Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in

India
Water harvesting systems are traditional technologies that have served the needs of local population for
centuries, proving that systems are clearly sustainable. It is simply defined as the method of inducing,
collecting, storing, and preserving local soil runoff for future productive use. It is one of the oldest and
most widely used sustainable water management systems in India. India has a variety of rainwater
harvesting systems ranging from very simple to complex industrial systems. Traditional water wisdom at
all levels of society ensured the availability of sufficient water for all, which in turn was the basis of all
development and prosperity. We should relearn and understand the ancient the ancient knowledge and
apply it to today’s society to eliminate the current water stress.

Introduction

Access to water is a basic human right because water is a social and cultural commodity, not just an
economic commodity. The hydrological cycle of the Earth can be called a water democracy because it is a
system that distributes water to all living things. Water supply is essential to the achievement of a
country’s development goals of job creation, food security, GDP growth and social goals, including
poverty reduction. Global Water consumption doubles every 20 years, which is more than twice rate of
population growth. Most of rain water resource development projects undertaken India has turned out be
ecologically damaging, socially intrusive, capital intensive and unsustainable.

In agricultural production, “classical” source of the irrigation water are often at the break of overuse and
therefore unexploited source of irrigation water must be sought. The possibility to increase the water
supply potential of urban areas is still limited due to depletion of groundwater resources, the decrease of
groundwater levels, and the deterioration of the groundwater quality and the pollution of the surface water
bodies. Under such conditions, the city’s water system is severely strained to maintain service levels.
People are increasingly under pressure to find alternative sources of water supply.

Water harvesting is the liberate collection and storage of water flowing unto natural or artificial
catchment. The catchment includes rooftops, compounds, rocky surface or hill slopes or artificially
prepared impervious semi-previous land surface. The amount of water collected depends on the frequency
and intensity of rainfall, catchment characteristics, water demand and how much runoff occurs and how
quickly and easily water penetrates the subsoil and is absorbed to recharge the aquifer. It is one of the
oldest and most widely used water supply systems in India. India has a variety of rainwater harvesting
systems ranging from very simple to complex industrial system.

Water harvesting is particularly useful in semi-arid areas where irrigation water is not regularly available.
India has a great and long tradition of water harvesting system have been developed since ancient times in
urban and rural areas in some of the most arid and water logged regions of the country, such as Kutch and

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Saurashta in Gujarat and western Rajasthan. For the inhabitants of these regions, water collection was not
a technology, but part of their culture, deeply connected to socio-cultural frameworks.

According to Scholarly Article of li et al. 2000, supplemental irrigation during the critical stages of the
crop growth is a practice that can significantly increase yields. The main advantages of rainwater
harvesting are that it is simple, cheap, repeatable, efficient, sustainable and adaptable. It can be
implemented on a small scale, is easy to use, highly adaptable and requires low costs and is therefore
ideally suited to socio-economic and biophysical conditions of semi-arid rural areas. Rainwater harvesting
has also been shown to improve water use efficiency, reduce soil erosion, and improve soil futility and
increase agricultural productivity.

Traditional Water Harvesting System of India

Eastern Himalayas

1. Bamboo pipes:
In this method, water is transported through bamboo pipes for irrigation. Bamboo pipes are used to direct
the perennial springs from the hills to the lower areas by gravity. Bamboos of different sizes are used in
the installation of canals. About four to five distribution steps are involved from water control to the point
of application. This system is now old-fashioned and is being replaced by iron pipes and sewers. In the
Meghalaya, a traditional water harvesting system using flowing stream and spring water for irrigation is
popular in the state.

Fig: Bamboo pipes

Source: https://www.chaitanyaproducts.com/blog/ancient-indian-water-conservation-techniques-part-2/.

2. Apatani:
It is a wet rice and fish cultivation system practiced at an altitude of about 1600 meters and on gentle
slopes in valleys with an average annual rainfall of about 1700 mm. In Apatani, by making temporary
walls, several small streams and springs found in these hilly areas can be tapped, which act as a barrier

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and can direct water flow to ridges and valleys. The water harvested from the top of the hill mixes with
domestic waste as it passes through the village through the small canals. In the Apatani system, the
valleys are lined up into plots separated by 0.6 meter high earth dams supported by bamboo rolls. All pots
have an inlet and an outlet on opposite sides. The inlet of low lying plot functions as an outlet of the high
laying plot. Deeper channels connect the inlet to the outlet. The traced plot can be flooded or drained off
with water by opening and blocking the inlets and outlets as needed. The stream water is tapped by
constructing a wall of 2-4 m high and 1m thick near forested hillsides. It is carried to agricultural fields
through a network of canals. The local drainage system thus merges with the irrigation system, which is
turn improves the nutrient content of the water needed for rice cultivation. It is practiced by Apatani tribes
of Ziros in Lower Subansiri of Arunachal Pradesh.

Fig: Apatani

Source: http://www.cpreecenvis.nic.in/Database/ApataniFarmingSystem_3788.aspx.

Western Himalayas
3. Kul:
In the high attitude of Himalayas region, water is tapped from the hillsides known as ghuls. The length of
these ghuls varies from 1 to 15 km and carries 15-100 liters of water per second. Throughout the western
Himalayan region, which includes Jammu, Himachal Pradesh and Northern Uttaranchal, Ghul is common
harvesting technique. In this construction of Ghul, a cut is made in the stream, which is further extended
by stone embankment, usually consisting of a pile of stones. It often takes several kilometers to reach the
dam using tress and branches.

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 Source:
http://www.rainwaterhar
vesting.org/methods/tra
ditional/kuls.htm.

Source: Fig: Kul

North-Eastern Mountain Regions

4. Zabo:
The Zabo system is used in the Nagaland, North-East India. Also known as the ruza system, it integrates
water conservation with forestry, agriculture, and animal husbandry and promotes soil management.
Villages like Kikruma, where Zabo system has several parts of management, such as forest land as a
catchment area, water harvesting systems like ponds and with earthen embankments, cattle sheds, and
agricultural lands at lower elevations. The rain falls on the protected forest on the hilltop because the
water falls along the slope, it passes through different terraces. The water is then collected in pond
structures in the middle terraces, below is cattle yards, and towards the foot of the hill is paddy fields,
where the run-off ultimately meanders into collection systems. The maintenance of the whole system
along with the catchment areas is done annually, usually in the pre-monsoon season.

Fig: Zabo

Source: https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/zabo-art-impounding-water.

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 5. Cheo-ozihi:
The river Mezii flows along the Angami village of Kwigema in Nagaland and the river water is brought
from seven different places at different places at different elevations by channel diversion. The river water
is channeled along a long channel with many branches, and the water is often channeled to the terraces
through bamboo pipes. One of the channels is called Cheo-ozihi. Ozihi means water, and Cheo was the
person responsible for the laying of this 8-10 km-long channel with its numerous branches. The channels
are maintained and cleared annually by the local community. This channel irrigates several terraces in
Kwigwema and some terraces in neighboring villages.

Brahmaputra Valley
6. Dongs:
Dongs are ponds built by the Bodo tribes of Assam to harvest water for irrigation. Water was raised from
ponds and distributed to the fields with an instrument called lahoni. The pools were individually owned
and there was no community involvement digging and maintenance. In Jalpaiguri region, small irrigation
channels were prepared by cultivators and closely monitored because the rivers of the Duars often
changed their course.

7. Garh and Dara

In Assam, Garh is also built to divert river water to agricultural field. Garh is like a big nala with a big
and the middle embankment on both sides and the middle side is left open for flowing water. In paddy
field, the entire area is divided into small square pieces, forming a small embankment called Dara, where
rainwater is stored for cultivation. It is also a rainwater harvesting technique used in the state since
ancient times.

Indogangetic Pockets:
8. Ahar Pynes
This is the traditional flood water harvesting system originates from South Bihar and works by using the
slope of the land. The terrain slope in those areas is 1 meter/km from south to north and the sandy soil
does not hold water. The rivers in this region swell only during the monsoons but the water is quickly
carried away or absorbed into the sand. All these factors make the floodwater harvesting the best option
here, for which this system is perfect. Ahar Pynes is a rectangular earth filled catchment basin with three
sided embankment, built at the end of a small pyne (artificial channels built to use river water in
agricultural fields). Both ahars and pynes carry water during the rainy season from July to September.

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 Fig: Ahar Pynes

Source: https://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/ahar-pynes-traditional-flood-harvesting-systems-south-
bihar.

9. Bengal’s Inundation Channel

In the Bengal, the overflow irrigation was a very popular which made full use of the abundant water from
the Ganges and Damodar floods, and the monsoon rains. The channels were wide and shallow and
carrying the crest water of the river floods. The Canals were long, continuous and completely parallel to
each other. Irrigation was done on the banks of the canals, which were closed after the flood was over.
This controlled system enriched the soil and ensured water supply to each individual field and also
checked the malaria. William willicks proposed the restoration of this ancient system to solve modern
agricultural problems and recommended their revival from a public health perspective.

Thar Deserts and Western India

10. Kunds/Kundis
Kunds are water harvesting structures made of local materials and cement, more common arid regions of
western Rajasthan where groundwater availability is limited and salinity is moderate to high. The Kund is
a saucer-shaped drainage area that slopes gently towards the centre where well is located. A metal mesh
over the water-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit. The sides of the well are usually
covered with lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover or a lid to protect the water. The
catchment areas of the kunds are made from local materials such as pond silt, charcoal ash and small
wastes. Water is usually sucked down into a bucket. The depth and diameter of the kund usually depends
upon the consumption habits. Most o f the kunds are privately owned by individual households or caste
groups.

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 Fig: kund

Source: https://tahaanefforts.org/blog/what-can-we-learn-from-traditional-indian-rwh-systems.

11. Kuis/Beris
Kuis found in western Rajasthan are 10-12 m deep pits dug in the vicinity of tanks to collect seepage.
Kuis is also be used to harvest the rainwater in areas with low rainfall. Usually, the mouth of the pit
becomes very narrow, which prevents the stored water from evaporating. The pit expands as penetrates
under the ground, allowing water to seep over the large area. The openings of this earthen structure are
generally covered with planks of wood. Water is used sparingly, as the last resource in the crisis
situations.

12. Khandins
The khadin system is a catchment farming system where runoff from a high catchment area is stored with
the help of a khadin bund where it is confined during the monsoon season. The system is based on the
principle of collecting rainwater from agricultural land and then using this water-enshrined land to grow
crops. Khadi soil remains wet for long periods of time due to water logging and chemical weathering,
decomposition and microbial activity which eventually depletes the soil of organic mattes and other
nutrients. Khadin worked effectively for centuries to maintain soil fertility. It was first design by the
Paliwal Brahmins of Jaisalmer in the 15th century. It was also found in Jodhpur, Bikner and Barmer
district in the Rajasthan.

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 Fig: Khandins

Source: https://tahaanefforts.org/blog/what-can-we-learn-from-traditional-indian-rwh-systems.

13. Nadis
Nadi is the local name for the village ponds used to collect rain water from adjacent natural catchments
near Jodhpur in Rajasthan. The villagers chose the area based on the existing natural catchments and its
water yielding potential. In normal rainy years, most Nadis can hold water for four to eight months, while
some can hold the water throughout the year.

The location of the Nadi strongly influenced its storage capacity due to runoff and drainage
characteristics. Unfortunately, many Nadis in Jodhpur are severely polluted due to poor maintenance and
negligence, destruction of catchment areas and rampant urbanization.

Fig: Nadis

Source: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/water-strongholds-23424.

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 14. Talabs
The Talab is the local name for water harvesting structure located in valleys and natural depressions. The
beds of some Talabs have wells called beris. The oldest Talab found in Rajasthan is Ranisar. Till now,
many Talabs in Rajasthan are good source of drinking water and feed many wells and baoris.

15. Tankas/Tanks
Tanks (small tank) are underground structures and are mostly found in houses in Bikaner. They are built
into main building or courtyard. They were circular holes made in the ground covered with finely
polished lime, where rainwater was collected. Often, the tanks were beautifully decorated with tiles,
which helped keep the water cool, water was used only for drinking. On the other hand, tanks have large
walls on four sides and almost impenetrable floor with enormous water holding capacity. The tanks are
equipped with a large drainage area and a system of channels. The oldest tank in Jodhpur is Fatehsagar
which was built in 1780.

Fig: Tankas/Tanks

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taanka.

16. Virdas
Virdas are shallow holes which are made in the sands of dry riverbeds and lakes for collecting drinking
water. They are found throughout the Banni grasslands, which are part of the great Ranni Kutch region of
Gujarat. The topography of the areas is wavy; there are holes in the ground. In rivers, fresh water remains
in the upper layer from which the water is collected and salt water remains the below of the Freshwater
zone due to its high density. The harvesting system depends upon the grasses of the adjacent areas, which
is essential for the free flow of groundwater. These unique structures were first built by Maldharis (local
nomadic population) in the Rann of Kutch.

17. Naada/Bandha
Naada/Bandha is located in Thar Desert in Mewar region. It is a stone dam built across stream or gully to
capture monsoon runoff on a screech of the land. Due to submergence, the land becomes fertile as silt
accumulates and the soil retains significant amounts of nutrients.

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 Fig: Naada/Bandha

Source: https://www.rajras.in/modern-methods-of-rain-water-harvesting-in-rajasthan/.

18. Johad
A number of NGOs have led to revival of the age old water harvesting system in Rajasthan. Now, Johad
fulfills the water requirement of more than 700 villages in the state without any problem. Johads are
basically simple stone and mud barriers built across a hillside to stop rainwater. They have high
embankment on three sides, while the fourth side is left open for rainwater to enter. In villages where
Johads have been revived, water is shared among the villagers and farmers are not allowed to grow water-
intensive crops. A Johad prevent rainwater from running off, allowing it to seep into the ground,
recharging water aquifers and improve Earth’s water balance.

Source:
https://www.thebetterind
Fig: Johad ia.com/61757/traditional-
water-conservation-
systems-india/.

19. Stepwells or Baoli

These are wells or ponds where water is accessible by
going down the stairs. They can be covered and protected and often have architectural significance. They
can also be multi-level, with a bullock turning a water wheel that raises the Water in the well to first and
second tier. The step well can be associated with need to ensure water supply during drought and with a
deep religion relationship with the water God, who also figured prominently in Vedas around 1000 BC.
They are most common in western India, mostly in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Most of the surviving step
wells were originally also intended for leisure. This was because the bottom of the well provided relief
from the heat of the day and more of that of relief could be obtained if the well was covered. Stepwells
were also a place of social gathering and religious ceremonies. Generally, women were involved with
these wells because they were the ones who collected water. Jhalara is also a local name given to step
wells. Jhalara were man-made tanks found in Rajasthan and Gujarat, mostly for communal use and
religious rituals. Usually, rectangular in design, Jhalaras have steps on three or four sides. Jodhpur city

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has eight Jhalaras, two of which are in the city and six outside the city. The oldest Jhalara is the
Mahamandir Jhalara which dates back to 1660 AD.

Fig: Stepwells /Baoli

Source: https://www.hindustantimes.com/photos/india-news/delhi-s-baolis-from-water-conservation-
projects-to-fading-monuments/photo-47ryU813MiXUiFmdYkfVnI.html.

East Coast
20. Eri and Kulams
The Southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu has rich heritage of water resources. There is no perennial river
in Tamil Nadhu that can cover the entire state, so people have to depend on monsoon rains for irrigation
and fill ponds for consumption and other purposes. The systems of tanks were made about 1500 years ago
to provide enough water to the area. Those thousands of tanks not only recharged the groundwater table
after monsoon rains, but were also the only source of drinking water and irrigation. About 1/3 of the
irrigated areas of the Tamil Nadhu is separately irrigated by Eris. Eris played several important roles in
maintaining ecological harmony as flood control systems, preventing soil erosion and runoff during heavy
rains, and recharging groundwater to surrounding areas. In addition, without the Eri, the development of
rice cultivation, which is the main food of the people, would not be possible.

In addition to this extensive irrigation tank, the villagers use small ponds or Kulams near the temple, often
masonry made, close to a temple. The oorani is mainly used drinking purposes while kulam is temple
based and is mostly used by priests for temple purposes. They were built to capture rainwater, act as flood
control devices and can also recharge groundwater. Most settlements in South India were centered on
temples, and temple tanks are centers of all social and cultural activities. The oorans are shared among the
different caste communities.

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 Fig: Eri

Source: https://www.thebetterindia.com/61757/traditional-water-conservation-systems-india/.

Conclusion

Our environment, both physically and culturally, has lost its purity over time. The ecological effects
caused by human activities in societies are proportional to development and technological progress. It is
extremely important for us to ensure the right to save water resources and the environmental in general.
Many countries are developing many water resource management policies, but all of them depend directly
or indirectly on traditional knowledge development in ancient times, which teaches us the values of
simple life. Traditional water wisdom at all levels of society ensured the availability of sufficient water to
everyone, which is turn was the basis for all development and prosperity. We should relearn and
understand the ancient knowledge and apply it to today’s society to eliminate the current water stress.
Efforts to respect and restore water resources for the betterment of our society should be encouraged on
the behalf international, national, regional and local authorities. We must find a new way of
understanding our place of world.

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