Villanueva, Joash Charlotte M.

11 - Pasteur  Embody mathematical relationships or equations among

quantities under prescribed conditions.
Earth Science
 Can be confirmed by empirical studies about natural
LESSON 1 phenomena.

UNIVERSE  It is a rule that nature follows under a specific set of

conditions.
COSMOLOGY is the scientific study of the physical
universe, its origin, evolution and fate  Example: Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation

ASTRONOMY is the science celetial bodies and Scientific Principles

phenomena, their characteristics, position, motion and
composition.  Are bodies of knowledge that have already been
validated and are already well established by evidence,
BIG BANG THEORY and thus, were accepted and embodied in books.

 Proposed by George Lemaitre  Example: The Principle of Uniformitarianism of earth

 Explained that the universe was confined in a dense hot Science
supermassive ball called the singularity. After the
tremendous explosion occurred- the “big bang”, all the Model of the Universe
matter, energy, space, and time were created.
 Standard hot big bang model
 Supporting evidences:
 CMB ( cosmic microwave background)
 Redshift ( Hubble’s Law)

CMB ( cosmic microwave background)

It is thermal radiation used in observational cosmology

because it is considered the oldest light in the universe. It can
be detected as glow which is believed to be a remnant from
an early stage of the development of the universe.

HUBBLE’S LAW

 Edwin Hubble confirmed in 1929 the existence of KEYPOINTS: There are two groups of planets. The
redshift and reported that galaxies are traveling away TERRESTRIAL planets are the “inner planets,” while the
from Earth. This highly significant discovery proved that JOVIANplanets are the “outer plantes”
the universe is expanding.

 Hubble’s law states that the farther away a galaxy, the

faster it moves away from us.

The Theory of Special Creation

 Genesis 1:1-5

 In the beginning, God created heaven and Earth. And the

earth was without form, and void: darkness was upon the
face of the deep. And the spirit of God moved upon the
face of waters. And God said, let there be light: and there
was light. And God saw the light, that it was good: and
God divided the light from the darkness. And God called
the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the
evening and morning were the first day.

Theory

 Body of explanation that has been or has yet to be

validated.

 Need necessary evidence to be proven correct, and thus,

are not yet accepted or rejected.

 Example: Big Bang Theory

Scientific Laws
LESSON 1
What makes Earth different from other planets in the solar
system? There is life on Earth- it is the only planet known to
cater to various life forms. For 4.6 billion years, its structure
has undergone a massive change, enabling living organisms
to thrive and survive. From single microorganisms, the
Earth's environment allowed these organisms to evolve into
more complex and diverse organisms. But what are the
different characteristics of Earth that enable life to flourish in
it?
The following are the different characteristics making
Earth capable of supporting life:
1. Location in the Goldilocks zone. What makes the Earth
habitable is its location which is neither too far nor too near
to the sun. Because of their distance from the sun, other
planets have temperatures that do not allow water to be in
liquid form. Hence water that remains in a solid state (ice)
may not be able to dissolve many substances needed for
chemical reactions that make life possible. The temperature
influences how quickly atoms, molecules, or organisms
move. Low temperature slows down chemical reactions,
while the high temperature can cause the breaking down of
important biological molecules.
2. Water. Water is essential to life. Many processes that
involve the reaction between biomolecules occur in water. It
is one of the vital ingredients in the different biological
processes. Thus, the absence of water will interfere with
reactions necessary for life. Also, it is often referred to as the
universal solvent because it can dissolve many substances,
which are then easily absorbed by living organisms.
3. Atmosphere. It provides significant insulation or shielding
from the sun and impact of small to medium size meteorites.
It also provides chemicals needed for life, such as nitrogen
and carbon dioxide. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide
and methane trap heat and protects our planet from freezing,
thus moderating its temperature. The plants also use it during
photosynthesis to produce glucose. Moreover, the ozone layer
shields the Earth's surface from harmful UV radiation.
4. Energy. Energy is needed for life. Without energy, the
processes of life would not happen. The main energy source
is the sun; because of Earth's ideal distance from the sun, it
receives the right amount of heat and light to support life.
Sunlight helps plants to produce nutrients through
photosynthesis; these nutrients provide energy to living
things.
5. Nutrients. It is an essential factor used to build and
maintain organisms’ body structures. Insufficient or absence
of nutrients can impede the synthesis of the different
biological molecules. On our planet, some processes recycle
nutrients- water, carbon, oxygen, phosphate, and nitrogen
cycles.
6. Plate tectonics. It is vital in making the planet habitable
because it helps in recycling molecules that living organisms
need. For example, carbon dioxide helps trap heat to keep the
Earth warm. This gas is bound up in rocks for many years;
plate tectonics causes these rocks to subduct to the mantle,
where they melt due to extreme heat and pressure. The
molten rocks eventually release carbon dioxide through
volcanic activities.
Earth’s Subsystems and the Flow of Matter and Energy
It is defined in your book that a system is any organized
entity that consists of interrelated and interacting
components. Physical systems have a matter, energy, and an
organizational structure consisting of pathways and linkages
between components. Earth is a complex system of
interrelated physical, chemical, and biological processes. It is
a system in which sets of interconnected components interact
to form a unified whole.
Earth is comprised of four major smaller systems known as
subsystems which are called the spheres of the Earth. When
changes in Earth's systems finally settled, it was presumed
that the systems evolved into four subsystems: geosphere,
hydrosphere,atmosphere, and biosphere.
Atmosphere
The gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth- it serves as
the Earth's blanket that protects us from Sun's harmful
ultraviolet radiation. The energy exchange between the
atmosphere and the Earth's surface and between the
atmosphere and space produces weather and climate. The air
in the atmosphere is generally composed of 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, and 0.9%argon, and the remaining 0.10% is
made up of different trace gases and vapor. It is composed of
layers, namely: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere.
Geosphere
It pertains to the solid or rocky part of the planet. It extends
from the surface of the Earth to the center, making it the
largest among the four spheres. It contains all the soil, rocks,
and minerals present in the crust to the core of the Earth. It
comprises geologic landforms such as mountains, hills,
plains, plateaus, volcanoes, and others, which are formed and
shaped by wind, water, waves, and glaciers.
Hydrosphere
Earth is known as the "blue planet" because of its water
component. Water covers almost 71 % of the Earth's surface.
The abundance of water on the planet makes it distinct from
the other planets in the solar system. It includes fresh water
from streams, glaciers, lakes, and those found underground
which is vital to life. The hydrosphere is an active mass of
water continuously moving because of its temperature and
salinity through the water cycle.
Biosphere
It includes all life on Earth. The living things inhabit almost
every place on the planet- on land, in water, and the air. It
consists of all animals, microbes, and plants. It extends to the
upper area of the atmosphere and the deep part of the oceans.
The biosphere, with all its life forms and their interactions, is
shaped by the other subsystems. Indeed, the dynamic
interactions among these spheres make life and the life
processes possible on this planet.
The Earth's four major subsystems do not function in
isolation from each other. Instead, they interact, overlap, and
are complexly interrelated. For example, the hydrosphere's
water flows through organisms, including humans, and
provides a habitat for aquatic plants and animals within the
biosphere. Water also has important connections with the
atmosphere through the water cycle- evaporation,
condensation, and the effects of ocean temperature on
climate.

SUMMARY

Initially, planet Earth was composed of toxic chemicals and

bombarded with planetary debris of various sizes. These
objects later contributed to the development of the
hydrosphere and atmosphere, which changed the entire
features of Earth, making it a dynamic and living
planet. Earth supports life because of its water, atmosphere,
and location in the solar system. The sun is its primary energy
source, and plate tectonics recycles the different substances
needed for life. There is a continuous flow of matter and
energy between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and
biosphere, where all life forms exist. These major subsystems
and their interactions nurture the conditions necessary for life
on Earth, but the impact and intensity of those interactions are
not equal everywhere. This inequality leads to our planet's
environmental diversity and produces various geographic
patterns on Earth.

LESSON 2 MINERALS AND ROCKS
Earth provides us with both material and energy resources.
These resources help sustain life on the planet. Minerals are
the building blocks of rocks. The rocks beneath our feet, the
soil that supports the plants, and the deep rock of Earth's
mantle is made up of minerals.
MINERALS
 Minerals are solid substances that are present in nature
andcan be made of one element or more elements
combined together (chemical compounds).
 They are called the building blocks of rocks.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
(Now I Can DEFine MineralS)
 Naturally occurring- it identifies that minerals are part of
Earth's process
 Inorganic- means that it is a substance that is not a
product of an organism
 Crystalline structure- atoms of minerals are arranged in
an orderly and repeating pattern
 Definite chemical composition- represented by a
chemical formula
 Solid (homogeneous) -minerals have definite volume
and shape
Properties of Minerals:
Each mineral has unique properties used in identifying and
classifying it.
1. Luster- the ability of a mineral to reflect light from its
surface.
2. Color- a mineral's color may change depending on the
surface (not a reliable property).
3. Streak- the color of a mineral in powder form.
4. Hardness-the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or
scratching.
5. Cleavage- the ability of a mineral to break along planes of
weak bonding or the way a
mineral breaks.
6. Crystalline structure or habit - the common or
characteristic shape of crystal or
combination of crystals.
7. Transparency or diaphaneity - allowing light to pass
through it.
8. Tenacity- the mineral's toughness or resistance to breaking
or deforming.
• brittleness- mineral turns into powder
• malleability- mineral can be flattened by pounding with a
hammer
• ductility- mineral can be stretched to wire
• flexible but inelastic- minerals are bent and remain in a new
position
• flexible and elastic- minerals are bent and return to their
original position
Color
 Color is not usually a definitive property of a mineral
 Some minerals have characteristics colors
 Others vary due to chemical deifferences or impurities
(atoms mixed inside the main elements)
 However most mineralshave a variety of colors
Streak
 Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form
 Streak is obtained by rubbing a mineral across a streak
plate. A pirce of unglazed porcelain
 While the color of a mineral may vary from sample to
sampl, the streak usually doesn’t vary.
 Therefore streak can ba a good indicator to differentiate
between minerals groups.
Hardness
 Harness is one of the better properties of minerals to use
for identifying a mineral. It is a measure of the mineral’s
resistance to scratching. MOHS SCALE, is set of 10
mienrals whose hardness is known is used to
Cleavage / fracture- the way a mineral breaks
 Minerals that break along smooth, flat surfaces have
cleavage
 Mierals that break uneven, rough, or jagged surfaces
have fracture.
Flexible
 Flexible mineral can be bent - selentie
Elastic
 A flexible mienral that can be bent but will spring back
to it’s original shape - mica
Malleable
 These minerals will flattern out if you pound them -
native silver
Friable
 Will crumble
Tenacity

 The resistance of a mineral to breaking, crushing or
bending
Ductile
 can stretch into a wire, a trait of true metals
Sectile
 These minerals can be separated into slices
*Special properties exhibited by some minerals are:
1. taste
2. odor
3. attraction to magnets
4. fluorescence
5. radioactivity
6. reactivity
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MIENRALS
 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE - Crystal lattice, tells
how mineral’s crystals are arranged. A hand lens is a
necessary tool in checking for crystalline structure.
 CRYSTAL SOLID - form regular repeating
three dimensional crystal lattice
 AMORPHOUS SOLID - forms aggregates that
have particular order or arranngement.
 TRANSPARENCY OR DIAPHANEITY - indicates the
extent of light can pass through the mineral
 ODOR - A distinct smell of a mineral that is usually
released from a chemical reaction when subjected to
water heat, air or friction
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY - is a measure of the density of a
mineral. Determines how heavy the mineral is by its
weight to water
MAGNETISM
 A few minerals are attracted by magnet of these minerals
magnetite and pyrrhotite are the most common
examples. The magnetite that possesses attracting
powerand polarity is called “lodestone”
Mineral Groups
I. Silicate Minerals – contain a combination of silicon,
oxygen, and one or more metals and/ or bases.
Examples: quartz, feldspar, and mica
2. Nonsilicate Minerals- do not contain compounds of
silicon and oxygen.
Six main classes:
a. Native elements- contain one element
Example: Copper (Cu), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag)
b. Carbonates – a combination of carbon and oxygen
Example: Calcium Carbonate, Copper Carbonate
Uses: cement, building, fireworks
c. Halides- form when halogen combines with sodium,
potassium, or calcium
Example: Calcium Fluoride
Uses: chemical industry and detergents
d. Oxides- form when aluminum or iron combines with
oxygen
Example: Aluminum Oxide
Uses: aircraft parts, paints
e. Sulfates- contain sulfur and oxygen
Example: Zinc Oxide
Uses: cosmetics, paint, cement
f. Sulfides- contain lead, iron, or nickel combined with sulfur
Example: Iron Sulfide
Uses: batteries, electronic parts
3. Metallic Minerals - good conductor of heat and electricity
Examples: Gold, Silver, Copper
Uses: building aircraft, automobiles, electronic equipment
4. Nonmetallic Minerals – good insulators of electricity
Examples: Calcite
Uses: glassmaking in producing computer chips
5. Gemstones-highly valued because of their beauty and
rarity, than for their usefulness.
Examples: Diamond, Sapphire, Ruby, Emerald,
Uses: jewelries and ornaments
Rocks: Materials of the Geosphere
Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates of one or more
minerals. Rocks are the geosphere's materials and are
identified by the minerals they contain and their texture.

COMPOSITION OF MAGMA AND LAVA
 Magma is a mixture of melt and the primary elements
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, etc.
 Some gases particularly water vapor, which confined
within the magma with other surrounding rocks.
 Magma is less dense than surrounding rocks. It works its
way towards the surface, producing volcanic eruptions
 Lava is the erupted molten magma except that most of
the gas component has escaped.
 Lava solidifies and classified as volcanic or extrusive-
they are extruded as rocks on the surface of the earth.
The rocks formed inside the earth is referred as intrusive
rocks .
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF MAGMA NAMELY:
 Basaltic – it has low silica content, low viscosity and
gases escape easily
 Andesitic – it has medium level of silica content,
intermediate viscosity , and cause intermediate explosion
 Rhyolitic – it has a high silica content, high
viscosity ,and cause explosive eruption
Mineral Composition
 Bowen’s Reaction Series explains that if a mineral
remains in the molten solution after crystallization, it
will react with remaining liquid to produce the next
mineral.
Classifications of Rocks:
1. Igneous Rocks
It is said to be formed by fire since they originate from the
magma produced by the melting of rocks in the hot mantle.
When this molten rock material cools and solidifies, it
becomes an igneous rock. Molten rocks that solidify at
Earth's surface are called extrusive or volcanic rocks. On the
other hand, molten rocks that solidify deep inside the Earth
are called intrusive or plutonic rocks.
2. Sedimentary Rocks.
These rocks are derived from sediment that is unconsolidated
fragments that have accumulated together in a loose
connection. After the fragments accumulate in horizontal
layers, pressure from adding more material above compacts
the sediment, expelling water and reducing pore space. The
sedimentation occurs when silica, calcium carbonate, or iron
oxide bonds the fragments together. The process of
compaction and cementation transform, or lithify, sediments
into solid, coherent layers of rock.
3. Metamorphic Rocks.
Metamorphism means transformation or change in form. It is
the process that causes changes in the texture, mineralogy,
and even the chemical composition of rocks. These rocks
originate from preexisting igneous, sedimentary, or even
metamorphic rocks. Heat, pressure, and active chemical fluids
cause the metamorphism of rocks. It causes a chemical
reaction resulting in the crystallization of rock minerals,
forming new minerals. There are two major categories of
metamorphic rocks: foliated and nonfoliated, distinguished by
the presence (foliated) and absence (nonfoliated)of platy
surfaces or wavy alignments of light and dark minerals that
form
during metamorphism. The rock cycle shows the interactions
of the various components and processes of the Earth’s
system. It helps us understand the formation and connection
of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. It also
demonstrates how any rock type can be transformed into
another type.
Locating and Mining Minerals
Minerals are firmly attached to rocks and aggregates of useful
elements called ore. An ore is a solid material that can
profitably extract valuable minerals. After mineral deposits
are located, several mining techniques can be used to remove
them. The location and type of the mineral resources
determine the method used to remove them. There are two
main mining techniques:
1. Surface mining is a technique of extracting ore or
minerals near the Earth's surface. It involves removing and
stripping surface vegetation, dirt, and layers of bedrock to
reach the mineral deposits.
Examples:
a. Open-pit mining is the most common surface mining
method where ore or minerals are extracted from an open pit
or burrow.
b. Strip mining is similar to open-pit mining; the overburden
is removed to expose the mineral seam for excavation.
c. In mountaintop removal mining, explosives are used to
remove the overburden off the top of the mountains.
2. Underground Mining is used to dig tunnels or shafts at
greater depths to reach hard mineral deposits like ore that
may contain gold, silver, and copper. Due to the extent of
activities done to the land, this is considered more costly and
risky for the workers and the environment.
Processing Mineral Ore
The following are some common methods used in separating
minerals from ore:
1. Heap leaching is the addition of chemicals like cyanide or
acid to dissolve the non-useful rock.
2. Flotation is the addition of a substance that produces air
bubbles to make valuable minerals float.
3. Smelting is heating the ore at a very high temperature,
causing the rock to separate into layers to extract the mineral.
Environmental Impacts of Mining
The following may result from mining activities:
1. Soil erosion
2. Dust
3. Destruction of habitats
4. Contamination of soil, surface water, and groundwater by
chemicals.
5. Loss of valuable land
Environmentally Sustainable Mining
These practices may be viable in reducing environmental
issues and problems that arise from
the exploitation, extraction, and use of mineral resources.
1. Investing in research and development of green mining
technology.
2. Improving the efficiency of the manufacturing processes.
3. Accurate reporting on the amount of toxic mining waste.
4. making products from reusable waste.
5. Improving legislation and regulations.
6. Closure of illegal and unstructured mines.
7. Closure and recovery of shut-down mine sites.
8. Recycling of mining craps.
9. Rejuvenating the environment.
LESSON 3 ENERGY RESOURCES
Natural resources are materials from the Earth used to support
life and meet people’s needs. Any natural substance that
humans use can be considered a natural resource. Oil, coal,
natural gas, metals, stone, and sand are natural resources.
Other natural resources are air, sunlight, soil, and water.
Moreover, they are used to make food, fuel, and raw
materials to
produce goods.
Advances in civilization are closely linked to ways how to
find and explore more energy resources. While there seem to
be numerous sources for energy conversion, the conversion of
energy from natural resources is a crucial and challenging
aspect. Since not all sources have the same rate of formation,
regeneration, and replenishment, the energy sources are
divided into renewable and nonrenewable energy resources.
Nonrenewable Energy Resources
A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be
readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to
keep up with consumption. The rate of their formation is so
slow that these resources are finite, and once extracted,
depletion may follow.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil energy resources are obtained from dead plant and
animal deposits created over the long history of the planet.
Until recently, fossil fuels have provided for humanity’s
energy demands. These resources mainly include coal, oil,
and natural gas.
1. Coal
It is a solid fossil fuel that is black or brownish in color and
mostly composed of carbon. It is formed from plant material
subjected to heat and pressure. It is the largest source of
energy for electricity in the whole world.
2. Oil
It is a liquid fossil fuel that is commonly called petroleum or
crude oil since it is a mixture of different hydrocarbons. It
was formed from the remains of marine animals and plants
that lived a million years ago that accumulated on the sea
bottom and went through geologic forces and formation. It
must be refined before it can be used as energy resource.
Refined oil produces gasoline, diesel, and kerosene.
3. Natural Gas
It is also formed from fossil remains- when the layers of
decomposing organic material are exposed to higher
temperatures and pressures generated within the earth. It is
composed of a hydrocarbon called methane. Less dense than
oil, it rises above the oil and is usually found above oil
deposits.
Renewable Energy Resources
It is generated from natural sources such as sunlight, wind,
water, various forms of biomass, and geothermal heat. It is
also known as an alternative or clean energy source.
Renewable sources of energy can be replenished faster than
fossil fuels and have a lower environmental degrading
impact.
1. Solar Power/ Sunlight
Sunlight is converted into heat that is used to produce
electricity. Solar cells or photovoltaic cells convert sunlight
directly to electricity. When sunlight strikes the surface of the
silicon layers, electrons flow across the layers. The flow of
electric current makes an electric motor or any device work.
2. Wind Energy
It is the energy harnessed from the airflow in wide open
spaces along the seashores, deserts, and mountain tops. The
wind generates electricity as its kinetic energy turns the
turbine to create electricity.

3. Hydrothermal Energy
It is obtained from converting the kinetic energy of fast-
moving water to run a turbine and generate electricity.
Waterfalls, running rivers, tidal power, and ocean waves are
great options for hydroelectric power.

4. Geothermal Energy
It is the energy harnessed from the heat coming from within
the earth. The most common way of getting energy from
geothermal sources is to tap into the hot water under the
ground. Cooler water seeps into Earth’s crust, is, heated up,
and then rises to the surface. Once this heated water is forced Major Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Schemes of
to the surface, the steam is captured and used to drive the Using Different Energy Sources
turbines for a generator to produce electricity.

5. Biomass/ Dendrothermal Energy

It refers to the biological or plant and animal material used as
fuel for electricity generation, other forms of fuel, and heat.
Sources of biomass are food waste, wood, solid wastes, crop
residues, animal wastes, and fuel crops.

6. Nuclear Energy
An alternative energy source is a nuclear fission which is the
splitting of the nucleus of an atom, during which nuclear
energy is released. The released energy is usually in the form
of heat. This heat is used to convert water into steam. The
steam turns the blades of the turbine in nuclear plants, and
electricity is produced.

Sustainable Energy

It comes from resources that can serve the needs of the

present without jeopardizing the needs of other communities
or the future users of these resources. It includes
hydroelectricity, solar power, geothermal energy, and wind
power. It also uses technologies that improve energy
efficiency. While these renewable resources have drawbacks,
their renewability far outweighs these minimal and resolvable
concerns.
Solar and wind power are the most environmentally friendly
renewable energy resources because there are minimal
changes in the landscape, terrain, water systems, or
atmospheric conditions. However, the variable weather states
do not allow constant flow and strength of wind or sunlight.
Hence, the current technologies to harness these energy
sources may not be cost-effective. Nonetheless, more
technological systems are being developed to increase or
improve their efficiency.

LESSON 4 WATER RESOURCES


It is stated in your book that water is an amazing chemical
with unique properties that help to keep us and other species
alive. We could survive for several weeks without food but
only a few days without fresh water.
Distribution of the Earth’s Water
About 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water, despite
this, we always hear about water depletion or the need to
conserve water because only a small amount of water, about
1%, is potable or available for our consumption.
Sources of Water
Water can come from the oceans, the Earth’s surface, and
underground. These are potential water sources for
agricultural, household, recreational, and environmental
activities.
I. Surface Water includes freshwater in streams, ponds, and
lakes. These water reservoirs are habitats for various
organisms and food resources for higher forms of organisms.
II.
a. Streams and Rivers. Streams are bodies of water in
constant motion due to their water current- it is always
downhill, which causes erosion and deposition. Rivers are the
largest type of stream that moves a large amount of water
fromhigher to lower elevations.
b. Ponds and Lakes. These are surrounded by hills or plains
that prevent the downward flow of water. They also have low
and high tides and may have currents affecting weather
patterns.
c. Wetlands. It plays an important role in conserving water
resources, supporting ecosystems, preventing floods, and
increasing river flows. It includes swamps, marshes, and
lagoons.
III. Groundwater is the freshwater (not frozen) found below
the surface. It is the source mostly to support drinking water
and farming. Groundwater found in aquifers is the largest
reservoir of freshwater on theplanet. It can be extracted from
springs and wells.
a. Springs are formed when groundwater meets the surface of
the stream.
b. Wells are created by drilling or digging through the rock
layers to reach the groundwater. It uses a motorized pump to
bring the water to the surface.
IV. Oceans play a major role in regulating global
temperatures. Together with the atmosphere, they distribute
heat to the different parts of the planet. Oceans are an
important part of the water cycle as well.
The water cycle shows the continuous movement of water
within the Earth and atmosphere. It is a complex system that
includes many different processes. Liquid water evaporates
into water vapor, condenses to form clouds, and precipitates
back to earth in the form of rain and snow.
Human Activities That Affect Water Resources
 Activities like farming, forest clearing, road building,
and mining
 Pollution from improper waste disposal, fertilizers, and
pesticides washed off from agricultural land, acid rain,
and heavy metals from mining and industrial plants
 Extracting large amounts of water from surface water
and groundwater
 Climate change
Different Ways on how to Protect and Conserve Water
Resources
 Stop disposing of garbage on lakes, creeks, rivers, and
seas.
 Organize a group that will be in charge of planting trees
along the river bank, cleaning and recovering a piece of
degraded land, and turning it into a vegetable and market
garden. Report to proper authorities any water leakage.
 Call the attention of the government agency concerned to
demand industries be more responsible in managing their
toxic wastes.
 Inform farmers of the importance of collecting more
rainwater and reducing waste with irrigation. Promote
the use of organic fertilizer and compost.
 Stop deforestation and destruction of grasslands.
 Restore floodplains which filter water that goes into the
groundwater reservoir to prevent pollution of rivers.
Maynilad Water Services gives us tips on how to conserve
and maintain the desirable quality of our drinking water and
make it last for future generations.
 Report pipe leaks and illegal connections
 Don’t rinse dishes using running water.
 Wash your fruits and vegetables in a basin
 Use a broom instead of hosing your driveway and
sidewalk with water.
 Collect the water you use for washing fruits and
vegetables and reuse it to water plants.
 Cut down on your shower by a minute or two.
 Designate one glass of your drinking water daily or refill
a water bottle.
 Don’t use running water to thaw food.
 Turn off faucets tightly after use.
 Soak pots and pans instead of letting the warm water run
while you scrape them clean.
 Turn off the faucet while brushing your teeth, washing
your hands, and shaving.
 When showering, keep a bucket or basin near the
showerhead.

Applied Technology
Water can be reused and recycled, depending on the water
quality needed for a particular purpose. Raw water (either
groundwater or surface water) must go through at least three
different treatment processes:
1. Physical treatment through filtration and sedimentation.
a. filtration separates the solids from liquids using a filter.
b. sedimentation allows solid particles to settle at the
bottom.
2. Biological treatment includes activated sludge,
chlorination, or UV light use.
3. Chemical treatment includes coagulation, where liquid
aluminum sulphate ( alum) and /or polymer is mixed with
raw water to cause these chemicals to stick together.
LESSON 4 WATER RESOURCES
HUMAN WASTE
Waste is defined as unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is
any substance discarded after primary use or is worthless,
defective, and of no use.
Classification of Waste
Three Kinds of Waste
Waste produced through different human activities can be in
the form of solid, liquid, and ga.
I. Solid wastes are generated and disposed of in great
amounts by people worldwide. They end up in landfills and
become a source of environmental pollution. It refers to:
II.
a. Municipal solid waste includes trash or garbage from
households, schools, offices, marketplaces, restaurants, and
other public places.
Examples: food remnants, used bag and shoes, soft drinks
can, plastic bottle, home appliances, used clothing
b. Medical and clinical wastes are produced from healthcare
facilities such as hospitals, clinics, veterinary facilities, and
laboratories. (hazardous waste)
Examples: disposable needles, blades, wound dressing,
drugs, blood, syringes
c. Agricultural waste is generated by agricultural activities
such as plant cultivation, fruit growing, seed growing
Examples: empty pesticides container, expired medicine and
wormers, surplus milk, fruit pods, and corns husks
d. Industrial waste comes from industries manufacturing
various cars, for example, glass, leather, plastic, and meat
products.
e. Construction and demolition waste from the construction
of roads and buildings.
Examples: concrete debris, wood, rocks, page packages
f. Electronic waste is electrical stuff at home that is no
longer working and is disposable. These are called e-waste, e-
scrap or waste electrical and electronic equipment.
Examples: DVD and music players, TV, and telephones.
II. Liquid waste is defined as any waste in liquid form such
as fluids from wastewater, fats, oil or grease (FOG), used oil,
hazardous household liquids. In towns and cities, the three
main sources are residential, commercial, and industrial areas.
a. Liquid waste from residential areas. It is often referred
to as domestic wastewater that results from daily activities
like cooking, washing, bathing, and toilet use. Blackwater and
greywater known as sewage, are produced from domestic
households and various institutions, such as schools and
health centers found in residential areas.
b. Liquid waste from commercial areas. It came from
business establishments like shops, markets, restaurants, and
cafes resemble those from households.
c. Liquid waste from industries. These wastes are generated
by processing or manufacturing industries and service
industries, such as car repair shops.
d. Landfill leachate is cause by the seepage of rainwater
through the deposited material in landfills. The rainwater
reacts with the deposited material to form mixture of
hydrocarbons with low density.
III. Gaseous wastes are oxides of carbon, sulfur dioxide,
oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons. Aerosols, carbon
monoxide, methane and greenhouse gases like
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
Effects of Wastes on People and Environment
Waste materials not only have a great impact on the
environment but also on the health of the public. We must be
aware of these problems so we can prevent them.
I. Impact of Solid Waste
1. Ecological Damage
a. Methane is a hazardous gas emitted in landfills; it is a
greenhouse gas that serious effect in climate.
b. Water contamination. Solid wastes pose a significant risk
to water quality and can be the source of toxic contaminants.
c. Energy Consumption. When the condition of landfill
worsens and the community becomes intolerant such
condition, the landfill is transferred farther from densely
populated areas.
c. Natural Habitat Degradation. A land that is claimed for
landfill is no longer viable to many plants and wildlife.
2. Health Risks
3.
a. Organic Domestic Waste pose a serious threat since they
ferment and create conditions favorable for the growth of
disease causing-microorganisms.
b. Exposure to hazardous waste can affect human health.
Direct exposure can lead to diseases and chemical poisoning.
c. Waste from agriculture and industries can expose
people to chemical and radioactive hazards.
d. Disposal of hospital and other medical waste also
requires medical attention since this can create major health
hazards.
e. Waste treatment and disposal sites. Unlawful operation
of incineration plants causes air pollution and poorly
managed and poorly- designed landfills attract all types of
insects and rodents that spread diseases.
f. Recycling can also be a health risk especially for workers
involved in recycling waste containing chemicals and metals
which may expose them to toxic substances.
II. Impact of Liquid Waste
1. Ecological Damage
a. Eutrophication is the rapid growth in the population of
bacteria and algae in rivers and lakes known as algal bloom.
b. Surface water contamination. Waste deposited directly
into the bodies of water negatively changes the chemical
composition of the water.
c. Soil contamination. Hazardous chemicals that get into the
soil can harm plants when they absorb the contaminants
through their roots.
d. Leachate can be hazardous if enters the surface water,
groundwater, and soil.
2. Health Risks
a. Bathing in contaminated water reservoirs causes people
to be at risk of getting sick due to bacteria and viruses.
b. Contaminated shellfish. Shellfish filter water through
their gills to trap microscopic plants and animals for their
food. Disease-causing microorganisms in contaminated water
may be eaten by shellfish.
c. Contaminated fish. Certain fish in contaminated waters
can accumulate high levels of toxic substances.
d. Detergents can cause liver and kidney damage. e. Sewage
water carries disease-causing organisms, leading to infection
of the small intestine, amoebic dysentery, and cholera.
III. Impact of Gaseous Waste
1. Biomass creates harmful emissions like carbon dioxide and
sulfur when burned, though it causes less pollution than fossil
fuels.
2. Ethanol is often added to gasoline since this combination
burns cleaner than pure gasoline. It also creates ozone
problems and smog.
3. Biodiesel gives off less sulfur oxides, particulate matter.
Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, when burned than
conventional petroleum diesel but it creates more nitrogen
oxide than petroleum diesel.
4. Landfill gas contains many different gases. Methane and
carbon dioxide make up 90-98% of landfill. Gas.
5. Health Risks
a. Health effects of Ammonia and Hydrogen sulfide.
Exposure to high levels of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide in
the air can cause coughing, irritation of the eyes, nose, and
throat, headache, nausea, and breathing difficulties.
b. Health effects associated with methane and carbon
dioxide result from the lack of oxygen rather than direct
exposure to these gases.
c. Dioxin Emission from burning plastics. When plastics
are burned. Harmful quantities of dioxins, a group of highly
toxic chemicals, are emitted.
d. Burning of polystyrene polymers such as Styrofoam
cups, meat trays, egg containers, yogurt, and deli containers
releases styrene.
Proper Waste Disposal and Management
I. Solid Waste. Whether it is a domestic, commercial, or
industrial setting, the key to managing solid waste is to apply
segregation at the source and implements the 3Rs or reduce,
reuse, and recycle.
a. Segregation. Solid waste can be grouped based on its
ability to decompose. It can help reduce the volume of wastes
generated in every home and every establishment since some
or most of the waste may still be recovered and used for
different purposes.
b. 3R’s.
Recycling means using the object again for a different
purpose.
Ex. Plastic bottle used as ballpen container.
Reuse means using material or objects for the same purpose.
Ex. Using same eco-bag when shopping
Reduction is the process of designing, manufacturing,
purchasing, using, and reusing materials so that the amount or
their toxicity is reduced.
Ex. In purchasing, choose a product that has less packaging
so that you do not generate much waste.
c. Compost. It is a mixture of organic wastes that are
combined with soil. This mixture is high in nutrients and can
be used as a natural fertilizer for plants.
d. Sanitary landfill is the final disposal site of all the wastes
that were not removed from segregation and sorting. It
prevents the contamination of environmental systems from
either the wastes themselves or by-products of these waste
materials.
II. Liquid Wastes. For industrial and commercial
wastewater, a custom-fit wastewater treatment facility should
be designed and used to ensure that the liquid wastes are free
from contaminants before they are discharged. In cities and
other large communities where liquid
wastes come from toilets and kitchens. Simple wastewater
treatment is recommended. (STP). An STP comprises two
treatment processes.
a. Primary sewage treatment. This is usually a physical
treatment that separates solid particles from liquid through
large screens. It makes use of filtration and sedimentation
processes.
b. Secondary sewage treatment. In this process, certain
bacteria or other microorganisms are grown into the holding
pond and allowed to feed on the dissolved organic matter. In
most cases, an aeration system is incorporated to promote this
action. In the end, the microorganisms, together with other
organic wastes (sewage sludge), settle out.
III. Gaseous Wastes. In small-scale machines, gaseous
emissions are sometimes overlooked because some toxic
gases are invisible, like ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
such as aerosols and CFCs that have escaped directly to
destroy the ozone layer.
a. Conserve energy. This reduces the need to produce energy
because the consumption is lessened.
b. Use catalytic converters in cars. It will improve the
emissions with the reduction of carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, and volatile organic compounds.
c. Engage in carpooling, using public transportation or
biking, or walking.
d. Avoid burning. Burning releases chemicals like dioxins
and furans that are associated with respiratory problems.
e. Use water-based sprays or solvent-free paints.
Chemical-based insect killers, for example, may instantly
eliminate pests, but their chemical content may be high and
very toxic to your health and environment.
f. Advocate for emission reduction in factories and more
stringent implementation of emission standards.
Reducing Waste Production
The different ecological damage and health risks caused by
the erroneous ways of disposing of garbage are alarming. As
concerned citizens, we have responsibilities to take care of
the environment and be good stewards of nature.
I. At Home
The best way to start is within the comforts of our home. A
lifestyle change will make a great difference in your
household.
a. Do recycling.
b. Stop using plastic bags.
c. Plan your meal.
d. Use reusable containers
e. Start composting.
f. Learn to repair rather than discard.
g. Before you begin a painting project, measure the area first.
h. Good housekeeping.
i. Get rid of bugs.
II. In school
Reducing waste in school instills a culture of responsible
waste management among students while helping schools
reduce waste.
a. Prepare a waste-free lunch.
b. If you buy lunch in the school canteen, take only what you
need so you don’t throw away extra food.
c. Set up a paper reuse center.
d. Avoid wasting paper.
e. Plan an exchange or rummage sale.
f. Conduct a waste audit.
III. In the Community
Once a community begins to understand the problems caused
by waste, it can take steps to solve these problems, starting
with projects that best meet the community’s needs and
abilities.
a. Reduce waste.
b. Segregate waste.
c. Making compost.
d. Reuse what you can.
e. Starting a community resource recovery center.
LESSON 5 SOIL RESOURCES
What four most important natural constituents permit life as
we know it? Most of us would immediately answer, “air,
water, and sunlight.” We might think harder and longer for
the fourth answer because we give little attention to this
natural resource, but it is essential as other natural resources.
This fourth natural resource is soil and it lies below our feet.
Soils provide nutrients that directly or indirectly support
much of life on earth.
The Earth's land surface is covered by regolith, a layer of
rock particles consisting of minerals formed by weathering. It
is commonly called soil, but the soil is not just made up of
minerals. Soils contain four major components: inorganic
materials, soil water, soil air, and organic matter.
Arable land refers to land/ soil that has the potential to be
cultivated, such as land whose soil and climate are suitable
for agriculture. Arable lands have sufficient freshwater for
irrigation, enough minerals in the soil, suitable temperature,
and the right amount of salts and moisture.
Importance of soil:
 It helps sustain life on Earth, including humans,
plants, and animals.
 It also helps purify or clean the water as it drains
through the ground and into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
 Decomposers in soil help recycle nutrients by
breaking down the remains of plants and animals
(humus), releasing the nutrients that plants need to
grow.
 Provides a home for a variety of living things.
A review of soil degradation in the Philippines (Asio V,
2009) revealed that soil degradation, the physical, chemical,
and biological decline in the quality of soil, is a major
agricultural and environmental problem in the Philippines due
to erosion.
Human Practices that Harm the Soil
1. Farming. It is an activity that involves growing crops and
raising livestock. For years, farmers have improved and are
still improving their farming methods. But these farming
methods have some harmful effects that lead to soil quality
degradation. Example: Use of fertilizer. Some fertilizers
prevent soil from producing nutrients naturally.
Positive effect of farming: application of herbicide and
provision of water through irrigation and drainage.
Negative effect of farming: tillage in farming and long-term
effect of pesticides
2. Construction and Development. Construction of roads,
houses, shopping malls, and other infrastructure requires
digging up the soil. This results in removing plant cover that
protects the soil from erosion. When exposed soil is exposed,
it is easily washed and blown away to low-lying areas, rivers,
streams, and other water resources.
3. Mining. Mining procedures lead to soil loss. Digging of
strip mines and open pit mines expose the rocks and minerals
to the air and rainwater, which hastens chemical weathering.
4. Improper waste disposal. Industrial wastes, as well as
domestic human wastes, cause soil contamination. These are
sources of biological wastes, such as toxins and chemicals
from human bodies that seep into the land and contaminate
the soil.
Ways to Conserve and Protect Soil
I. Soil Conservation in Agriculture
 Conservation tillage is a method of reducing the
number of times fields are tilled or plowed in a year.
Through this method, the amount of soil disturbed by
plowing is lessened, so a lesser chance for the solid to
be washed and blown away.
 Terracing uses the land’s topography to slow down
water flow through graduated steps. This method is
usually done in hilly or mountainous terrain.
Controlling the downward flow of water prevents
erosion of soil in farmlands.
 Contour farming is similar to terracing but on a
smaller scale. Instead of arranging the crops in
vertical rows, they are planted following the contour
of the land.
II. Soil Conservation at Home
 Make surfaces penetrable by avoiding concrete
surfaces on driveways and patios that allow
precipitation to flow freely over them.
 Set a rain garden which is a depression or a hole
that allows rainwater runoff from impenetrable
surfaces like roofs, driveways, walkways, and
concrete lawn areas to be absorbed.
 Use a drum to collect water. Place a drum
underneath a downspout to collect the water that runs
off from roofs.
III. Soil Conservation in the Community
 Plant windbreaks. Plant trees and shrubs to act as
windbreaks, it will prevent soil erosion by reducing
the force of wind over open grounds.
 Rejuvenate wetlands. Wetlands are one of the most
effective ways to prevent soil erosion.
 Plant buffer strips along stream banks. It helps
hold the soil along riverbanks intact during times of
 flooding. They also prevent runoff from entering
waterways.
 Restore forest cover. The interconnected roots of
trees are a long-term solution to soil erosion. It can
function as a windbreak and a means to hold soil in
place.
 Proper waste disposal and management. Recycling
and reusing can be implemented to reduce land and
water pollution that leads to soil degradation.
Through recycling and proper waste management, the
amount of toxic and harmful contaminants seep into
the soil is reduced.
 Monitor grazing. Monitoring the areas where cows
and other animals is important because this helps to
prevent depletion of soil.