cell. Unlike cells of the xylem, sieve tube members are alive at functional
maturity, but do not have nuclei. For this reason, companion cells are closely
associated with sieve tube members. These cells do have nuclei and serve to support
the sieve tube members. The cytoplasm of sieve tube members and companion cells is
connected through numerous pores called plasmodesmata. These pores allow the
companion cells to regulate the content and activity of the sieve tube member's
cytoplasm. Moreover, the companion cells help to load the sieve tube members with
sugar and the other metabolic products that they transport throughout the plant.

Table 1. Differences between xylem and phloem

BASIS FOR
XYLEM PHLOEM
COMPARISON

Meaning Xylem is the complex tissue of Phloem is living tissue, responsible

plants, responsible for transporting for transporting food and other
water and other nutrients to the organic materials.
plants.

Contains Dead cells (parenchyma is the only Mainly contains living cells (fibers
living cells present in the xylem). are the only dead cells in the
phloem).

Comprises of Xylem vessels, fibre and tracheids. Phloem fibers, sieve tubes, sieve
cells, phloem parenchyma and
companion cells.

Found Xylem is located in the centre of the Phloem is located on the outer side
vascular bundle, deep in the plant. of the vascular bundle.

Kind of movement Unidirectional. Bidirectional.

Role Xylem transports only minerals Phloem transports food materials

and waters from the roots. that are prepared by the green
parts of the plants to other parts of
the plant.

Provide mechanical support. Does not provide mechanical

support.
 BASIS FOR
XYLEM PHLOEM
COMPARISON

Other features Xylem is the dead tissues at Phloem is the living tissue, but not
maturity, but no cell contents. with the nucleus.

Xylem often constitutes the bulk of Phloem forms a small part of the
the plant body. plant body.

In xylem, the conducting cells or In phloem, the conducting cells are

tracheary cells are dead. living.

Fig. 8 Cross section of a squash stem showing a vascular bundle: This light micrograph
shows a cross section of a squash (Curcurbita maxima) stem. Each teardrop-shaped
vascular bundle consists of large xylem vessels toward the inside and smaller phloem
cells toward the outside. Xylem cells, which transport water and nutrients from the roots
to the rest of the plant, are dead at functional maturity. Phloem cells, which transport
sugars and other organic compounds from photosynthetic tissue to the rest of the plant,
are living. The vascular bundles are encased in ground tissue and surrounded by
dermal tissue.
Fig. 9 Tracheids and vessel elements: Tracheids (top) and vessel elements (bottom) are
the water conducting cells of xylem tissue.

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/25%3A_Seedless_Plants/
25.4%3A_Seedless_Vascular_Plants/25.4B%3A_Vascular_Tissue
%3A_Xylem_and_PhloemVessel elements
Vessel elements are shorter and wider than tracheids and are connected together
end-on-end. The ends of the cells contain what are known as ‘perforation plates’. The
perforation plates have a number of holes in their cell walls which allows for water to
travel freely between cells.

Xylem and Phloem in Leaves

Photosynthesis in leaves requires a lot of water from the xylem and produces a lot of
sugar for the phloem. The xylem and phloem enter a plant’s leaves via their petiole – a
short stalk that connects a leaf to a branch.
With the exception of lycophytes, veins divide multiple times in a leaf which creates a
good spread of veins and makes it easier to collect sugars and deliver water to
photosynthesizing parts of the leaf. Vascular tissue also provides structural support to
leaves.

Xylem and Phloem in Stems

Xylem and phloem travel entire length of stems in discrete threads called ‘vascular
bundles’. In eudicots, vascular bundles are arranged in a ring within the stem. Each
vascular bundle is orientated with the xylem on the interior and the phloem on the
outside of the xylem.
In monocots, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem rather than
being arranged in a circle.

Xylem and Phloem in Roots

The xylem and phloem are grown within the central section of a root called a ‘stele’. In
eudicots, the xylem usually forms a cross of cells within the stele which runs the
length of the root. Four independent phloem strands grow between each bar of the
xylem cross.
In monocots, the center of the stele is composed of pith. The phloem and xylem form a
weak circular pattern within the pith of the stele. Phloem and xylem grow around the
inner layer of pith with phloem cells on the outside of the xylem.
Vascular bundles from stems meet at the base of the stem to merge with the root stele.

WHAT TO PROCESS?

1.Label the following parts of the dicot root.

2. Use the illustration to answer the questions below.

 a. From which cambium does the outer bark of a woody stem develop?

b. From which cambium does secondary xylem and secondary phloem develop?

c. Which cambium develops from parenchyma cells located between vascular

bundles?

d. From which cells does fascicular cambium develop?

e. Which secondary meristem forms from the fascicular and interfascicular

cambium?

WHAT TO REFLECT AND UNDERSTAND?

1. Differentiate apical, intercalary and lateral meristems. Where can we find
them in the plant body?
2. What are the functions of the dermal tissues of plants?

REFERENCES:
http://www.phschool.com>science>plants
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/the-plant-
body/
https://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/visualizations/examples/48568.html
 MODULE III
PLANT ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY
LESSON 2 PLANT MORPHOLOGY

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

This lesson on plant morphology gives you the needed background information
on the different forms and features of plants and its body parts. This will answer your
queries why do plants have variety of shapes and forms. This basic lesson on plants is
preparatory towards understanding plant growth and development and other more
advanced topics on crop science.

WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?

Morphology: Definition
Morphology – (Morphe = form + logos = study). It deals with the study of forms
and features of different plant organs like roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits
etc. The body of a typical angiospermic plant is differentiated into : an underground
root system and an aerial shoot system. The shoot system consists of stem (including
branches), leaves, flowers and fruits. The roots, stems and leaves are vegetative parts,
while flowers constitute the reproductive part.
ROOT
Radicle comes out/arise from the seed coat in the form of soft structure and move
toward the soil. It develops and forms primary root.
General Characters :
 Roots are non green, underground, (+) geotropic, (–) phototropic and (+)
hydrotropic. Roots do not bear buds. Buds present for vegetative propagation in
sweet potato (Ipomea) and Indian red wood (Dalbergia)
Roots do not bear nodes and internodes. Roots have unicellular root hairs.
Types of Roots

Roots are of two types : Tap root and Adventitious root

Tap root : It develops from radicle and made up of one main branch and other sub
branches. The primary roots and its branches constitute tap root system. e.g. Dicot
roots.
Adventitious roots : In some plants, after sometime of the growth of tap root
which arises from radicle, stops and then roots, develop from other part of plant,
which are branched or unbranched, fibrous or storage, are known as adventitious
roots and constitute fibrous root system. e.g. Monocot roots.

Fig.1 The radicle emerging from the seed, the taproot system and the adventitious or fibrous
system

Regions of Root
Morphologically four distinct regions are present in roots.
1. Root cap : It is terminal structure. It protects tender apex of root.
2. Meristematic zone : Cells of this regions are very small and thin walled. They
divide repeatedly and increase cell number
3. Elongation region : The cells proximal to meristematic zone undergo rapid
elongation and enlargement and are responsible for rapid growth of roots.
4. Maturation region : Cells proximal to region of elongation gradually
differentiate and mature. Root hairs are present in maturation zone.

Modifications of the Root

1. Modified tap root for storage :

􀀎 Fusiform roots : These root are thicker in the middle and tappered on both
ends. In this type of roots both hypocotyl and root help in storage of food. eg.
Radish.
 􀀎 Conical roots : These roots are thicker at their upper side and tapering at
basal end. eg. Carrot.
􀀎 Napiform : These roots become swollen and spherical at upper end and
tappered like a thread at their lower end. eg. Turnip (Brassica rapa),
Sugarbeet
􀀎 Tuberous root : Such roots do not have regular shape and get swollen &
fleshy at any portion of roots. eg. Mirabilis.

2. Nodulated root : Nodules are formed on branches of roots by nitrogen fixing

bacteria, (Rhizobium). eg. Plants of leguminosae family (Papilionatae) – Pea.

3. Respiratory roots : Halophyte or mangrove grow in oxygen deficient marshy area.

Some branches of taproot in these plant grow vertically & comes out from
soil. These roots are called pneumatophores through which air entered
inside the plant. eg. Rhizophora, Heritiera, Sonaratia and other mangrove
plant.

Modification of adventitious roots :

1. Storage adventitious roots
a. Tuberous root : When food is stored in these roots, they become swollen and
form a bunch. eg. Sweet potato (Ipomea batata)
b. Fasciculated – Roots arise in bunch (cluster) from lower node of the stem and
become fleshy eg. Dahlia, Asparagus.
c. Nodulose : In this type, tips of roots swell up. eg. Melilotus, Curcuma amoda.
d. Beaded or moniliform : When root swells up like a bead at different places
after a regular interval. eg. Vitis, Momordica (Bitter gourd), Portulaca.
e. Annulated : Roots having series of ring like swellings eg. Psychrotia
2. Stilt roots or brace roots : When root arises from lower nodes and enter in soil
obliquely, known as stilt roots eg. Maize, Sugarcane, Pandanus (screwpine)
3. Prop root or pillar roots : when root arises from branches of plant and grows
downward towards soil. It functions as supporting stem for the plant. eg.
Banyan.
4. Butteress root – Such roots appear from the basal part of stem and spread in
different directions in the soil. eg. Ficus, Bombax , Terminalia. It is a
characteristic feature of tropical rain forest.
5. Climbing roots – These roots arise from nodes and helps the plant in climbing.
eg. Money plant (Pothos), Betel, Black pepper, Techoma.
6. Foliar roots or Epiphyllous roots – When roots arise from leaf they are called as
foliar roots. eg. Bryophyllum, Bignonia.
7. Sucking or haustorial roots or parasitic roots : In parasitic plant roots enter in
the stem of host plant to absorbed nutrition from host. eg. Dendrophthoe,
Cuscuta, Viscum.

8. Assimilatory roots : The aerial roots of Tinospora and submerged roots of Trapa
(Water chestnut) become green and synthesize food. Podostemon also has
green assimilatory roots.
9. Hygroscopic roots : These are found in epiphytes, specially in orchids and help
in absorption of moisture from the atmosphere using special tissue called
velamen. eg. Orchids, Banda
10. Contractile roots : They shrink 60 – 70% of the original length and bring
underground organ at proper depth in the soil e.g., corm of Crocus (saffron),
Fresia.
11. Root thorns : These are hard, thick and pointed thorns e.g. Pothos armatus.
􀀎 Reproductive roots : These are fleshy, adventitious roots used for vegetative
reproduction e.g., sweet potato (Ipomea batata), Dahlia.
 􀀎 Leaf roots : In Salvinia, one leaf of each node modifies into root like structure
for balancing the plant in water.

STEM

Stem is a part of plant which lies above from surface of soil i.e. it shows negative
geotropic growth. It has nodes and internodes. Branches, leaf, flower bud and bracts
are developed from nodes. Stem arises from plumule.

Forms of Stem

1. Caudex : It is unbranched, erect, cylindrical stout stem and marked with

scars of fallen leaves. Crown of leaves are present at the top of plant. eg.:
Palm
2. Culm : Stem is jointed with solid nodes & hollow internodes. eg. Bamboo
(Graminae)
3. Excurrent : The branches arise from the main stem in acropetal succession
and the tree assumes a cone like appearance e.g. Pinus, Eucalyptus,
Casuarina, etc.
4. Decurrent (Deliquescent) : The lateral branches grow more vigorously and
outcompetes the main trunk, giving a dome-shaped appearance, e.g., mango
(Mangifera indica), shishem (Dalbergia sissoo) and banyan (Ficus
bengalensis).
Types and Modification of Stem
1. Aerial stems (Epiterranean stem) :
It may be reduced, erect and weak.
􀀎 Reduced – Stem reduced to a disc. eg., Radish, Carrot, Turnip.
􀀎 Erect stem - It is strong and upright e.g., maize, wheat, mango.
􀀎 Weak stems – These are thin, soft and weak and need support. They can be
upright or prostrate.
✧ Creepers – The stem creeps on earth and the roots arise at the nodes,
e.g., Grasses, Strawberry,
Oxalis.
✧ Traliers – The stem creeps on the ground, but the roots do not arise at
the nodes. They may be of two types :
􀂊 Prostrate or procumbent – The stem creeps on ground totally, e.g.,
Evolvulus, Tribulus.
􀂊 Decumbent – When prostrate stem projects its tip, e.g., Portulaca,
Linderbergia.
✧ Lianas (Stem climber). Woody perennial climbers found in tropical rain
forests are lianas. They twin themselves around tall trees to secure
sunlight, e.g., Hiptage, Bauhinia vahlii (Phanera).
✧ Climbers – Plants are with long weak stem and have organs of
attachment to climb the object. They may be of following type .
 􀂊 Rootlet climbers – Roots produced at nodes help in climbing e.g., Tecoma,
Pothos, Piper betal (pan).
􀂊 Hook climbers – In Bougainvillea, Duranta and Carrisa, the thron is
modification of axillary vegetative bud which helps in climbing. In Bignonia,
terminal leaflet is converted into hook.
􀂊 Tendril climbers – Tendrils are thread like structure which help the plants in
climbing. Tendrils are modifications of :
􀂃 Entire leaf e.g. Lathyrus sativus.
􀂃 Leaflet e.g. Pisum sativum
􀂃 Petiole e.g. Clematis, Nepenthes.
􀂃 Stipule e.g. Smilex.
􀂃 Leaf apex e.g. Gloriosa
􀂃 Inflorescence e.g. Antigonon.
􀂃 Stem e.g., Vitis (grapevines), gourds, Passiflora (modified axillary bud).
✧ Twiners – The stem body twines around the support without any special
organ of attachment. e.g., Cuscuta, Dolichos.
2. Sub-aerial modification :
a. Runner – When stem grows and spread on the surface of soil. Roots are
developed at lower side and leaves from upper side from node eg. Cynodon
dactylon (Doob grass), Oxalis.
b. Stolon – In it branches are small and stem condensed and grow in all
direction. After sometime, of growing, their apical region comes out from the
soil. eg. Fragaria (Wild strawberry), Jasmine Peppermint.
c. Sucker – In it the main stem grow in the soil horizontally and branches
develop obliquely from nodes above the soil, eg. Mint, Pineapple,
Chrysanthemum.
d. Offset – A lateral branch with short internode and each node bearing a
rossette of leaves and tuft of roots at base. eg. Pistia, Eichhornea.
These modifications are also involved in vegetative reproduction.

3. Underground modification :
This type of modification occurs generally for food storage and vegetative
propagation.
a. Tuber – The tips of underground branches become swollen in the soil. Eyes
are found on then which are axillary buds and covered with scaly leaves. eg.
Potato, Helianthus tuberosus
b. Rhizome – It is fleshy and horizontally stem found below in soil. Small nodes
and internodes are found which are covered by scaly leaves. eg. Ginger,
Turmeric, Canna, Water lily, Banana.
 c. Corm – It is condensed structure which grow vertically under the soil
surface. They are having spherical node and inter node eg. Colocasia,
Alocasia, Zaminkand, Saffron, Gladiolus, Colchicum
d. Bulb – This stem is reduced and has disc like structure and surrounds with
numerous fleshly scaly leaves. Many roots arise from its base. Food is stored
in flashy leaves. They show apical growth eg. Onion, Garlic.

4. Special stem modification :

a. Phylloclade – It is green photosynthetic flattened or rounded succulent stem
with leaves either feebly developed or modified into spines e.g., Opuntia,
Casuarina, Euphorbia, Cactus.
b. Thorn – It is modification of axillary bud, e.g., Bougainvillea, Duranta,
Carissa. Thorns of Alhagi possess flowers, while thorns of Duranta bears
leaves.
c. Cladode – Phylloclade usually having one or two internode long & succulent
is called cladode, e.g., Asparagus, Ruscus.
 d. Stem tendrill – it is a leafless, spirally coiled structure found in climbers. It
may be a modification of Axillary bud, e.g. Passiflora or terminal bud e.g.,
Vitis.
e. Bulbils – A condensed , axillary fleshy bud is called bulbils. It helps in
vegetative reproduction. eg., Dioscorea, Globba, Agave, Oxalis.

Functions of the Stem

The main function of the stem is spreading out branches bearing leaves, flowers
and fruits. It conducts water, minerals and photosynthates. Some stems perform the
function of storage of food, support, protection and of vegetative propagation.

LEAF

The leaf is a lateral generally flattened structure borne on the stem. The leaves develop
from the nodes. Their main function is photosynthesis and food making, axillary buds
are found in its axil. All the leaves of a plant is known as phyllome. Axillary bud later
develops into a branch. Leaves originated from shoot apical meristem (SAM) and are
arranged in acropetal order.

Fig. 3 Parts of the Leaf

Leaf is divided into 3 main parts:

1. Leaf base (Hypopodium) –

✧ Leaves are attached to stem by leaf base.
 ✧ In some plants, leaf base becomes swollen and is called pulvinus which is
responsible for sleep
movement e.g., Cassia, mimosa, bean.
✧ In some plants, leaf base expands into sheath (Sheathing leaf base), e.g.,
grasses and banana
(monocots).
✧ When the leaf base partially encloses the stem, it is called semi amplexicaul
e.g., Prickly poppy,
Calotropis procera (Madar).
✧ It completely encloses the stem, it is called amplexicaul e.g., Sonchus,
Polygonum.
2. Petiole (Mesopodium) –
✧ The part of leaf connecting the lamina with the branch of stem. Petiole help to
hold the blade to light.
✧ In Eichhornia petiole swell and in citrus it is winged.
✧ Petiole is modified in tendrils in Nepenthes.
✧ In Australian acacia petiole is modified in phyllode.
✧ Long thin flexible petiole allow leaf blade to flutter in air, thereby cooling the
leaf and bringing fresh
air to leaf.
3. Lamina (Epipodium) – It is a broad and flattened part of leaf. Its main functions
are photosynthesis
and transpiration. Shape of lamina are :
✧ Acicular – Lamina is long and pointed, like a needle. eg. Pinus
✧ Lanceolate – In this type lamina is pointed or narrower at the ends while
broader in the middle. eg. Bamboo, Nerium
✧ Linear – The lamina is long and narrow having parallel margins. eg. Grass
✧ Ovate – In this type lamina is egg-shaped having broad base with slight
narrow top. eg. Ocimum, Banyan, China rose.
✧ Cordate – Its shape is like a heart. eg. Betel.
✧ Oblong – Long and broad lamina. eg. Banana
✧ Sagittate – The lamina is triangular in shape. eg. Sagittaria
✧ Spathulate – The lamina is broad spoon shaped. eg. Calendula
✧ Orbicular or Rotund – In this types the lamina is spherical. eg. Lotus.
✧ Elliptical or Oval – In this type the middle part of lamina is broad while the
ends are narrow and oval. eg. Guava.
✧ Oblique – In this types midrib divides, lamina into two unequal halves. eg.
Bignonia, Neem.
Venation of Lamina

The arrangement of veins and veinlets in leaves (Lamina) is known as venation. It is of

2 types:
1. Reticulate : It is found in dicots. Exception – Calophyllum, Eryngium. It has
parallel venation.
2. Parallel : It is found in monocots. Exception – Smilax, Dioscorea, Alocasia,
Colocasia. It has reticulate venation.

Types of Leaf
Simple and Compound Leaf :
1. Simple Leaf – A leaf which may be incised to any depth, but not down to the
midrib or petiole, then this type of leaf called simple leaf. eg. Mango,
Chinarose, Ficus, etc.
2. Compound leaf – A leaf in which the leaf blade is incised up to the midrib or
petiole, thus dividing it into several small parts, known as leaflets. This type
of leaf is known as compound leaf.
It is of two types –
a. Pinnately compound leaf – In this type of leaf mid rib is known as rachis.
Leaflets are arranged on both sides of rachis. eg. Neem.
It is of following types -

✧ Unipinnate – In this type of leaf, division occurs only once and leaflets
are directly attached on both sides of rachis.
 ✧ Bipinnate – A twice pinnate compound leaf eg. Acacia, Gulmohar,
Mimosa.

✧ Tripinnate – A thrice pinnate compound leaf eg. Moringa.

✧ Decompound – A compound leaf, which is more than thrice pinnate.

eg. Carrot, Coriander.
b. Palmate compound leaf – In this type incision of leaf are directed from
leaf margin to apex of petiole and all leaflets are attached on the upper
end of petiole.
It is of following types -
✧ Unifoliate – When single leaflet is found. eg. Lemon
✧ Bifoliate – When two leaflets are present. eg. Bauhinia, Regnelidium,
Bignonia.
✧ Trifoliate – When three leaflets are attached. eg. Oxalis, Aegle, Trifolium
✧ Tetrafoliate – When four leaflets are attached to the petiole. eg.
Marsilea.
✧ Multifoliate – when more than four leaflet are found, then leaf is called
multifoliate palmate compound leaf. eg. Silkcotton.

Phyllotaxy-The arrangement of leaves in the branch.

It is of following type –
􀀎 Alternate or spiral – Single leaf arising at each node. eg. Cyprus rotandus,
Chinarose, mustard & Sunflower,.
􀀎 Opposite – Leaves occuring in pairs at the node, they may be –

✧ Decussate : Leaves that stands at right angle to next upper or lower

pair eg. Calotropis, Mussaenda.

✧ Superposed : Successive pairs of leaves stand directly over a pair in

the same plane eg. Psidium (guava), Ixora.
􀀎 Whorled – More than two leaves at each node eg. Nerium, Alstonia.
Heterophylly – It is the occurrence of more than one type of leaves on the same plant.
It is of three types –
􀀎 Developmental Heterophylly : Leaves of different forms and shape occur at
different period or places on the same plant eg. Mustard, Sonchus, Eucalyptus.
􀀎 Environmental Heterophylly : It is aquatic adaptation which is commonly
found in rooted emergent hydrophytes. In this, submerged leaves differ from the
floating and aerial leaves. eg. Limnophila, Heterophylla, Ranunculus aquatiles,
Sagittaria.
􀀎 Habitual Heterophylly : Due to habit mature leaves differ in their shape and
incissions eg. Artocarpus (Jack fruit).

MODIFICATION OF LEAVES
􀀎 Leaf tendril – In it, whole leaf is modified into thin thread like structure which
is called leaf tendril eg. Lathyrus aphaca (wild pea).
􀀎 Leaflet tendril – When leaflet is modified into tendril like structure than it is
called leaflet tendril. eg. Pisum sativum (Garden pea), Lathyrus odoratus (sweet pea)
􀀎 Leaf spine – Leaves or any part of leaflet are modified into pointed spine. eg.
Asparagus, Opuntia, Aloe, Argemone.
􀀎 Leaf scale – In it, leaves become thin, dry and form a membrane or paper like
structure and serve to protect axillary buds as in Ficus and Tamarix, Ruscus,
Casurina.
􀀎 Leaf pitcher – Leaves of some plants are modified to pitcher shape. eg.
Nepenthes, Dischidia.
􀀎 Leaf bladder – In some plant , leaves are modified into bladder like structure
eg. Utricularia.
􀀎 Leaf Hooks – In some plants terminal leaflets are modified into curved hooks
for helping the plant in climbing. eg. Argemone, Opuntia, Aloe, Cat's nail
(Bignonia unguis – cati)
􀀎 Phyllode – In its, petiole becomes flat structure and function as normal leaf.
eg. Australian acacia.
 􀀎 Flashy leaves – In onion and garlic food storing flashy leaves are present.

INFLORESCENCE
The arrangement of flower on floral axis is called inflorescence.

1. Racemose – In this type of inflorescence the main axis continues to grow and
does not terminate in a flower and give off flower laterally in acropetal
manner where old flowers are arranged toward base and young flowers are
at tip. When peduncle is broad then flowers are centripetally arranged.
2. Cymose- In this type of inflorescence, the peduncle terminate in a flower. In
it the older flowers are present at tip and young buds are arranged towards
base. This arrangement is called basipetal succession.
Special Type of Inflorescence

􀀎 Cyathium – The bracts or the involucre become fused to form a cup

shaped structure on the margin. In the central part of cup shaped structure
a single female flowers is found, which mature earlier. Due to the growth of
pedicel this come out from the cup shaped structure. Female flower are
surrounded by large no. of small male flowers. The male flower, which lie
toward centre mature earlier than the flower which are towards periphery.
This inflorescence is found in Euphorbiaceae family like Euphorbia,
Poinsettia, Pedilanthus.
􀀎 Verticillaster - A cluster of subsessile or sessile 3-9 flowers born on a
dichasial cyme ending in monochasial cyme (scorpioid) in the form of
condensed whorl on either side of the node. The opposite clusters give the
appearance of whorl or verticel due to over crowding. The verticels are
further
arranged in a racemose manner eg. Ocimum (Tulsi), Salvia. Characteristic
inflorescence of Labiateae family.
􀀎 Hypanthodium – In it peduncle is modified in narrow cup like structure.
At the base of cup female flowers develop while towards mouth male flower
develops. All three types of flowers are present in this inflorescence. eg.
Banyan, Peepal, Ficus species.

FLOWER

Flower is defined as highly condensed and modified reproductive shoot. The part from
where flower arise is called bract. Flower has short or long flower stalk which is called
pedicel. The upper part of pedicel is swollen, spherical shaped or conical which is
called thalamus / Receptacle. Floral leaves are present on it.

In a flower, there are 4 types of floral leaves.

✧ Sepal ✧ Petal ✧ Stamen ✧ Carpel
SOME WORDS RELATED TO FLOWER
􀀎 Complete Flower – When calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium are
present.
􀀎 Incomplete Flower – Flower with one of the four whorl missing.
􀀎 Bisexual Flower – Both gynoecium and androecium present in the same
flower.
􀀎 Unisexual Flower – Androecium (staminate flower) or gynoecium (Pistillate
flower) any one of them are present in the flower.
􀀎 Monoecious Plant – When both male and female flowers are present on the
same plant. eg. Cocos, Ricinus, Colocasia, Zea, Acalypha.
 􀀎 Dioecious Plant – When male and female flowers are present on separate
plant eg. Mulberry, Papaya.
􀀎 Polygamous Plant – When unisexual (male or female), bisexual and neuter
flowers are present on the same plant eg. Mango, Polygonum.
􀀎 Monocarpic Plant – The plant which produces flowers and fruits only once in
life eg. Pea, Mustard, Bamboo, Agave.
􀀎 Polycarpic Plant – The plants which produces flowers and fruits many times
in life, eg. Pear, Mango,
􀀎 Achlamydeous Flower – Flowers are naked without sepals and petals eg.
piperaceae.
􀀎 Monochlamydeous Flower : Only one accessory whorl is present
(Perianth) eg. Polygonaceae, Liliaceae.
􀀎 Dichlamydeous Flower : Both accessory whorls present in flower.
􀀎 Hemicyclic or Spirocyclic Flower : Some of the floral parts are in circles and
some are spirally arranged. eg. Ranunculaceae.
􀀎 Cauliflory :Production of flowers on old stem from dormant buds eg.
Artrocarpus, Ficus.
􀀎 Symmetry of flower – If the floral leaves are cyclic arranged in a flower, then it is
called cyclic flower. If floral leaves are spirally arranged then it is called
spiral flower. Floral symmetry is of three type -
􀀎 Actinomorphic / Radial / Regular – When flower is divided by any
vertical plane into two equal halves, then it is called actinomorphic flower
eg. Mustard, China rose, Datura, Chilli. Zygomorphic / Bilateral – when
the flower is divided into two equal halves only by one vertical plane, then it
is called zygomorphic flower eg. Pea, Bean, Gulmohur, Cassia.
If it is divided into two equal halves, from median plane, then it is called
medianly zygomorphic, eg. Ocimum (Tulsi)
But if it is divided into two equal halves, by lateral plane then it is called
laterally zygomorphic.
􀀎 Asymmetrical / irregular – When the flower cannot be divided into two
equal halves from any plane, then it is called asymmetrical flower. eg.
Canna.
 FRUIT

Fertilized and ripened ovary is fruit. A fruit consist of (i) Pericarp (fruit wall), (ii) seed.
The seeds are protected inside fruit. But in some fruits, the seeds are not found like in
grapes, banana and such type of fruits are seedless fruit. If a fruit is formed without
fertilization of the ovary it is known as parthenocarpic fruit.
Parts of the Fruit. a) mango b) coconut

Pericarp : After ripening, the ovary wall change into pericarp. This pericarp may by
thick and fleshy or thick and hard or thin and soft. Pericarp is differentiated in 3
layers
􀀎 Epicarp :- It is the outermost layer, which is also called rind
􀀎 Mesocarp :- It is the middle layer.
􀀎 Endocarp : It forms the innermost layer.
True Fruit : When the fruit is developed only from the ovary, the fruit is called as true
fruit. eg. Mango, Coconut, Zizyphus
False Fruit or Pseudocarp : In some fruits, in place of ovary, some other parts of
flower like thalamus, inflorescence, calyx are modified to form a part of fruit.
These types of fruit are called false fruits. eg. Apple, Strawberry, Pear.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUIT

Fruits are divided in three groups ✧ Simple ✧ Aggregate ✧ Composite

1. SIMPLE FRUIT :- These fruit develop from monocarpellary ovary or
multicarpellary syncarpous ovary. Only one fruit is formed by the gynoecium.
Simple fruits are of two types – ✧ Fleshy fruit ✧ Dry fruit
a. Fleshy Fruit. These fruit develop from superior or inferior syncarpous
gynoecium. These may be unilocular or multilocular. These fruits are
indehiscent. Dispersal of seeds occur after pericarp is destroyed. Fleshy
fruits are of following types :
✧ Drupe fruit. These fruit develops from mono or multicarpellary,
syncarpous, superior ovary. In these fruits endocarp is hard and stony so
these fruits are also called stony fruits. eg. Mango, coconut almond, Peach
walnut, plum. Brachysclereids are present in endocarp. In mango edible
fleshy part is mesocarp and the part where seed is protected is called as
endocarp. The rind of Almond and walnut are endocarp and their edible part
is seed. In coconut epicarp is hard and thin while mesocarp is thick and
consist of hard fibers The endocarp is hard and seed is protected in it.
Endosperm is edible in coconut.
✧ Berry - These fruits develop from mono or multicarpellary syncarpous
ovary. Ovary may be superior or inferior, Placentation is axile or parietal. In
these epicarp is thin and seeds are embedded in fleshy part. Initially seeds
are attached with placenta of fruit but after maturation these seeds are
detached with placenta and are spread randomly in fleshy part.
 􀁹 Plants with superior ovary = Tomato, Grapes, Brinjal.
􀁹 Plants with inferior ovary = Guava, Banana
Date palm is one seeded berry. In it pericarp is divided into epicarp,
mesocarp and endocarp. Epicarp is thin and soft while mesocarp is thick
and fleshy and endocarp is thin like a membrane. Which is attached with
seed.
Arecanut is one seeded fibrous fruit berry. When its thick fibrous layer is
removed then seed comes out which is hard.
✧ Pepo - These fruit develops from tricarpellary, syncarpous and inferior
ovary. This fruit is unilocular and have parietal placentation. These fruits
are fleshy and spongy. sometime fruits are bitter in taste due to presence of
tetracyclic triterpine in flashy pulp. eg. fruits of Cucurbitaceae family.
✧ Pome - This fruit develops from bi or multicarpellary syncarpous
inferior ovary. The rind and fleshy pulp are made up of thalamus. The main
part of ovary is hard and dry and remain inside the fruit. Seeds are present
in it. eg. Apple, Pear.

✧ Hesperidium - This fruit develops from multicarpellary, syncarpous,

superior ovary. This fruit is specialy found in plants of Rutaceae family. eg.
Orange, Lemon, Citrus fruit. Epicarp of these is made up of thick rind which
is leathery and many oil glands are found in it. Mesocarp is white fibrous
structure which is attached with epicarp. Membranous endocarp projects
inward and form many chambers. Many glandular hairs are present on the
inner side of endocarp. These glandular hairs are only edible parts.
✧ Balausta - It is a multilocular multiseeded fruit, which develops from
inferior ovary. Its pericarp is hard. Persistent calyx is arranged in the form of
crown. Seeds are irregularly arranged on placenta. Endocarp is hard. Testa
is fleshy. This is the edible part of fruit. eg. Pomegranate (Punica granatum).
✧ Amphisarca - This fruit is multicarpellary and multichambered which
develops from superior ovary. Pericarp is hard and fleshy placenta is found
in them. The inner part of pericarp and placenta is edible part of fruit. Testa
of seed is mucilegenous eg. wood apple (Aegle marmelos), elephant apple.
b. Simple Dry Fruit - Pericarp of simple dry fruit is hard and dry and not
differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Such fruits are called
dry fruit. Simple dry fruits can be divided into following three groups :
✧ Indehiscent ✧ Dehiscent ✧ Schizocarpic
􀀎 Indehiscent fruits - These simple dry fruits are generally of small size
and single seeded pericarp does not rupture even after maturity.
✧ Cypsela : It is a small, single seeded dry fruit which develops from
bicarpellary, syncarpous inferior ovary. Pericarp and seed coat are free
from each other. In these fruits a bunch of hair is attached with the fruit
which is known as Pappus. Pappus helps in fruit dispersal. eg.
Compositae
family plants.
✧ Caryopsis : These are small, single seeded dry fruits. It develop
from monocarpellary, superior ovary. Pericarp of these fruits is fused
with the seed coat and form a joint surface. These fruits are present in
family gramineae. Wheat grain or rice grain is a fruit.
✧ Achene : These are single seeded fruit which develops from
monocarpellary superior ovary. In it, pericarp is free from the seed coat
eg. Clematis, Mirabilis, Boerhaavia
✧ Nut : This is a single seeded fruit which develop from
monocarpellary syncarpous superior ovary. In it pericarp is hard eg.
Quercus (oak), Anacardium occidentale (Cashewnut) Trapa, (Water
chest-nut), Litchi.
In Litchi epicarp and mesocarp is fused and give leathery apperence.
Endocarp is membrane like thin. Outer seed coat grows forward and
forms an additional coat around the seed which is called as aril. In
mature fruit, this aril is fleshy and is only edible part.
✧ Samara : These are dry indehiscent one seeded feathery fruit. It
develops from bi or tri carpellary, syncarpous and superior ovary. The
main character of these fruits is wing like structure develops from its
pericarp which helps in dispersal. eg. Holoptelia.
 In Shorea robusta wing develops from calyx instead pericarp and these
fruit are called samaroid.

􀀎 Dehiscent Fruits : After ripening pericarp are ruptured and seeds are
dispersed outside.
✧ Legume or pods : These fruits develop from monocarpellary,
unilocular, superior ovary. It is generally long and multiseeded fruit.
Dehiscense of fruit occurs at both sutures i.e. Dorsal and ventral side.
Dehiscence start from apex and reaches to basal part. eg. Pea, Beans.
When only one or two seeds are present in fruit, then it is also called as
pod.
✧ Follicle : It is also multiseeded fruit which develops from superior
unilocular, monocarpellary ovary but the dehiscence of it occur only at
ventral suture. eg. Asclepias, Rauwolfia, Vinca, Michelia (Champa),
Delphinium.
✧ Siliqua : This fruit develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous superior
ovary with parietal placentation. Dehiscence occurs at both dorsal and
ventral suture and starts from lower part and proceeds upward. Due to
formation of false septum ovary become bilocular. On false septum,
seeds
are attached, This type of fruit is found in Cruciferae family. eg. Mustard.
✧ Silicula : A short broad siliqua is known as Silicula. It is also found
in Cruciferae family. eg. Candytuft (lberis amara), Capsella,
✧ Capsule : This is dry multichambered and multiseeded fruit and
develop from multicarpellary syncarpus, superior ovary. In it, Axile
placentation is found and dehiscence occurs by various methods.
Poricidal (Poppy), loculicidal (cotton), septifragal (Datura), septicidal
(Lineseed).
􀀎 Schizocarpic fruit : It is a multiseeded fruit. After ripening, it is devided into
mericarp and seeds come out after destruction of pericarp. The fruits develop
from mono or bi or multicarpellary superior or inferior ovary. The mericarp
contains one or two seeds.
✧ Lomentum : It develops like legume. Fruits are constricted or divided
in one seeded mericarp, after maturity these are separated with each
other. e.g Tamarind, Cassia fistula, Mimosa pudica, Archis hypogea,
Desmodium.
✧ Cremocarp : It is a double seeded fruit and develops from bicarpellary,
syncarpous, inferior ovary. On maturation, it dehisces from apex to base
in such a way that two mericarp forms and each contain one seed. These
mericarp are attached with carpophore. Carpophore is the extended part
of receptacle. eg. Coriander, Cuminum, Foeniculum.
✧ Regma : This fruit develops from tri to pentacarpellary, syncarpous
superior ovary. In it three locules are present and its fruit is breaks into
three one seeded part. Each part is known as coccus. At the outer end of
pericarp, spines are found. eg. Euphorbiaceae family, Castor has three
cocci. Geranium has 5 cocci.
✧ Carcerulus : It is a dry fruit which develops from multi carpellary or
bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. Number of mericarp is more
than locules because of formation of false septum. It divides into four one
seeded locules. eg. Ocimum (Basil), Salvia. In hollyhock and abutilon
(family malvaceae), the no. of locules is more than four.
✧ Utricle : It is a single seeded fruit which has thin membrane. It
dehiscence generally from cap. It develops from bicarpellary, unilocular,
syncarpous, superior ovary. eg. Achyranthes, Amaranthus.
✧ Double Samara : It develop from bicarpellary syncarpous superior
ovary. Pericarp develops into two wings. On maturation it divides in two
single seeded mericarp eg . samara , acer.
2. AGGREGATE FRUIT -These fruits develop from multicarpellary apocarpous
ovary. Because in apocarpous ovary, each carpel is separated from one
another, therefore it forms a fruitlet. These fruits are made up of bunch of
fruitlets which
is known as etaerio.
􀀎 Etaerio of follicles : Each fruitlet is a follicle. eg. Calotropis, Catharanthus,
Magnolia.
􀀎 Etaerio of achenes : In this aggregate fruit, each fruitlet is an achene. eg.
Rananculus, Strawberry, Rose, Lotus
􀀎 Etaerio of berries : It is an aggregate of small berries. eg. polyalthia, Annona
squamosa (Custardapple). In etaerio of Anona all the berries are
arranged densely on thalamus.
􀀎 Etaerio of drupes : In this type of fruit, many small drupes develop from
different carpels. eg. Raspberry

Etaerio of follicles Etaerio of achenes Etaerio of berries Etaerio of

drupes

3. COMPOSITE FRUIT- All composite fruits are false fruits. This type of fruit
differ from aggregate fruit that in place of single ovary many ovaries and other
floral parts combine together to form fruit. In composite fruits, generally whole
inflorescence is modified into fruit. These are of two types.
􀀎 Sorosis : This fruit develops from spike, spadix or cartkin inflorescence.
Peduncle become thick spongy and woody. eg. Jack fruit, Pandanus
(screwpine), Pineapple In jack fruit (Kathal) pistillate flowers are developed
 around the peduncle. In fruit formation pericarp become spongy and fused.
In Pine apple peduncle bracts and perianth become fleshy. Due to the fusion
of perianths of flower a composite fruit is formed. In mulberry perianth
become fleshy and calyx of every flower becomes thick, sweet and fleshy and
are edible.

􀀎 Syconus : This fruit develops from hypanthodium inflorescence. eg. Ficus

species like fig, Peepal

Geocarpic fruit : When fruit development occurs inside soil e.g. ground nut

WHAT TO PROCESS?

1. Use the illustration to answer the questions below.

WHAT TO REFLECT AND UNDERSTAND?

 1. How do the roots of the plants growing in swamps and marshes obtain
their oxygen?

2. Name some modifications of plant parts for the purpose of

photosynthesis.

3. What are the edible parts of ginger and onion?

4. Differentiate between pinnately compound leaf and palmately

compound leaf?

REFERENCES:

http://www.phschool.com>science>plants

https://byjus.com/biology/important-questions-class-11-biology-
chapter-5-morphology-flowering-plants/