²

Word Formation
In English there are many Word Beginnings (prefixes) and Word
Endings (suffixes) that can be added to a word to change its meaning or its
word class. The most common ones are shown here, with examples of how they
are used in process of word formation.
Many more are listed on the pages that follow:
 Verb formation;
 Adverb formation;
 Noun formation;
 Adjective formation;
 Opposites;

The verb Formation;

To form verbs, to many nouns and adjectives can be added the endings -
ize and -ify, like this way:
Nouns Verbs Example 1: They want making the
American Americanize factory more modern.
Legal -ize Legalize
Modern Modernize Example 2: They want to modernize the
Popular Popularize factory.
*
Adjectives Verbs Example1: These tablets make the water
Beauty Beautify pure.
Liquid -ify Liquify
Pure Purify Example2: They purify the water.
Simple Simplify

The Adverb Formation;

To form adverbs, to most adjectives can be added the ending -ly, like this
way:
Adjectives Adverbs Example1: His behaviour was stupid.
Easy Easily
Example2: He behaved stupidly.
Main -ly Mainly
Quick Quickly
Stupid Stupidly
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The Noun Formation;

To form nouns, to many verbs can be added the endings -er; -ment;
-ation; ,like this way:
Verbs Nouns Example1: John drives a bus, He is a bus
Drive Driver driver.
Fasten -er Fastener
Open Opener Example2: A can opener, Is a tool for opening
Teach Teacher cans.

Verbs Nouns Example1: The Children develop very

Amaze Amazement quickly.
Develop -ment Development
Pay Payment Example2: The Children’s development
Retire Retirement

Verbs Nouns Example1: The doctor examined me

Admire Admiration carefully.
Associate -ation Association
Examine Examination Example2: The doctor gave me a careful
Organize Organization examination.

Another rule to form nouns

Forming nouns yet, to many adjectives can be added the endings -ity and -ness,
like this way:
Adjectives Nouns Example1: Don’t be so cruel.
Cruel Cruelty
Example2: I hate crueity
Odd -ity Oddity
Pure -ty Purity
Stupid Stupidity

Adjectives Nouns Example1: It was very dark.

Dark Darkness
Example2: The darkness precluded to see.
Deaf -ness Deafness
Happy Happiness
Kind Kindness
²

Adjective Formation;
To form adjective, to many nouns can be added the endings -y; -ic; ical;
-ful; -less; , like this way:
Nouns Adjectives Example1: There was an awful smell in the room.
Bush Bushy
Example2: The room was very smelly.
Dirt -y Dirty
Hair Hairy
Smell Smelly

Nouns Adjectives Example1: This book contains exercises on

Atom Atomic grammar.
Biology -ic Biological
Grammar -ical Grammatical Example2: It contains grammatical exercises
Poetry Poetic .

Nouns Adjectives Example1: His broken leg caused him a lot of

Pain Painful pain.
Hope -ful; Hopeful
Care Careful Example2: It was very painful.

Nouns Adjectives Example1:The operation didn’t cause her any

Pain Painless pain.
Hope -less; Hopeless
Care Careless Example2: It was painless.

Another rule forming adjectives

To form adjectives, to many verbs can be added the ending – able; , like this
way:
Verbs Adjectives Example1: you can wash this coat.
Wash washable
Example2: This coat is washable.
Love -able; Lovable
Debate Debatable
Break Breakable
²

Opposites

The following prefixes can be used in front of many words to produce an

opposite meaning.Note, However, that the words formed in this way are not
always exact opposites, and may have a slightly different meaning.

Words Opposites Example1: I’m not very happy today.

Happy Unhappy
Example2: In fact, I’m very Unhappy today.
Fortunate Un-; Unfortunate
Wind Unwind
Block Unblock

Word Opposites Example1: It’s just not possible to do that.

Efficient In-; Inefficiente
Example2: It’s just impossible to do that.
Possible Im-; Impossible
Literate il-; illiterate
Regular Ir-; Irregular

Word Opposites Example1:I Don’t agree with everything you

Agree disagree said, I disagree with the last part.
Approve dis- ; disapprove
Honest dishonest

Words Opposites Example1:Increase means to make or

Centralize decentralize become larger in amount or number.
Increase de- ; decrease
Ascend descend Example2: Decrease means to make or
Inflate deflate become smaller in amount or number.

Words Opposites Example1: The hotel server meals to

Sense nonsense residents only (= people who are staying
Payment non- ; nonpayment in the hotel .
Resident nonresident
Conformist nonconformist Example2: The nonresidents are not
allowed in
²

Word Beginnings

a-
1. In the stated condition or way : alive (= living ) ; aloud ; with nerves all
atingle (= tingling ); 2. Old use In, on, at, or to: abed (= In bed ); afar (= far
away) 3.( Showing an opposite or absence of something ) Not; without :
amoral (= not moral ); atypically (= not typically) ;
Aero-
concerning the air or aircraft: aerodynamics (= science of movement through
air ); an aeroengine;
Afro-
1. of África and; African and: an Afro-American (= a black American person );
Afro-Asian (= of both Africa and Asia );
After-
Coming or happening afterwards: aftercare (= Care given afterwards ); a bottle
of aftershave (= liquid used on the face after shaving );
Agro-
Concerning farming : agrobiology; agrobusiness;
All-
1. Consisting or made only of: an all-male club ; an all-wool dress; 2. For the
whole of: all-India Railways ; an all-day event ; an all-night party (=lasting all
night ) ; an all-night café (= staying open all night );
Ambi-
both; double; :ambidextrous (= using both hands equally well); ambiguous (=
having two meaning ) ;
An-
( the form used for A- before a vowel sound ) Not; without;: anarchy (= without
government ); anoxia (= Condition caused by lack of Oxygen );
-andr-
Concerning males or men :androgynous plants (= plants which are both male
and female ); Polyandry (=having more than one husband at the same time);
²

Anglo-
1. Of England or Britain: an anglophile (= someone who loves Britain ); 2.
English or Britain and: an anglo-Scottish family; an improvement in anglo-
American relations;
Ante-
before: to antedate (= be earlier than ); antenatal (= before birth);- compare
Anti-; Post-; Pre- ;
Anthropo-
like or concerning human beings: anthropomorphic (= having human form or
qualities )
Anti-
1. Opposed to; against; :antinuclear (= opposing the use of atomic weapons and
power) ; anti-American ; 2. Opposite of: an anti-climax (= an unexciting ending
instead of the expected climax ); anti-matter (= made of material completely
opposite in kind to the ordinary material in the universe ); 3. Acting to prevent
the stated thing : antifreeze (= a liquid added to prevent freezing ); antiseptic ( =
to stop bacteria ); - compare Ante-; Pro-
USAGE:
In informal spoken English anti is sometimes used as a preposition: She’s very
anti the present government. My father’s very anti pop music ;
Arch-
of the highest class or rank; chief; main: an archbishop (= a chief bishop); Our
archenemy (= our main or worst enemy); The company’s archrivals (= main
competitors );
Astro-
Concerning the stars, the planets, or space: an astronaut (= someone who
travels in space ); astrophysics (= science of stars);
Austro-
Australian and : Austro-malayan; 2.Australian and: the austro-Italian border
Auto-
of or by one self : an autobiography (= book about one’s own life, written by
oneself ); 2. Working by itself without human operation: an autopump;
²

Be-
( In verbs) to treat as the stated thing: Don’t belittle him (= Say he is
unimportant); She befriended me (= became my friend ); 2. ( In adjective )
wearing the stated thing: a bespectacled boy(= wearing glasses); 3. Use ( In
verbs ) completely; thoroughly; : to besmear (= make very dirty );
Bi-
two; twice; double; bilingual (= speaking two languages); bisect (= Cut in
two );
USAGE:
expressões like biweekly can be confusing,because they can mean either “
twice in one week /month / year, or once in two weeks / month / year”
depending on the situation in which they are used.
Biblio-
Concerning books: a bibliophile (= Someone who likes books);
Bio-
Concerning living things: biochemistry (= Study of Chemistry of living
things );
By-; bye-
less important; a by-product (= Something made in addiction to the main
product ); a by-election (= One held between regular elections )
Cardio-
Concerning the heart: a cardiograph (= Instrument that measures movement of
the heart );
Centi-
Concerning a hundred: a centipede (= a creature with 100 legs ); 2. 100th part
of the stated unit: a centimetres (= 0,01 metres )
Chrono- ;Chron-
Concerning time : a chronometer (= Instrument for measuring time very
exactly; )
Cine-
Concerning films or the films industry: a cinecamera (= for making films);
²

Circum-
all the way round something: to circumnavigate (= sail round ) the World ; to
circumvent (= avoid by finding a way round ) ;
Co-
together; with; : to coexist (= exist together or at the same time ); coeducation
(= of boys and girls together ); 2. Doing something with someone else; a as an
equal: my coauthor (= someone who wrote the book with me ); b with less
responsability ; Assistente; : The copilot (= someone who helps the pilot );
Col-
( the form used for con-, before L ): to collaborate (= work together );
Com-
( the form used for con-, before b, m or p ): compassion (= Sympathy );
Con-
together; with; : a confederation; to conspire (= Plan together );
Contra-
acting to prevent the stated thing: contraceptive devices (= against
conceptive ); 2. Opposite: Plants in contradistinction to animals;
Cor-
( the form used for con-, before r ): to correlate (= Connect together );
Counter-
the opposite of: a counterproductive thing to do (= producing results opposite
to those intended ); 2. Matching: my counterpart in the American system (=
someone in the American system who has the same job as mine ); 3. Done or
given in return, esp. so as to oppose the original one: proposals and counter
proposals; 4. Acting to prevent the stated thing: a counterinsurgency strategy (=
to prevent insurgents );
Cross-
1. Going from one side to other side; across; : a Cross-Channel Ferry (= Sailing
from Britain to France ); 2. Going between the stated things and joining them:
cross-cultural influences );
²

Crypto-
derog secret or hidden: crypto-communist;
De-
( in verbs and nouns ) showing an opposite : a depopulated area (= which all or
most of the population has left ); deindustrialization (= become less industrial );
2. ( esp. in verbs ) to remove or remove from the stated thing: to debone a fish
(= remove its bones ) ; to dethrone a king (= to remove him from power ); 3. To
make less; reduce; : to devalue the currency;
Deca-;dec-; -
concerning Ten: a decade (= period of 10 years) ; the decathlon (= sporting
competition with 10 different events );
Deci-
a 10th part of stated unit: a decilitre (= 0.1 letres );
Demi-
half; : a demisemiquaver (= very short musical notes ); 2. Partly the stated thing
: a demigod (= partly human and partly god );
Derm-
med concerning the skin: dermatitis (=painful skin condition );
di-
two; twice; double; : a diphthong is a vowel made up of two sounds.;
dis-
1.(showing an opposite or negative ) : I disapprove (= do not approve ); his
dishonesty (=lack of honesty ); with a discontented look; 2. ( shows the stopping
or removing of the stated condition): disconnect the machine from the electricity
supply (= So that It is no longer connected ); disinfect the wound. 3. ( esp. in
verbs ): to take away ; remove ; : a dismasted ship;
down-
1. so as to be lower: to downgrade a job ( make it lower in importance ); a
downpour (= heavy rain); 2. ( esp. in adjectives and adverbs ) at or towards the
botton or end: downstairs; downriver (= nearer to its mouth ); 3. (esp. in adverbs
and adjectives ) at or towards the lower or worse part: down-market (= meeting
the demand of the lower social groups ); - compare Up-;
²

electro-
1. Concerning or worked by electricity: to electrocute (= kill by electricity ); an
electro-magnet ;2. electric and: electrochemical;
em-
( the form used for en-, before b, m, p ):an embittered man (= made bitter );
en-
(esp. in verbs ) 1. To cause to become; make; : enlarge; enrich; 2. To put into
the stated condition: the endangering of life;
equi-
equal or equally : equidistant ; equilateral triangle (= with equal sides );
euro-
1. European, esp. westen European : Eurocommunism; b European and: Euro-
American relations; 2. Of the EEC: the Europarliament .
ex-
former (and still living ): my ex-wife ; the ex-minister; an ex-England
cricketer ;
extra-
outside ; beyond: extragalactic (= outside our galaxy) ; extramarital sex (=
between people who are not married to each other );
fore-
in advance ; before; : forewarn; 2. Placed at the front : her forenames; a horse’s
forelegs; 3.the front part of the stated thing: his strong forearms ;
foster-
giving or receiving parental care although not of the same family;: a foster-
mother; a foster-son; a foster-home; Danny is foster-brother (= we have
different parents, but he is being brought up with me in my family );
Franco-
of France; French; : Francophile (= someone who loves France ) ; 2. French
and; : the Franco-Belgian border;
²

Geo-
Concerning the Earth or Its surface: geophysics; geopolitical;
Greco-; Graeco-; -
1. Of ancient Greece : Greek; 2. Ancient Greek and: Greco-Roman art;
Gyn-
Concerning women: Gynaecology (= treatment of women’s diseases );
Haemo-
BrE for Hemo ;
he-
(= of an animal ) male : a he-goat;
hecto-
100 times the stated unit: a hectometre (= 100 metres);
hemo-; haemo-; -
Concerning the blood : a hemorrhage (= bleeding );
hetero-
other; opposite; differente; : heterosexual (= attracted to the opposite sex );
homo-
Same: homosexual (= attracted to the same sex ) ; homographs (= words spelt
the same way );
hydro-
Concerning or using water: hydroelectricity (= produced by water power );
hydrotheraphy (= treatment of disease using water ) 2. Concerning contains
hydrogen: hydrocarbons;
hyper-
more than usual esp. too much: hypersensitive (= too sensitive ); hyperactive
children; an economy suffering from hyperinflation
hypo-
less than usual, esp. too little: dying of hypothermia (= too low body
temperature ) ;
²

il-
( the form used for In-, before L ): illogical (= not logical );
im-
( the form used for In, before b, m, or p ): immobilize; impossible;
In-
( esp. in adjectives and nouns ) showing a negative , an opposite, or a lack )
not : insensitive (= not sensitive ); inattention (= lack of attention ) ;
Indo-
of India; Indian; 2. Indian and : the indo-pakistan border;
Infra-
below in a range; Beyond ;: infrared end of the spectrum;
Inter-
between; among ( a group ): Interdepartmental (= between departments); to
Intermarry (= marry someone of another race, religion, etc. );
Intra-
inside; within: Intra-departmental (= within a department ); Intracranial
pressure (= inside head ); 2. Into : an intravenous injection (= into a vein );
Intro-
into, esp. into the inside: introspection (= examining ones’s own feelings);
Ir-
( the form used for in, before r ) not : irregular (= not regular );
Iso-
the same all through or in every part; equal; : an isotherm (= line joining places
of equal temperature );
Italo-
of Italy; Italian; 2. Italian and: the Italo-Australian border ;
Kilo-
1000 times the stated unit : a kilogram (= 1000 grams );
²

Macro-
large, esp. concerning a whole system rather than particular parts of it:
macroeconomics ( = study of large money system, e.g a contry’s );
Mal-
bad or badly : a malformed (= wrongly shaped ) limb; She maltreats her
children (= treats them cruelly );
Matri-
1.concerning mothers: matricide (= killing one’s mother ); 2. Concerning
women : a matriarchal society (= controlled by women );
Mega-
a million times the stated unit : a 100megaton bomb; 2. Unusually large or
great: Hollyhood megastars; the film is set to earn megabucks (= an extremely
large amount of money );
Meta-
beyond the ordinary or usual: metaphysical (= beyond ordinary physical
things );
Micro-
extremely small: a microcomputer; microelectronics (= using extremely small
electrical part );
Mid-
middle : She’s in her mid-20s (= is about 25 years old ); in mid-July; a cold
midwinter night; at the midpoint of our holiday;
Milli-
1000th part of the stated unit: a millimetre (= 0.001 metres);
Mini-
very small compared with others of its kind;: a minibreak (= a short holiday ); a
miniskirt (= very short );
Mis-
1. bad or badly: misfortune (= bad luck ); to misbehave; 2. Wrong or wrongly: a
miscalculation; to misunderstand; 3. Showing an opposite or the lack of
something; : I mistrust (= don’t trust ) him ;
²

Mock-
Only pretendingly; : a mock-serious expression on her face;
Mono-
one; single; : a monoplane (= plane with only one wing on each side ); a
monolingual dictionary (= dealing with only one language );
Multi-
more than one; many; : multicoloured (= with many colours ); a multistorey
office block;
Neo-
( esp. in nouns and adjectives ) a recent or later kind of the stated former
system, style, etc. ; new ; : neoclassical architecture (= copying that of anciente
Greece and Roma ); neocolonialism (= the control of other contries by large
modern states );
Neuro-; neur-; -
Concerning the nerves: a neurosurgeon (= who specializes in the body’s
nervous system ) ;
Non-
1. (esp. in adjective and nouns ) showing a negative; not: a nonalcoholic drink;
a nonsmoker (= someone who does not smoke ); a nonstick frying pan (= which
food does not stick to; 2. ( esp. in nouns ) not deserving the stated name : a
nonevent (= something dull ); It was a really bad book – a nonstory with non-
characters;
Nor-
( used esp. by sailors ): north ; nor’east ; nor’west;
Omni-
everything or everywhere; all; : a omnivoro (= animal that eats all sorts of
food );
Osteo-
Concerning bones; : osteo-arthritis (= disease of the joints );
²

Out-
1. ( in nouns and adjectives formed from verbs followed by out ): an outbreak
of flu (= from break out ); outspoken comments (= from speak out ); with
outstretched hands (= from stretch out ); 2. ( in nouns and adjectives ) outside;
beyond; : an outhouse (= small additional building ); outlying areas (= far from
the centre ); 3. ( in verbs ) a beyond; further; : She outlived her brother (= he
died before her ) ; he’s outgrown his clothes (= become too big for them ); b so
as to be better than or defeat: I can out-argue you any day;
Over-
too much ; overpopulation ; overcooked cabbage ; 2. Above; beyond; across; :
overhanging branches; the overland route (= not by sea or air ); 3. Outer;
covering; :an overcoat; 4. Additional :working overtime (= beyond the usual
time );
Paleo-; palaeo-; -
extremely ancient, before historical times: paleobotany;
Pan-
including all; pan-African unity; pan-Arabism ( = political union of all Arabs );
Para-
1. Beyond: the paranormal (= strange unnatural events ); 2. Very similar to; (as
if ) copying: terrorists wearing paramilitary uniforms; paratyphoid; 3.
Connected with and : paramedical workers such as ambulance drivers;
Patri-
Concerning fathers: patricide (= killing one’s father ); 2. Concerning men:
patriarchal society (= controlled by men );
Penta-
Concerning five : pentagon (= shape with five sides );
Phono-; phon-; -
1. Concerning the voice or speech: phonetics (= science of speech sounds ); 2.
Concerning sound: a phonoreceptor (= animal hearing organ );
²

Photo-
concerning light : photosensitive paper (= that changes when light act on it ); 2.
Concerning photography: photojournalism (= use of photographs in reporting
news );
Physio-; physi-
concerning natural and living things: physiology (= study of how the body
works ); 2. Physical: physiotherapy (= treatment using exercises, etc., rather
than medicines );
Politico-
political and : politico-scientific;
Poly-
many; : polysyllabic (= with three or more syllables ); polyandry (= having
more than one husband at the same time );
Post-
later than; after;: postwar (= after a war ); to postpone (= make later );
Pre-
before; : prewar (= before a war ); In advance : prearranged;
Pro-
in favour of; supporting;: pro-American; the pro-abortion lobby; 2. Acting
in the place of: the pro-vice-chancellor;
Usage:
In informal spoken English pro is sometimes used as a preposition:
She’s very pro the present government;
Proto-; prot-
first in time or order, and esp. having others come after it or develop from it;
Original: the huge protogalaxy from which all the galaxies in the present-
day Universe developed;
Pseudo-
not real; false; : pseudo-intellectuals (= who pretend to be clever ); He says
astrology’s just a pseudoscience;
²

Psycho-; psych-
Concerning the mind, as opposed to the body: psychotheraphy (= treatment of
the mind );
Quadri-;quadru-;quadr-
four; four times; : quadrilateral; (= with four straight sides); a quadruped (= an
animal wth four legs );
Quasi-
in some ways; partly: the chairman’s quasi-judicial role (= acting in some ways
like a judge ); 2. derog Pseudo- : quasi-scientific ideas
Radio-; radi; -
concerning waves of force, e.g, light, sound, or radio waves: radiopaque (=
which waves will not pass through; b using radio waves: a radiotelephone
(= working without wires ); radiopaging (= calling people by radio ); 2.
Concerning radioactivity: radiochemistry (= study of radioactive
chemical );

Re-
( esp.in verbs ) 1. Again: to rebroadcast a radio play; 2. Again In a new and
better way: to rewrite a letter; 3. Back to a former stated: After years of
separation they were finally reunited;
Usage:
When re- is used with the meaning shown here, it is pronounced / ri /. But it
comes in many other words, such as rebuke and respond, where it does
not have a separate meaning of its own, and in them it is usually
pronounced / ri / ( or /ri / before a vowel ). Compare recover (= to get
better ) and re-cover (= to cover again );
Retro-
1. Back towards the past: retroactive legislation (= which has an effect on
things already done ); in retrospect ; 2. Back towards an earlierband
worse state: a retrograde step; to retrogress; 3. Backwards: a retrorocket
(= that fires backwards, opposite to the direction of travel );
Romano-
1. of ancient Rome ; Roman; 2. Ancient Roman and: romano-british art;
²

Russo-
1. Of Russia; Russian; : a Russophile (= someone who loves Russia ); 2.
Russian and: Russo-American trade;
Self-
1. By means of oneself or itself: he’s self-taught (= he taught himself. ); self-
propelled; 2. Of, to, with, for, or in oneself or itself: a self-addressed
envelope (= which one addresses to oneself ); a self-portrait (= a picture
of oneself, drawn, painted, etc. by oneself ) self-restraint;
Semi-
1. Exactly half : a semicircles; 2. Partly but not completely: in the semidarkness
; a semi-invalid; semi-literate people; 3. Happening, appearing, etc. twice
in the stated period: a semiweekly visit; a semi-annual publication;
She-
concerning female: a she-goat; a she-devil (= evil woman );
Sino-
1. Of china; Chinese ;: sinology (= study of china ); 2. Chinese and : sino-
Japanese trade ;
Socio-
1. Concerning society ; social; : sociology (= study of society ); 2. Social and :
sociopolitical;
Step-
related not by birth but through a parent who has remarried: my stepfather (=
not my real father but a man who has married with my mother ); her
stepchildren;
Sub-
1. under; below; : subzero temperatures; subsoil (= beneath the surface ); 2.
Less important or powerful or of lower rank than: a subcommittee; a
sublieutenant; 3. Part of the stated bigger whole: a subsection; 4. Similar
to not as good as or not real: dreary rows of sub-victorian villas; 5.
Almost: a subtropical heat;
²

Super-
more; larger; greater; or more powerful than usual: a supertanker (= a ship that
can carry extremely large loads ); superglue; super-rich films stars;
superheated steam;
Sym-
the form used for syn- before b, m, or p : sympathy
Syn-
together; sharing; : a synthesis (= combining of separate things );
Techno-
concerning technology; : technocracy (= rule by skilled specialists);
technophobia (= esp. fear of computers );
Tele-
1. At or over a long distance: a telescope (= for seeing a long way );
telecommunications ; telepathy (= sending thought messages ); teleshopping (=
using a computer in one’s home to order goods) 2. By or for television: a
teleplay; a telerecording;
Theo-; the-;
concerning God or gods: theology (= study of religion );
Thermo-;therm-;
- concerning heat: a thermostat (= for controlling temperature ); thermostable
(= that does not change, when heated );
Trans-
1. On or to the far side of; across; : transatlantic flights; the trans-siberian
railway ; 2. Between, inter-; : trans-racial fostering; 3. Showing a change : to
transform; the transmutation of base metal to gold;

Tri-
three; three times; : trilingual (= speaking three languages ); triangles (= a
shape with three sides and three angles );
²

Ultra-
above in a range; beyond; : ultrasound (= too high to hear ); 2. Very; extremely;
: an ultramodern building; ultracautious; ultrasensitive;
Un-
(esp. In adjectives and adverbs, showing a negative , a lack, or an opposite )
not: unfair (= not fair ); Unhappy; Unfortunately; Unbelief (= lack of belief );
2. ( esp. in verbs, showing an opposite ): the pipe’s blocked; we must Unblock
it. (= remove what is blocking it ); to Undress (= take one’s clothes off );
Usage:
Compare Un-, In- and non-, which all mean “Not” . the difference between
them is the degree to which they suggest the idea of something opposite rather
than something negative . non- , is usually just negative ( for example,
nonalcoholic drinks contain no alcohol ), but Un-, is often used to suggest an
opposite quality. Compare: he has applied for a nonscientific job (= not
connected with science ) in the civil service.; It was very Unscientific (=
showing too little attention to scientific principles ) not to measure your results.
Of the three prefixes, In-, tends most often to suggest opposite qualities.
Compare: their Inhuman (= very cruel ) treatment of political prisoners; the
archaelogists discovered both human and non-human bones;
Under-
1. too little; : Underdevelopment; Undercooked cabbage; 2. Going underneath:
an underpass; 3. Inner; beneath others : Undergarments; 4. Less important or
lower in rank: a head gardener and three undergardeners;
Uni-
one; single; : unidirectional;
Up-
1. So as to be higher: to upgrade a job (= make it higher in importance ); 2.
( esp. in adverbs and adjectives ) at or towards the top or beginning; uphill;
upriver (= nearer where the river starts ); 3. ( esp. in verbs ) so as to be out of
place or upside down; : an uprooted tree; she upended the bucket. 4. ( esp. in
adjective and adverbs ) at or towards the higher or better part: up-market (=
meeting the demand of the higher social group );
²

Vice-
the person next in official rank below the stated person, who has the power to
represent them or act in place of them: the vice-president of the USA.; vice-
captain of the cricket team;

The Word Endings

-ability; -ibility;
( in nouns formed from adjectives ending in “–able” and “-ible”):
Manageability; Suitability;
Usage:
This endings is commonly used with words that mean “that can be ___ed” (-able
1), but is much less usual with words that mean “ having a quality” (-able 2) :
you cannot say confortability.
-able; also -ible ( in adjectives) ;
1. that can be___ed; : washable (= that can be washed ); Unbreakable (= that
cannot be broken ); 2. Having the stated quality or condition: Knowleadgeable
(= knowing a lot ); confortable ;- ably, -ibly (in adverbs): unbelievably
-ade ( in nouns);
1. a usual sweetened drink made from the stated fruit: Orangeade (= drink made
from orange fruit );
-age ( in nouns );
1.the action or result of ___ing; : to allow for shrinkage (= getting smaller );
several breakages (= things broken ); 2. The cost of___ing; : Postage is extra.; 3.
The stated or rank of a ___ : a peerage (= noble rank);
-aholic infml ( in nouns and adjectives )
a person who cannot stop doing or using the stated thing: a workaholic ( who
loves working and cannot stop ); a computaholic;
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-al; -ial; ( in adjectives )

Of or concerning ____s : coastal waters (= near the coast); political; 2. ( in
nouns ) the action of ___ing : her arrival (= arriving); a refusal;
-an; -ean;-ian;
1.(In adjective and nouns ) someone or something of ,from, or connected
with__: an American (= a person from América ); The Pre-tolstoyan novel; 2.
( in nouns) someone skilled in or studying the stated subject: a historian (=
studies history (= someone who studies history);
-ana ( In nouns)
Americana (= who is from América );
-ance; -ence; ( in nouns)
( an example of ) the action state, or quality of___ing or being__: his sudden
appearance (= he appeared suddenly); her brilliance (= she is brilliant); several
performances;
-ancy; -ency ( In nouns)
the state or quality of __ing or of being __: expectancy (= state of
expecting );hesitancy; complacency (= being complacent);
-ant; -ent; ( In nouns and adjectives)
(Someone or something) that___s: a servant (= someone who serves others);
disinfectant (= substance for killing germs); expectant (= expecting); pleasant
(= pleasing);
-ar ;
(in nouns )( the form used for -er in certain words ): a beggar (= person who
begs) 2. (in adjectives) of or concerning ___s: muscular strength (= strength of
muscles); see also -ular; : molecular
-archy (in nouns )
About government; rule; : anarchy (= no government); monarchy (= with one
ruler);
-ard (in nouns)
Someone with the stated usu. Bad quality; someone who is usu. Or always___: a
drunkard;
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-arian (in adjectives and nouns )

(of or for) someone who is connected with or believes in the stated thing: a
vegetarian restaurant (= for people who do not eat meat); a librarian (=
someone who works in a library); see also -generarian;
-ary (in adjectives)
1.Of or concerning ___s: a Planetary bodies (= that are planets); customary; 2.
someone connected with a___: the beneficiaries of the will (= people who profit
from it); a funcionary (= someone with duties) 3. A thing or place connected
with or containing___s: a library (= containing books); an ovary (= containing
eggs);
-ate;
1.( in adjectives) full of or showing the stated quality: very affectionate (=
showing love ); 2. ( in verbs) to cause to become___: to activate (= making
active); to regulate (= make regular); 3. (in nouns) a group of people with
certain, duties: the electorate (= people who elect, voters); an inspectorate; 4.
( In nouns) the job, the rank, or degree of a___: she was awarded her doctorate
(= the degree of doctor); 5. ( in nouns ) a chemical salt formed from the stated
acid: phosphate; see also -ately (in adverbs): fortunately;
-athon; infml (in nouns )
An event in which the stated thing is done for a very long time, esp. to collect
money: a swimathon; a talkathon;
-ation ( in nouns)
the act, state, or result of___ing: an examination (= examining) of the contents;
the combination of several factors;
-ative (in adjectives)
1. liking or tending to___, or showing a liking for___ s: talkative (= liking to
talk a lot); argumentative (= enjoying arguments); Imaginative (= Showing
imagination);
-ator ( in nouns)
1. someone or something that ___s: a narrator (= someone who tells a story ); a
generator (= machine that produces electricity);
-bound ( in adjectives)
1.limited, kept out , or controlled in the stated way: a fog-bound aircraft or
airport (= unable to operate because of forg); we were snow-bound and couldn’t
get out of the house. ;
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-cide ( in nouns); -icide;

Genocide (= killing a whole race of people); see also -cidal (in adjectives); -
cidally (in adverbs);
-cracy (in nouns); -ocracy;
Bureaucracy (= government by officials who are not elected)
-craft (in nouns)
1. a vehicle of the stated kind; a vehicle of the stated kind; : a spacecraft; a
hovercraft; several aircraft; 2. Skill of the stated kind; : statecraft (= skill in the
art of government ); stagecraft (= skill in acting or directing plays); see also (in
nouns) -crat; -ocrat;
-cy; ( in nouns)
The state or quality of being___: privacy (= state of being private); accurancy;
bankruptcy; 2. The rank or position of a___: baronetcy (= the rank of baronet);
-d; ( the form used for -ed after e )
Baked
-dom ( in nouns )
a. the rank of a___: he was rewarded with a dukedom (= was made a duke, high
noble rank ); b. an area ruled by a___: a kingdom; 3. All the people who share
the same set of interests, have the same job, etc.: officialdom (= all officials);
yuppiedom;
-drome rather old-fash ( in nouns)
1. a large place for the stated purpose: an aerodrome (= airport)
-ean; -an; ( in adjectives and nouns)
Mozartean (= of or like Mozart );
-ectomy ( in nouns)
The removing of the stated body part by an operation: an appendectomy (=
removing the appendix);
-ed ( forms the regular past tense and past participle of verbs. The past participle
form is often used as an adjective ): I want, I wanted, I have wanted, ; I show, I
showed, I have shown, ; walked; echoed; a wanted criminal ; 2. ( in adjectives)
having a___: a bearded man (= man with a beard); a kind-hearted woman;
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Usage:
-ed or -d added to the end of a verb to make the past tense or past participle
( failed, loved), have the sound /d/ except: a. after verbs ending with the
sounds /p, k, f, ɵ, s, ʃ, tʃ ,/. Here -ed is pronounced / t / , as in matched; b. after
verbs ending with the sounds / t, d /. Here -ed is pronounced / id / in British
English and /ed / in American English , as in needed;
-ee /i/ (in nouns)
1.someone who is___ed: the payee (= someone who is paid); a trainee; an
employee; 2. Someone who is ___or who ___s: an absentee (= someone who is
absent); an escapee (= someone who escapes );
-eer;
1. ( in nouns) someone who does or makes a___: an auctioneer (= someone who
runs auction sales) ; a profteer (= someone who makes unfair profts); a
racketeer; 2. (in verbs) to perform actions connected with ___s: to profiteer;
electioneering;
-en;
1. ( in adjectives) made of___: a golden crown; a wooden seats; 2.( in verbs) to (
cause to) be, become or have___: to darken (= make or become dark); to ripen;
to strengthen (= have or give more strength );
-ence; (in nouns) -ance;
Its existence (= it exists); reference; occurrence;
-ency; (in nouns) -ancy
a tendency
-ent; (in adjectives and nouns) -ant;
Different; residents;
-er;
1.( forms the comparative of many short adjectives and adverbs); : hot, hotter;
dry, dryer; my car is fast, but hers is faster/ goes faster ; see also -est; 2. (in
nouns ) someone who___s or who is ___ing; : a dancer (= someone who dances
or is dancing ) ; the diners (= people having dinner); 3. Something that___s: a
screwdriver (= tool for driving in screws); 3. Someone who makes___s: a hatter
(= someone who makes hats); 4. Someone who lives or comes from___: a
Londoner (= someone from London); the villagers (= people who live in the
village); 5. Someone skilled in or studying the stated subject: a geographer (=
someone who studies geography ); 6. Something that has ___s: a three-wheeler
car (= with three wheels);
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Usage:
In expressions like “she is a dancer”, words ending in -er usually suggest that
the person who performs the action of the verb does it professionally: one can,
however, say “he is a very keen footballer/ a very good dancer” without
suggesting that he does it professionally.
-ery; -ry; ( in nouns)
1. a the art , behaviour, or condition of a ___ or of being___: slavery (= being a
slave); bravery (= being brave); b. a collection of___s: modern machinery (=
machines); in all her finery (= fine clothes); 2. a place where the stated thing
lives or is done, made, sold: a rookery (= where birds called rooks live); a
bakery (= where bread is baked) ; an oil refinery;
-es /z/ ( the form used for -s when added to a word ending with s, z, ch, sh, or y):
Glasses ; buzzes ; watches; ladies
-ese /iz / ( in nouns and adjectives)
( the people or language ) belonging to the stated country or place: the Viennese
(= from Vienna ) are so charming; learning Japanese (= the language of Japan);
Chinese music ; 2. ( in nouns) language or words limited to the stated group:
Journalese (= language used in newspapers; officialese (= language used in
official or legal writing);
-esque ( in adjectives)
1. in the manner or tyle of: Kafkaesque (= in the style of the writer Franz Kafka,
or like the situations or characters in his books); 2. Like a____: picturesque (=
pleasing to look at);
-ess ( in nouns)
A female____: an actress (= a female actor); a waitress; two lionesses;
Usage:
Many people do not like the use of female forms such as authoress and poetess.
They prefer to use the same word for both men and women: Sylvia Plath , the
well-known American poet; Iris Murdoch is the author of many novels.
-est;
( forms the superlative of many shorter adjectives and adverbs): cold, colder,
coldest, ; dry , dryer, driest; our soap washes whitest ; see also -st old use or bibl
( forms the second person singular of verbs): thou goest;
-eth; -th;
Old use or bibl ( forms the third person singular of verbs): he goeth;
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-ette (in nouns )

1. a small____: a kitchenette (= a small kitchen); infml a snackette (= a very
small meal); 2. A female____: a usherette (= female usher); 3. Not real___;
Imitation: flanelette ; chairs covered with leatherette;
-ey /i/ (in adjectives)
The form used for -y esp. after y: clayey soil ;
-fashion;(in adverbs)
In theway of a___; like a___: they ate Indian-fashion, using their fingers.
-fold; (in adjectives and adverbs)
Of or by the stated number of times or kinds: a window has a twofold purpose-
it allows light into the room and lets people see out. The value of the house has
increased fourfold (= it is now worth four times as much as before);
-free; (=in adjectives and adverbs) without___: a salt-free diet; a trouble-free
journey; we bought the cigarettes duty-free; they live in the house rent-free;
-friendily (in adjectives)
Not difficult for ____s to use; helpful to____: a user-friendly computer; a
customer-frendly shopping envirement;
-ful (in nouns)
1. the amount of a substance needed to fill the stated container: two cupfuls of
milk; he smoked a whole packetful of cigarettes; 2. As much as can be carried
by, contained in , etc. the stated part of the body: carrying an armful of flowers;
she drank a few mouthfuls of tea; 3. a place or space filled with people or
things: a shelf-ful of books; a roomful of people 4. Ful of___s: an eventful day;
5. Having the quality of____; causing_____: restful colours; Is it painful ?___-
fully shouting cheerfully;
Usage:
The plural of nouns ending in ful can be formed in either of two ways. Both
basketfuls and basketsful are correct, but the second is rather old-fashioned
now;see also -fy (in verbs)- ify;
-gamy (in nouns)
Marriage to the stated number of kind of people: bigamy (= being married to too
people; monogamy ; -gamous (in adjectives)
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-genarian ( in nouns and adjectives)

(Someone ) who is the stated number of decade (periods of 10 years) old: an
octogenarian (= between 80 and 89 years old);
-gon (in nouns)
A shape with the stated number of sides and angles: hexagon (= with six sides);
a polygon (= with many sides);
-gram (in nouns)
a message delivered as an amusing surprise: on his birthday we sent him a
kissagram (= an unknown girl who was paid to delever him a message and kiss
him;
-head (in nouns )
1. the top of a ___: a pithead (= the top of coalmine; 2. The point of origin of
a__; source: a fountainhead
-high ( in adjectives )
1.Having the stated height : the wall was about chest-high (= as high as one’s
chest ) ; a 7000-metre-high mountain;
-hood ( in nouns )
The state or time of being a____: a childhood; manhood; likelihood;
-I;-is; ( in nouns and adjectives )
(A person or the language) of the stated place, esp. in Asia: two Pakistanis;
speakers of Nepali; the Israeli army;
-ial; -al; ( in adjectives )
A managerial job (= with the duties of a manager );
-ian; -an; ( in adjectives and nouns )
Dickensian characters (= like those in Dickens’s books); a librarian (= someone
who works in a library);
-iana; ( in nouns )

1. a collection of objects, papers, etc., connected with___: churchilliana;

shakespeariana;

-ibility; -ability;( in nouns )

Invincibility
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-ible; -able; ( in adjectives)

Irreversible

-ic;

1. (in adjectives)of, like, or connected with___: Photographic(=of photography);

an alcoholic drink (= containing alcohol ); polysyllabic (= containing several
syllables); pelvic (= of the pelvis ); Byronic (= like or connected with the poet
Byron ); 2. ( in nouns ) someone on whon the stated thing has an effect: an
alcoholic (= someone who cannot stop drinking alcohol ); see also -ically ( in
adverbs ) – photographically
Usage :
There are many adjectives which end in -ic and -ical. Some can end only in -ic:
energetic; idealistic; tragic; . some can end only in -ical: grammatical;
hysterical; musical; . a few can take either ending without changing their
meaning: geometric; geometrical; magic; magical; poetic; poetical. Some others
can take either ending, but with a difference in meaning: economic and
economical ; historic and historical.
-ical; -ic; ( in adjectives)
Historical (= of history); satirical; see also -ically ( in adverbs): historically;
-ician ( in nouns)
1. a skilled worker who deals with___: a beautician (= someone who gives
beauty treatments ); a technician;
-icide; -cide; ( in nouns)
1. killer; killing; : insecticide (= chemical substance for killing insects); suicide
(= act of killing oneself ); see also_ -cidal ( in adjectives);_ -icidally (in
adverbs );
-ics ( in nouns)
1. the scientific study or use of___: linguistics (= the study of language );
electronics (= the study or making of apparatus that uses chips transistors, etc.);
acoustics ; 2. Qualities or events connected with___: the acoustics (= sound
qualities) of the hall;
Usage:
Words ending in -ics usually take a singular verb when they mean a school
subject or an area of study: Acoustics is the study of how the sound behaves.
European politics is his special subject. In other cases they usually take a plural
verb: The acoustics of this hall is terrible; his politics are left of centre;
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-ide ( in nouns)
1. a chemical compound: Cynaide; Sulphide; see also -ie ( in nouns): dearie;

-iform ( in adjectives )

1. In shape of a___; like a___: Cruciform (= cross-shaped);

-Ify; -fy; ( in nouns)

1. to make or become___: to purify (= to make or become pure ); Clarify (= to

make or become clear ); 2. To fill with___: terrify (= fill with terror ); 3. Infml,
often humor or derog a to make___s: to speechify (= make speeches, use fine-
sounding words); b to cause to be like or typical of a___ or the___: Frenchfied
(= like the French );
-in; ( in nouns )
1. an activity in which a group of people do something together for a purpose: a
sit-in (= where people sit in a place to prevent its usual activity ); a teach-in;
-ine ( esp. fml or tech
1. of or concerning___s: esquine (= of horses ). 2. Made of; like: crystalline;
-ing; ( in verbs);( in nouns)

1. ( forms the present participle of verbs): they’re dancing; to go dancing; a

dancing bear; 2. The action or process of the stated verb: she hates swimming;
No parking (= on a notice, = do not park here); 3. ( in nouns) a a case or
example of the stated verb: to hold a meeting; b a product or result of stated
verb: a beautiful painting ; 4. ( in nouns) something used to___ or used for
making___s: a silk lining; ; ten metres of shirting (= cloth for shirts );
Usage:
Adjectives which end in -ing show that the noun they describe is the doer or
subject of the verb they are formed from: a frightening film (= it frightens
people ); she’s an interesting writer (= she interests me); it was an exciting game
(= it made people feel excited); .
Adjectives which end in -ed show that the noun they describe is the object of the
verb they are formed from: a frightened child (= someone or something has
frightened him/her; an interested audience (= the play/ concert interested him );
an excited crowd (= the game made them feel excited );
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When adjectives ending in -ing are used in certain combinations different stress
patterns give different meanings. Compare : a sleeping car (= a special railway
carriage where people can sleep); and a sleeping dog (= a dog which is
sleeping); a singing bird (= a special kind of bird which can sing); and a singing
bird (= a bird which is singing at this moment );
-ion; ( in nouns )
The act, state, or result of___ing; the completion (= completing) of the task; his
election (= he was elected) to the post; several volcanic eruptions;
-ise; -ize; ( in verbs ) ; __ -isation ( in nouns)
-ish
1.( in nouns and adjectives ) ( the people or language) belonging to the stated
country or place: are the British (= people from Britain) unfriendly? ; to speak
Turkish (= the language of turkey); she’s Swedish (= from Sweden; Spanish
food (= from spain); 2. Often derog ( in adjectives) typical of a___; like a___:
foolish behaviour (= typical of a fool); don’t be so Childish (= don’t behave in a
way unsuitable to an adult __compare childlike); Snobbish; selfish; 3. (in
adjectives) to some degree___; rather___; quite___: Youngish (= not very
young, but not old either); tallish; reddish hair; 4. Infml ( in adjectives ) about
the stated number; approximately: come at eightish (= at about 8 o’clock); he’s
fortyish (= about 40 years old );
-ism; ( in nouns )
1. ( a movement or religion based on) the stated principle or the teachings
of___; socialism; Buddhism; 2. An act or the practice or process of___ing or of
being___: his criticism of my work (= he criticizes it ); her witticisms (=funny
or witty remarks); 3. The state or quality of being a___: heroism (= being a hero;
bravery); magnetism (= being magnetic ); 4. Illness caused by too much___:
alcoholism; 5. The practice of making unfair differences between people
because of___: sexism (= making unfair differences between men and women);
racism; heightism (= against people who are very tall or short);
-ist;
1. ( in nouns and adjectives) ( a follower) of the stated religion or set of
principles or ideas: a Buddhist; a Scottish nationalist; her socialist views; he’s
very rightist (= supports the political rights wing__ compare -ite ; 2. ( in nouns)
someone who studies, produces, plays or operates a ___: a linguist (= someone
who studies or learns languages ); a novelist (= someone who writes novels) ; a
guitarist (= someone who plays the guitar ); a machinist (= someone who
operates a machine )_ see also -ologist; 3. ( in nouns and adjectives) ( someone)
making Unfair differences between people because of ___: a very sexist remark
(= making unfair differences between men and women;
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-ite ( in nouns and adjectives)

1. sometimes derog ( a follower or supporter) of the stated movement or person:
a group of Trotskyites (= followers of trotsky’s political ideas ) ; the Pre-
Raphaelites; his Reaganite opinions; __compare -ist; 2. ( someone) belonging to
the stated place or tribe: a Brooklynite (= someone from Brooklyn); the israelist
in the Bible;
-itis ( in nouns)
1. a diseased or infected condition of the ___: tonsillitis (= infection of the
tonsils) 2. Humor the condition of having too much of or being too keen on___:
televisionitis (= watching too much television);
-itude; -tude; often pomp ( in nouns)
The state or degree of being __: certitude (= being certain ); exactitude
-ity; -ty; ( in nouns)
The quality or an example of being___: with great regularity (= regularly); such
stupidities (= stupid actions or remarks);
-ive (in nouns and adjectives )
Someone or something that___s or can___: an explosive (= substance that can
explode); a detective (= somene who tries to descover facts about crimes); the
adoptive parents (= who adopts a child) ;
-ize; -ise esp.BrE ( in verbs )
1. cause to be more___; make___: to modernize our procedures (= make them
more modern); Americanized spelling (= spelling changed into the American
system from another system); to privatize (= put back into private ownership); 2.
To become a___: a liquid crystallized (= turned into crystal); 3. Sometimes
derog to speak in stated way: to soliloquize (= speak a Soliloquy, to oneself ); to
sermonize (=speak solemnly, as if in a Sermon); 4. Put into the stated place: to
hospitalize a patient ; __ see also -ization (in nouns) : civilization;
Usage:
-ize is very often used to make new verbs from nouns and adjectives, such as
containerize (= pack goods in large containers ); hospitalize, and finalize. Some
^people do not approve of -ize being used so much in this way. The form -ise is
commoner in British English than American English. But when it is joined on to
a word part which is not actually a word , as in surprise ( surpr- is not a word),
-ise is usually the only spelling in British English as well as in American
English. The following words must be spelt with -ise: advertise, advise, chastise,
circumcise, comprise, compromise, despise, devise, disguise, excercise, excise,
improvise, incise, merchandise, revise, surpervise, surprise, surmise.
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-kin; also -kins Infml, old-fash or humor( in nouns)

( used esp. to children) a small and usu. Charming___: a lambkin; little
babykins;
-latry ( in nouns)
Worship of___: Mariolatry (= worship of the Virgin Mary);
-led ( in adjectives)
Having the stated thing as the most important or effective condition, influence,
etc.: export-led growth ;
-less ( in adjectives);*
1.Without a ___: a childless couple (= who have no children); It’s quite harmless
(= will not harm you); he was hatless (= wore no hat); endless complaints (= that
never end); 2. That never___ s or cannot be___ ed: a tireless helper (= that never
gets tired); on countless occasions (= too many to be counted);
-let ( in nouns)
1. a small kind of___: a booklet (= small usu. Paper-covered book); a piglet (=
young pig) ; 2. A band worn on the stated part of the body: an anklet (= worn
on the ankle );
-like ( in adjectives)
Like, typical of, or suitable to a___: a jelly-like substance ; child-like simplicity;
lady-like behaviour ;
-ling esp. old use ( in nouns) a small, young, or unimportant___: a duckling (=
young duck) ; minor Prussian princelings (= unimportant princes);
-lived ( in adjectives)
Lasting or living the stated length of times: her enthusiasm was short-lived (=
did not last long) ; to come from a long-lived family;
-logist ( in nouns ) -ologist
-logue; also -log AmE ( in nouns)
1. something spoken; talk; : a monologue (= speech by one person);
-logy; -ology ( in nouns)
1. genealogy
-ly ;
1. ( in adverbs) in the stated way: he did it very cleverly (= in a clever way;
slowly; 2. ( in adverbs) from the stated point of view : Politically speaking (=
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from a political point of view) it was a rather unwise remark. ; a financially

sound proposal 3. ( in adjectives and adverbs) happening at regular periods of
a___; an hourly check (= done every hour) ; they visit monthly (= once a
month); 4. ( in adjectives) like a___ in manner , nature, or appearance: with
queenly grace; a motherly woman (= showing the love, kindness, etc. of a
mother);
-manship ( in nouns)
The art or skill of a person of the stated typee: seamanship (= sailing skill );
statesmanship ; horsemanship (= skill at horse-riding);
-ment ( in nouns)
1. the act, cause, means, or result of___ing; the need for strong government (=
strong governing ); the replacement (= replacing) of absolete machinery; some
interesting new developments 2. The condition of being ___ed : his
confinement (= being shut up) in prison; __ -mental ( in adjectives):
governmental;
-meter ( in nouns)
1. an instrument for measuring : an Altimeter (= for measuring the height at
which an aircraft is flying);
-metre(brE); -meter (AmE); ( in nouns)
1. the stated part of a metre or a number of metres: a millimetre ;
-monger ( in nouns)

1. someone who sells___: a fishmonger (= someone who sells fish, esp. In a

shop); 2. Usu.derog someone who likes to spread or encourage the stated
unpleasant thing: the rumourmongers (= people who spread perhaps untru
stories about other people); a warmonger;
-most ( in adjectives) nearest to___; most towards___: the northernmost town in
Sweden (= the town that is furthest to the north) ; The topmost branches of the
tree);
-nd;
( forms written Ordinal numbers with 2): the 2nd (= second) of March; 22nd
birthday;
-ness ( in nouns)
1. the condition, quality, or degree of being__: loudness; sadness; warm-
heartedness; the many kindnesses you’ve done me;
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-nik; infml ( in nouns)

A person who is connected with or keen on___: a computernik (= someone who
works with or is very keen on computers); a peacenik (= someone who supports
peace );
-ocracy; -cracy ( in nouns)
1. government by the stated (sort of) people or according to the stated principle:
democracy (= government by the people ); mobocracy; 2. A society or country
governed in this way: the Western democracy (= countries governed by their
people ); a meritocracy (= governed by the people with most ability); 3. The
usu. Powerful social class made up of ___s: the aristocracy (= people with noble
titles); (AustrE) the squattocracy (= rich farmers);
-ocrat; -crat; ( in nouns)
1. a believer in the stated principle of government: a democrat (= someone who
believes in government by the people ); 2. A member of usu. Powerful or
governing social class or group:a technocrat (= a scientist who controls
organizations, etc. )__ see also -ocratic (in adjectives);_ocratically(in adverbs);
-oid esp. tech (in adjectives)
1.like__; in form of___: humanoid cratures (= similar to humans); ovoid (= egg-
shaped);
-ologist; -logist ( in nouns)
1.a person who studies or specializes in the stated branch of science: a biologist;
-ology; -logy (in nouns)
1.the scientific study of__: geology (= the study of rocks and the Earth);
Climatology (= the study of climat ); Egyptology (= study of ancient Egypt );
infml, Futurology (= the practice of trying to say how the future will develop) ;
2. Qualities relating to the stated science: the geology of north Devon is
particularly interesting (= It has interesting rocks, etc.)__ see also ological ( in
adjectives) __ologically ( in adverbs): geologically interesting;
-or ( in nouns)
The form used for -er in certains words: an actor (= a person who acts); an
inventor;
-ory (in nouns)
1. a place or thing used for___ing: an observatory (= where people look at
things esp. the stars ); a directory (= book giving lists of information); 2. ( in
adjectives) that___s: an explanatory not ( = that gives an explanation); a
congratulatory telegram (= that congratulates);
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-osis; -oses (in nouns)

1. tech a diseased condition: silicoses (= a lung disease); neuroses (= disorders
of the mind); 2. A condition or process: a metamorphoses (= change from one
state to another)__-otic ( in adjectives): neurotic; hypnotic;__ -otically (in
adverbs );
-ous; ( in adjectives)
Causing or having___: dangerous (= ful of danger); spacious (= with much
space);
-phile; -phil ( in nouns)
A person who likes___: a Bibliophile (= a person who likes books); an
Anglophile (= someone who likes England or Britain);
-philia ( in nouns)
1. a liking for___: Francophilia (= a liking for France) 2. A diseased or
unhealthy tendency towards or liking for___: haemophilia (= a tendency to
bleed); necrophilia (= a sexual attraction to dead bodies);
-philiac ( in nouns)
1. a person suffering from___philia: necrophiliac ;
-phobe ( in nouns)
1. a person who dislikes or hates ___: an Anglophobe (= someone who hates
England or Britain); a xenophobes (= someone who hates foreigners);
-phobia ( in nouns)
1. a dislike or hatred of___: Anglophobia (= dislike of England or Britain); 2.
Tech a diseased or unhealthy dislike or fear of ___: claustrophobia (= fear of
being in a small enclosed space; aquaphobia (= fear of water);
-phobic ( in adjectives and nouns) ( of or being)
1.A person suffering from___ phobia: he’s claustrophobic; __ see also
phobically ( in adverbs);
-phone;
1. ( in nouns ) an apparatus connected with a sound and/or hearing, esp. a
musical instrument: ear-phones (= for listening to a radio, etc.); saxophone; 2.
( in adjectives and nouns)( of or being) a person who speakes a stated language:
Franco-phone nations (= where the French is spoken);
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-proof;
1. ( in adjectives) treated or made so as not to be armed by___s or so as to give
protection against ___s : a bulletproof car; an ovenproof dish (= that cannot be
harmed by heat); 2. ( in verbs) to treat or make in this way: to soundproof a
room (= so that sound cannot get into or out of it );
-rd ( forms written ordinal number with 3) : the 3rd (= third) of June ; his 53th
birthday ;
-ridden ( in adjectives)
1. suffering from the effect of too much___: her guilt-ridden drems (= she was
feeling very guilt); 2. Too full of___s: mosquito-ridden swamps;
-ry; -ery ( in nouns)
1. his sheer wizadry (=magical skill);
-s;
1. ( in nouns ) forms the plural of nouns: a cat and two dogs ; 2. ( forms the third
person singular of the present tense of most verbs): he plays ; she sits ; 3. esp.
AmE ( in adverbs) during the___: do you work Sundays? (= regularly each
Sunday); summers we go to the seaside;
Usage:
When -s, -‘s and -s’ are added to the end of a word ( comes, dogs, John’s ) they
have the sound / z / except: a after words ending with the sounds / p, t, k, f ,ɵ / .
here they are pronounced / s / as in cats . b after words ending with the sounds /
s, z, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ ,ʒ , / . here -s is added when the word ends in -e ( roses) and -es
when it does not (pushes ). After these words, both -s and -es are pronounced
/ez/: roses ; pushes; . the possessive ending –‘s has the same sound as -s , but is
never spelt -es . compare churches (plural) and church’s ( possessive) ;
-‘s ;
1.( forms the possessive case of singular nouns, and of plural nouns that do not
end in -s ): my sister’s husband; Mary’s generosity; yesterday’s lesson; the
children’s bedroom; the man in the corner’s coat (= the coat belonging to the
man in the corner ); 2. BrE the shop or home of___: I bought it at the Baker’s (=
at the baker’s shop ) ; I met him at the Mary’s (= at Mary’s house );
-s’ ( forms the possessive case of plural nouns): the girls’ dresses (= the dresses
belonging to the girls );
-scape ( in nouns)
1. a wide view of the stated area , as in a picture: the impressive Cityscape of
New York; some old Dutch seascapes (= picture of the sea );
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-ship ( in nouns ) ;
1. a the position of being a___: full membership (= being a full member) of the
club costs 35kz; she was offered the professorship (= the job of professor); b
the time during which this lasts: their long friendship (= they were friend for a
long time); during his premiership ; 2. The art or skill of a ___: her peerless
musicianship (= skill in performing or judging music ; a work of great
scholarship__ see also -Manship; 3. The whole group of___s: a magazine with
a readership of 9000 (= with 9000 readers ) ; the whole menbership of the club
is/ are coming to the meeting; 4. ( forms of certains titles ): your ladyship;
-smith ( in nouns)
1. a maker of___s:,a gunsmith (= someone who makes guns ); a wordsmith (=
someone who works with words, eg, Journalist );
-some ( In adjectives );
1. Causing or producing___: a troublesome boy (= who causes trouble ); 2.
Liking to____: a quarrelsome woman (= who likes to quarrel ); Frolicsome ; 3.
Able to be ___ ed; that one would like to____: a cuddlesome baby (= that one
would like to hold in one’s arms ); 4. ( In nouns ) a group of the stated number,
esp. players: a Golf foursome (= four people playing golf together );
-speak often derog ( In nouns ) the special language, esp. slang words, used in
the stated business or activity: Oilspeak (= Language used in the oil industry );
Computerspeak;
-sphere tech ( In nouns ) the air surrounding the Earth at a particular height: the
stratosphere ;
-spoken ( adjectives )
1. speaking___ly : a softlyspoken girl (= who speaks quietly );
-st
1. ( forms written ordinal number with 1 ): the 1st (= first ) prize; my 21st
birthday ; 2. Old use or bibl -est : thou dost (= you do );
-ster ( In nouns )
1. a person who is ___: a youngster (= a young person ); 2. a person who is
connected with, deals with, or uses___ s: a trickster (= one who plays deceiving
tricks ); a gangster (= a member of a gang ); a pollster (= one who carries out
polls ) ;
-th
1. ( forms ordinal numbers except with 1,2 or 3 ): the 17th of June; a fifth of
total; __ see also -nd , -rd, -st; 2. Old use or bibl -eth: He doth ( =does );
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-tion ( in nouns) ; -ion;

-tude ( in nouns );
1. -itude : disquietude (= anxiety ); desuetude;
-ty ( In nouns)
1. -ity : certainty (= being certain );
-ular ( In adjectives)
1. Of or concerning___s: glandular fever (= having an effect on glands);
tubular steel (= in the form of tubes);
-ule esp. tech ( in nouns)
1.a small___: a granule (= a small grain ); a spherule (= small sphere );
-ure ( In nouns)
1. the act or condition of___ing;: the closure (= closing) of the factory;
exposure;
-ville old-fash or humor sl, esp. AmE ( In nouns, formed from adjectives +s ) a
place or thing that is___: This party is really dullville (= It is very dull );
-ward ( in adjectives)
1. towards the stated direction or place : Our homeward journey (= our journey
towards home ); a downward movement;
-wards also -ward in AmE ( In adverbs)
1. towards the stated direction or place we’re travelling northwards (= towards
the north); the plane plunged Eathwards; (esp. AmE) moving gradually
downward;
-ware ( in nouns)
1. article made of the stated material, esp. for use in the home: glassware (=
glass bowls , glasses, etc. ); silverware (= silver dishes, knives, etc. ); 2. Article
used in the stated place for the preparation or serving of food: ovenware (=
dishes for use in the oven ); tableware (= plates, glasses, knives, etc.); 3. Things
used in operating a computer: software (= programs ); infml, liveware (= people
who operate computers;
-ways ( in adverbs)
1. In the stated direction: leaning sideways (= leaning to the side );
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-wright ( in nouns)
1. a maker of___ s : a wheelwright (= one who makes wheels); a playwright (=
one who writes plays );
-y, -ey /i/ ( in adjectives)
1. full of or covered with___: dirty hands (= covered with dirt ); a hairy chest; 2.
Tending to___; that___s : curly hair (= hair that curls ); feeling sleepy; 3. Like
or typical of ___: a cold wintry day (= typical of winter); his horsy appearance
(= he looks like a horse ); 4. Fond of or interested in___ s : a horsy woman (=
who is keen on horses)__ ily ( in adverbs )__ iness ( in nouns) ;
-y (in nouns) also -ie
1. ( used, esp, when speaking to children to make a word or name less formal,
and often also to show fondness): where’s little Johnny? (= John); my daddy (=
father ); what a nice doggy ! (= dog ); (BrE ) wellies (= wellingtons ); 2. The act
or the action of____ing : the expiry date (= date when something expires );