Gself: Understanding The Self

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GSELF
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, you should be
able to:
1. Interpret the human experience from
various perspectives;
2. Integrate the various aspects of the self
and identity;
3. Explain the factors that influence the
development of one’s self and identity;
4. Assess one’s values, choices, roles, and
priorities in relation with others and the
expectations of the larger community;
5. Recognize the connectedness of one’s
personhood to the welfare of the
society in co-existence and solidarity;
6. Explain the value of the complexity of
UNDERSTANDING THE the human condition;
7. Examine the contemporary world from
SELF both Philippine and global
perspectives;
8. Practice the values of integrity and
humility necessary for sustaining
responsibility for one’s actions;
9. Organize one’s self for lifelong learning;
and
10. Apply ones knowledge, skills, and
values for responsible and productive
living.
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Table of Contents
OVERVIEW
Module I. KNOWING THE SELF 40
Unit 1: The Philosophical Perspectives of the Self 40
Unit 2: Sociological Perspectives 51
Unit 3: Anthropological Perspectives 58
Unit 4: Psychological Perspectives 67
Module II. UNPACKING THE SELF 74
Unit 1: THE PHYSICAL SELF 74
Unit 2: THE SEXUAL SELF 84
Unit 3: THE MATERIAL SELF 95
Unit 4: THE POLITICAL SELF 100
Unit 5: THE DIGITAL SELF 104
Unit 6: THE SPIRITUAL SELF 111
Module III. MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF 117
Unit 1: Martin Seligman’s PERMA Model 117
Unit 2: Grit and Growth Mindset 125
Unit 3: Goal-Setting 131
Module I. KNOWING THE SELF

This module discusses the different representations and conceptualizations of the
self from various perspectives. It examines the factors and influences that shape one’s
self. It shall also challenge you to evaluate your sense of self using these various
perspectives as you represent yourself in many areas of your life experiences.
Unit 1: PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit discusses and examines the philosophical perspectives of the self by
early to modern philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, St. Augustine, Descartes, Locke,
Hume, Kant, Freud, Ryle, Churchland and Merleau-Ponty.
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHIES
Ancient and Medieval Philosophies view and understand the self as a perfection
of the soul via self-examination and self-control. These philosophies include the
perspectives of Socrates, Plato, and St. Augustine.
Ancient Greek philosophers believed that the soul is the essence of man. The soul
or “psyche” was also regarded as the self. The famous statement, “Know Thyself”
presents a requirement in terms of knowing oneself, and that is to know the limits of
oneself, such that knowing one’s strengths should be balanced with also knowing one’s
weaknesses. To know oneself is to do so in self-moderation, with prudence and good
judgment.
SOCRATES
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
To know and understand oneself, one should live an

“examined” life. Living an examined life means:
• having self-knowledge
• being dignified with values and integrity
• having and applying wisdom
• recognizing ignorance
To live an examined life also maintains that one should recognize and acknowledge
that there are things one does not know; that there are things about the self and about
life that still needs to be discovered; that life is a never-ending search for answers. To this,
Socrates stated: “To know, is to know that you know nothing. That is the meaning of true
knowledge.”
PLATO
“Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge.”
According to Plato, the examination of the self is a unique

experience; it differs from person to person, as one gets to
discover things about him/herself. This experience then leads to
better understanding of the psyche.
Plato proposed three elements of the psyche: the

appetitive, the spirited, and the mind. These three elements
either work together or go against each other, resulting in a
person’s behavior.
The appetitive consists of one’s pleasures, desires, physical satisfactions, and

comforts. It basically holds all those relevant to sustaining a comfortable environment. An
example of this is wanting to sleep in despite having classes, or enjoying ice cream on a
hot, sunny day.
The spirited is the motivated element, which fights back to ensure that the
appetitive is controlled. For instance, telling oneself that education should be prioritized,
it is not good to be lazy, and one should wake up and get ready for school.
The mind is the most superior element of the psyche, which controls how the self is
expressed. To do this, it controls the appetitive and spirited elements, thus striking a
balance between the two and resulting in more realistic behavior. To illustrate, perhaps
acknowledging that one is still tired and sleepy, but also realizing the fact that one needs
to attend classes, thus, he/she goes to class and then makes it a point to take a nap
afterwards.
Understanding how these three elements work then leads to understanding of the
self, as one sees how behavior results, and determines how to balance the calls of each
element.
ST. AUGUSTINE
“This is the very perfection of man; to find out his own imperfections.”
St. Augustine considered himself a sinner. He

acknowledged that he had committed bad deeds, and
resolved to change and be a better person. For St. Augustine,
the self develops through self-presentation and self-realization.
One must present him/herself, accepting who he/she is -
strengths, weaknesses, and discerning what changes to make to be a better individual.
St. Augustine’s perspective centers on religious conviction and belief as he

believed that to be a better person, one should turn to his/her religious beliefs as this
would serve as a guide towards better understanding of oneself. In doing so, the end
goal - happiness in and through God - would be achieved.
MODERN PHILOSOPHIES
Modern philosophical perspectives view the self as a dialectic synthesis between

Rationalism and Empiricism, that is, having different points of view but coming to a
resolution. Rationalism deals with thinking and innate ideas, and regards reason as the
main source of knowledge. Empiricism, on the other hand, has to do with sense
experience where knowledge is based on how one observes and perceives his/her
experiences.
To understand the self then implies the use of both reason and experience, as
such, there is a dialectic synthesis.
RENE DESCARTES
“I think, therefore I am.”
Rene Descartes is a pioneer or Rationalism. To understand the

self, the rational method should be carried out, where the self exists
as one makes use of rational thought, or to put it simply, when one
thinks. Descartes’ concept of Methodic Doubt states that everything
must be subjected to doubt or that everything should be
questioned. It is a way of searching for certainty by systematically
and tentatively doubting everything. When one applies Methodic
Doubt, he/she uses rational thinking, thus, the self exists. For instance, one may
question why he is not good in singing. Instead of simply accepting this as a fact, he
reasons out why he is not good at such, and in doing so, enables his “self” to exist.
Human rationality, according to Descartes, is the primary condition for the

existence of the self. Human beings need to reason in order to:
• evaluate thoughts
• evaluate actions
• establish firm foundations or bases
• protect oneself
• build knowledge
Descartes says, “It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.”
JOHN LOCKE
“No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience.”
John Locke was an advocate of Empiricism. His concept of

“tabula rasa” explains how the self-starts out as an empty space. This
empty space is then filled with the experiences one has each and
every day, where such experiences are necessary for sense data -
what one sees, hears, smells, tastes, touches. These sense data are then
perceived or given meaning, and so the empty space is filled with
knowledge of the self. Locke highlighted the capability of man to learn
from experience, and process different perceptions skillfully to form
more complex ideas. From this stems one’s knowledge and understanding of the self. In
short, experience comes before knowledge. For example, to know how one would behave
when a course has been failed, one should first experience failing a course. From here,
one can observe him/herself in terms of his/her behaviors so there would then be
knowledge and understanding of how the self-reacts towards failure.
DAVID HUME
“There is no self.”
Perhaps the most different perspective in terms of the

existence of the self would be that of David Hume. He proposed the
idea that the self does not exist. This is because the idea of the self is
merely derived from impressions. These impressions may be
subjective, temporary, and prejudicial. They do not persist.
For example, upon asking a person, “Who are you?”, the

person can say, “I am David, a Psychology student, 65 kilograms in
weight, and a good singer. This information, however, can change. One’s physical
characteristics, educational pursuits, and even basic information like one’s name and
address can change. The self, then, cannot exist if information about it is temporary. Even
everyday decisions can change.
IMMANUEL KANT
“If man makes himself a worm, he must not complain when he is trodden on.”
Immanuel Kant synthesized the rationalist and empiricist

views. He proposed that the self is always transcendental. The
self is outside the body and outside the qualities of the body.
Ideas are perceived by the self, and they connect the self and
the world. Accordingly, rationality unifies and makes sense of the
perceptions we have in our experiences.
Rationality enables sensible ideas about ourselves and

our world. Thus, the saying above explains that in a way, how we see ourselves is also
how others would see us.
CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHIES
The Contemporary philosophical perspectives present a wide variety of theories

that could be used in understanding the self. Much of these is more relatable and
relevant in today’s world.
SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud contended that the self is the “I” that
constitutes both mental and physical actions, with the “I” being a
product of multiple interacting processes. When we say, for instance,
“I am a Louisian”, it is one’s self being expressed.The statement
involving one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Freud introduced two models to enable the understanding of

the self:
Topographical Model
There are things about the self that one knows and is aware of, and at the
same time, there are those that one does not know and is unaware of. For
instance, you know that you are enrolled in this subject, but you do not know if
you will pass the subject.
This model explains how the “I“ is both conscious and unconscious.
Freud’s Iceberg Theory illustrates this.
At the conscious level, one is aware of thoughts, feelings, and

perceptions. These are easily identified and known by the person. The
subconscious level consists of those that one is able to easily remember and
bring into awareness, such as usual memories and stored knowledge. The
unconscious level, on the other hand, houses those that one has either repressed
or forgotten. it consists of those which are unacceptable, undesirable, or painful.
Freud stated that to come to a complete understanding and awareness of the
self, the contents of the unconscious should be made conscious, where
recognition and acceptance of all experiences are present.
What are those things that you are aware of? What are those things that you
have tried to forget? How do these contribute to who you are and how you
understand yourself?
Structural Model
Freud’s structural model looks into the structures of personality or the self, as
Freud proposed. The three structures are the id, ego, and superego.
The ID is the primitive or instinctive component, which consists of one’s

primal urges and wants. In children, the id is most dominant, as the other
structures have not yet been developed. The EGO is the reality principle, and
balances the id and superego. The SUPEREGO synthesizes the values and
morals of society, and includes one’s conscience.
In summary, Freud’s perspective explains that to understand the self, one

needs to be aware of both the conscious and the unconscious, and integrate
the id, ego, and superego.
GILBERT RYLE
“I act, therefore I am.”
Gilbert Ryle stated that the self may be understood based on the
external manifestations - actions, language, expressions – of a person.
Here, physical actions or behaviors are dispositions of the self.
To illustrate: You are known to be a very responsible student

because it is seen in the way you act, wherein you are observed to be
always on time, listen intently to your professor, and get good scores.
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
“I live in my body.”
Maurice Merleau-Ponty developed a phenomenological view of the self/ A

phenomenological rhythm explains the perception of the self, and this involves three
dimensions. The first is the empiricist view, followed by the idealist-
intellectual alternative, and lastly, the synthesis of both views. Merleau
proposed that perception is a causal process, meaning, one’s
perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences of the self, and
intellectually processed while making a distinction between truthful
and illusory perceptions.
Merleau-Ponty’s concept of “lived body” refers to an entity

that can never be objectified or known in a completely objective sort
of way. The “I” is a single integrated entity; a blending of mental,
physical, and emotional - structured around a core identity: the self.
PAUL and PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

“Brains are not magical; they are causal machines.”
The Churchlands brought neuroscience into the fore of

understanding the self. Their concept of “Eliminative Materialism”
explains how mental concepts are mistaken and do not adequately
allow people to know about what is going on with themselves.
As such, these should be abandoned, and focus should be on brain

processes instead. Thus, to understand the self, one should go for
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) or Computed Tomography
(CT) Scans, to have a view of the brain’s present condition.
References:
Chafee, J. (2013) Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the Philosopher's
Way: Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106 — 169.
Villafuerte, S. Quillope, A. Tunac, R. Borja, E. Understanding the Self, NIEME Publishing House
Inc., Quezon City 2018
Unit 2: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit discusses how society functions and becomes an influence in the
development of the self. Sociology is among the disciplines contributory to the
understanding of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems. The
perspectives of the self by Mead and Cooley, as a product of modern society, will be
explored.
In order to understand the succeeding theories, let us look into the different
sociological perspectives.
SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGM FOCUS

Structural Functionalism How each part of the society functions
together to contribute to the whole
Conflict Theory How inequalities contribute to social
differences and perpetuate differences in
power
Symbolic interactionism One-to-one interactions and communications
Now, let’s look into the different sociological perspectives of the self.
EMILE DURKHEIM: SOCIAL INTEGRATION and MORAL INDIVIDUATION

“To love society is to love something beyond us
and something in ourselves.” (Emile Durkheim)
Before we were born, there are already societal influences on us

that shape our life and personalities. While alive, the societal
influences continue to have an impact on us, and even beyond our
lifetime. Durkheim has worked on a lot of theories to emphasize this.
Some of his works include how people get to live together peaceably
and in organized manner (Division of Labor), how culture, roles and
norms bind people together in synchronized behaviors, feelings and
thoughts (Social Integration), how the rights and dignity of the individual are
based on the principles of equality and Justice (Moral Individualism). Such
theories shall anchor the structuralist and functionalist perspective in answering

the question “Who am I” in the social context.
Durkheim proposed that the task of sociology is to analyze social facts.
Social Facts – conditions and circumstances external to the individual that,

nevertheless, determine the individual’s course of action. Durkheim argued that social
facts can be ascertained by using collective data such as marriage and divorces rates.
This means that through systematic collection of data, the patterns behind and within an
individual behavior can be uncovered.
Another example of social fact can be exemplified in this instance: When you fulfill
your obligation as a son/daughter, student, brother/sister, or citizen, you perform duties
which are defined, externally to yourself and your actions, in law and in custom. This means
that even if you “do these things” (do your tasks in school, do your duties as a son or
daughter) because it conforms to your sentiments and feel their reality subjectively, such
reality is still objective. We did not create these realities (duties and responsibilities of a child
or citizen); we merely inherited them through our education (formal and informal). That, or
rather, these realities, are social facts.
Durkheim emphasized that the society is not a result or an aftereffect of

individual conduct; rather, it (society) exists prior to, and thus, shapes individual action.
In other words, individual lines of conduct are the outgrowth of social arrangements.
Social Integration is the degree to which an individual is connected to the society.

Social Integration results from a collective consciousness or a shared way of understanding
and behaving in the world in terms of norms, beliefs, and values. Those who have weak
social connections are more prone to self-destructive behaviors, or deviancy, because
they are unable to balance their desires with what is considered appropriate by the
society. People who are able to form strong social ties have a deeper sense of belonging,
form more cohesive groups and are able to reduce conflicts. It is synonymous with Social
Solidarity. Social solidarity described the social ties that bind a group of people together
such as kinship, shared location, or religion.
Moral Individualism – the doctrine that rationality leaves room for the individualities
of personalities of subjects to express themselves in the moral realm in an autonomous
choice between idealism and fulfilment-maximization. It involves a morality of
cooperation and a profound respect for humanity. It is not the glorification of the self, “but
of the individual in general” (Durkheim, 1898).
Moral Individualism and the experience of the SACRED

Moral individualism, “is a religion in which man is at once the worshiper and the
god” (Durkheim [1898]1973:46). The “sacred” dimension of the modern individual finds its
expression in the unique respect granted to him and in the protection of his rights. But there
is no such thing as inherent rights and liberties. Modern society has “consecrated,” him,
granted him rights, and made him “worthy of respect” ([1906]1953b:72, [1906]1953a:58).
Each individual embodies the universal values of humanity, each individual consciousness
carries “something divine” and it is “marked with a character which renders it sacred and
inviolable to others” ([1898]1973:52). Durkheim is optimistic that moral individualism will
become the “moral catechism” and the source of a new morality. He claims that the “cult
of the individual” has become one of the most distinctive characteristic of modernity, and
that it is replacing all other religions.
Moral individualism has to be distinguished from the “utilitarian egoism of Spencer

and of the economists.” It involves a morality of cooperation and a profound respect for
humanity. It is not the “glorification” of the self, “but of the individual in general” (Durkheim
[1898]1973:44, 48). At its “most abstract level,” scholars have noted, it refers to humanity in
general rather than to individuals of any particular nation-state (Giddens 1986:21). It
stresses “freedom and dignity, not happiness, as highest social ends” (Terrier 2006:294).
The foregoing, illustrates how such concepts as simple as norms, roles and culture
in the society in which one belongs determines to a great and profound extent to which
the self is embedded in the society – that the self is not just a construct accorded with an
identity all its own. To be, the self has to be defined also in its social dimension. Think for
example how such concepts profoundly affect gender norms, family dynamics, religion
and politics and our day-to-day interactions. Even the field of psychology acknowledges
that in solitude or amongst others, an individual’s thoughts, behaviors, perceptions and
emotions are affected by his imagined or real influence coming from other people.
The next sociological theories define the self along the symbolic interactionism
paradigm.
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY: THE LOOKING GLASS SELF

Self-concept is formed through our impressions on how other
people see us.
Cooley proposed that one’s self grows out of one’s

social interactions with others. The degree of personal
insecurity displayed in social situations is determined by what
one believes other people think of him/her. Simply put, the
“Self” is how we believe others see us.
The process:
1. We imagine how we present ourselves to others
2. We imagine how others evaluate us
3. Finally develop some sort of feeling about ourselves such as respect or shame
as a result of these impressions
Critical Evaluation:
What if we imagine wrongly? What if there are
varied and contradictory mirror reflections?
The LABELING BIAS
This occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and

expectations of us are affected by that labeling. For instance, your
professor hears your classmates call you “matalino”, you are labeled
as “yung matalino”. Your professor might then have higher
expectations from you wherein he may expect you to have the
highest scores in class.
SELF-LABELING
This occurs when we are repeatedly labeled and evaluated by others, and we
adopt other’s labels explicitly into our self-concept
This may lead to internalized prejudice, when individuals turn prejudice directed
toward them by others onto themselves. They may tend to view themselves more
negatively, thus, also affecting their self-esteem.
On the other hand, positive reclaiming may also take place when labels are used
by society to describe people negatively. Those who are negatively labeled may claim
these labels more positively to feel better about themselves. To illustrate: After labeling,
minority group members evaluated the labels (e.g. “queer”, “torpe”, “lost”) less negatively,
and reported feeling more powerful.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: STAGES OF THE SELF

According to Mead, the conception one holds about the self
in one’s mind emerges from social interaction with others. The self is
neither present at birth nor at the beginning of social interaction. It is
constructed and re-constructed in the process of social experience.
Two components of the self:
1. “Me” - objective element; represents the expectations and

attitudes of others (the “generalized other”) organized into the social self; the
internalized generalized other becomes the instrument upon which society has
control over the actions of its individual members
2. “I” - subjective element; the response to the “me”or the person’s individuality,
e.g., The “I” can decide to cross the street on a red light as he sees that there is
no approaching car or a traffic police
The stream of thought between the knower (“I”) and the known (“Me”) is the
essence of the development of identity as influenced by the social context.
STAGES BY WHICH THE SELF EMERGES:
1. PREPARATORY STAGE (1-3 years old)

• children merely imitate the people around
them
• then they understand the symbols (gestures,
language, and objects that form the basis for
their capacity to communicate with people
around them
• as a result they become aware of roles that people play in their immediate
environment
2. PLAY STAGE (4-7 years old)

• As a result of the above stage, they now do
pretend play of different characters or roles (Role
playing)
• They become more aware of social relationships;
they can mentally assume the perspective of
another and respond from that imagined
viewpoint (Role taking)
3. GAME STAGE (8-9)

• begins to consider several actual tasks and
relationships simultaneously
• grasp not only their social position but also those
of others around them
• perspective taking becomes less egocentric as
they begin to understand and accept that many
people have different perspectives and develops
greater concern about the reactions of others
References:
Aquino, C. (2004). Mula sa Kinaroroonan: "Kapwa, Kapatiran" and "Bayan" in Philippine

Social Science, Asian Journal of Social Science, 32 (1), 105-139.
Chafee, J. (2013) Who are you? Consciousness, Identity and the Self. In the Philosopher's Way:
Thinking Critically about Profound Ideas. Pearson. 106 — 169.
Cristi, Marcela (2012). Durkheim on Moral Individualism, Social Justice, and Rights: A gendered
Construction of Rights. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 37 (4), 409 - 438
Introduction to Sociology (2013), Openstax College, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston,
Texas.
Villafuerte, S., Quillope, A., Tunac R., and Borja, E. (2018). Understanding the Self. Nieme
Publishing House Co. Ltd., Rm. 413 Villasi Mansion, N. Domingo St., Brgy. Kunlaran, Cubao,
Quezon City, Philippines
Unit 3: ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit delves into analyzing the cultural influences to the development of the self.
This unit will help you analyze the impact of one’s culture to personal identity. This topic
examines the nature of the Filipino self and will cover the influences of Covar, and Salazar.
Triandis’ sampling of the self is also examined here, looking into the type of society and
culture that one is exposed to. This part is an integration of the sociological and
anthropological perspective.
Think of your friends. Think of people you have met. Do you have the same culture
as they? How do they represent their cultures? Is it through the clothes they wear? Is it
how they speak? Do they have behaviors different from those in your culture?
You probably see that there are similarities and differences between and among
cultures. We represent our culture in different ways. In this unit, we get to understand
more about the Filipino self.
Anthropology is the study of human beings in aspects ranging from biology to the
features of society and culture. In relation to the self, the anthropological perspective looks
into how the self is influenced by culture. In this unit, we are going to discuss three key
people: Zeus Salazar, Prospero Covar, and Harry Triandis. The latter part of the unit will
present a contrast of the Western and Eastern perspectives on the self, as well as the
Individualistic and Collectivistic cultures differ in understanding and viewing the self.
Let’s look into some anthropological perspectives of the self.
ZEUS SALAZAR
According to Salazar, our reality is rooted in society and
learning. Language is needed in order for us to articulate this
reality. We get to know what is happening in our society through
language. Similarly, we learn about our culture from our family
through language. As such, language is also considered as the
primary vehicle in understanding ourselves.
PANTAYONG PANANAW
This is Salazar’s perspective. According to him, a pantayo is a self-subsisted

ideological circle consisting of active subjects. For instance, we Filipinos are a pantayo
because we are a group of people who have a particular set of beliefs and practices.
Pantayong pananaw is a from-us-for-us perspective. It is any social

collectivity which possesses a relatively unified and internally
articulated linguistic-cultural structure of communication and
interaction and/or a sense of oneness of purpose and existence.
Going back to our previous example, we FIlipinos have our own
language which we use to understand what is happening around us.
We have qualities, values, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and
experiences which are unique to Filipinos. Our beliefs, practices, and
other things which make us Filipinos came from the Filipino people, for the Filipino
people.
PROSPERO COVAR
Prospero Covar makes use of dynamic dualism, or a pairing of
concepts, in order to understand the Filipino personality. Loob is
paired with labas while budhi is paired with kaluluwa.
He likened the body to a banga. Ang nilalaman ng banga ay

ang kalinangan at pagkatao ng Pilipino. This banga is a container
which has a labas, loob, and lalim.According to Covar, metaphors
involving the labas, loob, and lalim are used in order to understand
the laman or the pagkataong Pilipino.
Labas Loob
Ulo Utak
Dibdib Puso
Tiyan Bituka
Sikmura Atay
Lalim: Budhi
Kaluluwa
matigas ang ulo masuwaying

Labas
bukas ang palad mapagbigay
malambot ang puso maawain

Loob
halang ang bituka
maitim ang budhi

Lalim masama
halang ang kaluluwa
Aspects of Culture:
1. Likas: This includes the biological and natural aspects of culture.

2. Likha: This includes the artificial and man-made aspects of culture.
HARRY TRIANDIS
In his article “The Self and Social Behavior in Differing Cultural Context”, Harry
Triandis discussed several aspects of the self, each of which become more prominent or
are sampled in a specific type of culture.
ASPECTS OF THE SELF:
1. Private Self: This includes your understanding of yourself.

2. Public Self: This covers how you are perceived by other
people in general.
3. Collective Self: This refers to your sense of belonging to a
social group such as your family, friends, religious affiliation, nation,
and other groups you might belong to.
TYPES OF CULTURE:
1. Individualistic vs. Collectivistic: In individualistic cultures, emphasis is

placed on the individualistic self. In contrast, collectivistic cultures give
importance to being an active player in society. You will gain a deeper
understanding of this in unit 5.
2. Tight vs. Loose: A tight culture is rigid in requiring that members behave
according to the norms. In comparison, a loose culture has a high
tolerance for deviation from norms.
3. Simple vs. Complex: In a simple culture, there is a common way of living.

On the other hand, a complex culture has several ways of life.
The following table depicts which self is sampled in a particular type of culture.
Private Self Public Self Collective Self
Individualistic ✓
Collectivistic ✓
Tight ✓
Loose ✓
Simple ✓
Complex ✓
Western Thought vis-a-vis Eastern Thought
Western Thought
Western or eastern labels imply not only geographical locations but also ways of
thinking and behaving. Central to the western traditions is their idea of the psyche which
is their model of the soul. Likewise, western thought believes in the duality of body and
the soul which means that these two are separate entities. According to Plato, the soul
inhabited the world of ideas, while the body descended to the world of the sensible.
And, Aristotle formulated his Hylemorphic Theory wherein the human person is composed
of matter or the body and form or the soul. Matter is changeable while the form remains.
Centuries later, Rene Descartes shared this dualistic view. The body gathers information
through the senses while it is the reason that processes all information and makes sense
with experiences of the body. Furthermore, he believed that the body and soul is fused
in the pineal gland.
The western concept of the self is very much anchored on the individuality of the
psyche. The individual self is always in a struggle to reconcile the connection between
the ideal self and the limited self. Hence, the understanding of the self is a lifetime effort
for selfperfection. The development of the self from conception to death is given
importance in this western way of thinking. The purpose of the self is to live the ideals of
the soul. This selfperfection is called by the Greeks as arete - the ultimate goodness,
perfection, or excellence (Villafuerte, S. L., Quillope, A. F., Tunac, R. C., Borja, E. I., 2018).
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.20
Eastern Thought
The easterners or Orientals have no issue on dualism. They see the self as one
entity. The body and soul is always one self. Below are some eastern philosophies to help
you understand more the eastern way of thinking.
Hinduism - this is a polytheistic religion from India. According to

the Advaita monistic doctrine the atman is the true self because
it is unchanging and it is identical to Brahman, the only one
reality.We can realize true selfhood when we surrender to the all-
embracing Brahman (Ho, D. n.d.).
Buddhism - another religion that originated from India. Although

some people claim that
Buddhism is not a religion but a way of life. The tenets of
Buddhism is based on the teaching of a man named Siddhartha
Gautama who is known as the “Buddha” or “enlightened one”.
Buddhism claims that there is no self because it is considered as
nothing but an evolution and transformation of inner
consciousness. There is no permanent self to talk about
because everything is changing (Ho, D. n.d.).
Confucian Philosophy - the chinese philosopher Confucius

ascertained Chinese civilization by establishing social order.
He believed that the society has primacy over the individual
person. The self is a person within the society who exhibits
refinement and compassion. The ideal person for Confucius is the junzi which is
translated as a gentleman or superior man. The junzi is the new self formed in the
right education under the virtuous teacher as the role model. Central in the
educational formation of junzi: (1) humanistic learning, (2) refined
personal manners, and (3) the capacity to govern the community wisely and
with compassion. The junzi brings to life the virtues of the ancestors to the new
order of the society. The self is the transmitter of the ancient virtues to the new
world. Confucian philosophy has two important concepts. First is Li which
originally means sacrifice but later it is better understood as a refined manner
of spiritual rituals and sacrifices, and protocols in honoring the ancestors. The
virtuous self must be able to practice the correct customary procedures and
protocols governing all of life. Second is Ren – the character of the self that
sincerely shows compassion for others (Villafuerte et al, 2018).
Taoism - represents the Chinese counterculture. The good life for

the Taoists is the simple life, spontaneous, in harmony with nature,
unencumbered by social regulation, and free from the desire to
achieve social ascendancy. Taoists are champions of
individuality and individual freedom. Taoism disavows a hierarchical view of

the self, society, or cosmos. The self is not an extension of, and not defined by
social relationships. The self is but one of the countless manifestations of the
Tao. It is an extension of the cosmos. The Tao De Ching speaks of knowing
others as being wise, and of knowing oneself as being enlightened. This implies
a differentiation between the self and others. In Taoism, selflessness is the
philosophical attitude of being identified with the Tao – an attitude that leads
to acceptance of both life and death. It encompasses both tranquility and
activity. When selflessness is attained, the distinction between “I” and “other”
disappears (Ho, D. n.d.).
African Ubuntu Philosophy - this is from the Ubuntu

(humanness) philosophy of Africa. A Zulu proverb says “a
person is a person through other persons”. Thus, we are all
brothers and sisters and people need reconciliation with
others to realize this philosophy (Nabudere, D. W., n.d.).
Judeo-Christian Philosophies - emphasized the unity of a

nation – the chosen people of God. This is basically a
communal perspective of the self shared by eastern
traditions.
Islamic traditions - Islam shares similar perspective with

Judeo-Christian Philosophies by believing in the importance
of community over the individual. Also, it highlights the
oneness of Allah and the inclusivity of Islam as a religion.
The Eastern philosophy is more attuned to the collective dimension of the self,
compared to the Western individualistic ideals of the self.
The table below gives a summary of the differences between individualism and
collectivism.
INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM
“I” identity; Promotes individual Each person is an active player and does what is best
goals for the society
Individual rights are most important The rights of others supersede those of the individual
Independence is valued Working with others is the norm
Rules promote unity and selflessness

Rules attempt to ensure self-
importance
Relying on others is seen as Cooperating and supporting each other is desirable

shameful
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF IN WESTERN THOUGHT
Characteristics of the Western social construct of the self:
1. Individualistic Self - the individualistic self is an autonomous self and the goal
of the person is to achieve the goals set by himself/herself.
2. Self-Sufficiency - the self is seen as capable of meeting its need without
external assistance.
3. Rational Self - the self is constantly rational and reasonable. It relies on logic
and reason to understand the world.
THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN RELATIONSHIPS AND THROUGH SPIRITUAL

DEVELOPMENT IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT – EASTERN CONSTRUCT
1. The Eastern construct is primarily viewed as collectivistic and is always

grounded on nature.
2. Eastern traditions are firmly based on how the self relates with others, to the
Divine being, and with nature.
In conclusion, the eastern traditions are known for their communal and
spiritual constructs. On the other hand, the western traditions developed a
construct of being individualistic, self-reliant, rational, and scientific.
References:
Covar, Prospero. "Kaalamang Bayang Dalumat ng Pagkataong Pilipino." Sa kanyang
Larangan: Seminal Essays on Philippine Culture. Maynila: NCCA, 1998. mp. 9- 19.
Salvacion, V., Quillope, A., Tunac R., and Borja, E. (2018). Understanding the Self. Nieme
Publishing House Co. Ltd., Rm. 413 Villasi Mansion, N. Domingo St., Brgy. Kunlaran, Cubao,
Quezon City, Philippines.
Triandis (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychol.Rev. 96.3. 506-
520.
Unit 4: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

This unit aims to discuss how the self is defined and understood in the psychological
perspective. The action and make-up of man is heavily influenced by numerous factors -
heredity, environment and their psychological makeup.
In this unit, we are going to discuss five people: William James, Karen Horney, Carl
Rogers, and Albert Bandura.
To enable further understanding about yourself, let’s take a look at several

psychological perspectives. Try and see which is most relevant to how you understand
and know yourself.
WILLIAM JAMES
According to William James, the self is both the “knower” and
the “known”. It is partly object and partly subject. It is divided into the
me-self and the I-self.
ME-SELF
- this is the empirical self
- the object of a thought
3 Dimensions of Me-self:
1. Material Self - pertains to the things you own
2. Social Self - significant interpersonal relations
3. Spiritual Self - one’s personality, character and defining values
I-SELF
- “pure ego” - provides the thread of continuity between our past,
present, and future selves
- this component of the self is consciousness itself
- self-awareness (the act of thinking about ourselves)
- referred to as the soul (or mind)
- involves subjective experiential features such as life history and
experience
3 Dimensions of I-self:
1. Individual Self
2. Relational Self
3. Collective Self
KAREN HORNEY
“To search for truth about the self is as valuable as to search for truth in
other areas of life”
According to Horney, the foundation of a healthy development

stems from our childhood experiences. People need to meet certain
conditions to grow. Parents need to provide feelings of safety and security
to the child in order for them to become psychologically healthy
individuals.
Unfortunately, parents may fail to provide such conditions at some point. Parents
are not perfect, after all. Parents’ inability, unwillingness or indifference may interfere with
their capacity to provide safety and security to the child. As a result, the child will develop
basic hostility - anger/aggression - towards the parents. However, such feelings are
unacceptable and are repressed. These feelings of unexpressed hostility would result in the
child developing basic anxiety - a feeling of inadequacy and helplessness in a perceived
hostile world.
The presence of basic anxiety can lead to the development of what Horney calls
the Idealized Self - an overly positive, and perfect image of the self. Idealized self contains
numerous beliefs including: (1) they are better than others, (2) the world owes them, and
(3) they should be perfect, should be the best, etc.
HORNEY’S THEORY OF THE SELF
IDEALIZED SELF
- an imaginary picture of the self as the possessor of unlimited powers and
superlative qualities
- developed when people feel inferior and have the need to be loved
- one’s view of perfection
ACTUALIZED SELF
- the person one is in everyday life
- the person one actually is regardless of other people’s perceptions
- often despised because it fails to fulfill the requirement of the idealized image
DESPISED SELF
- negative view of the self
- based on the lack of love and acceptance by others
- consists of feelings of inferiority and shortcomings
- the feeling that one is hated; it is assumed that it is one’s true self is the one hated
REAL SELF
- revealed only as a person begins to shed the various techniques developed to
deal with basic anxiety
- a “force” that impels growth and self-realization
- the inner core of personality, one’s potential - the need to be who one truly is
***REFLECTION: Is having an idealized self - good or bad? Why?
There’s nothing wrong with wanting to be perfect. However, we have to accept

that we cannot be perfect. We can be better, but NOT perfect.
Basic hostility, basic anxiety and the idealized self are said to be normal since the
precipitating factor (parents’ failure to provide safety and security) is a reality. Again,
parents are not perfect. They will always have their shortcomings.
However, one’s Idealized self becomes unhealthy if it is already incongruent with

one’s Real self - who you really are, including your strengths, weaknesses and
imperfections. If there is a huge gap between your idealized self and real self, this leads to
neurotic behaviors.
CARL ROGERS
According to Carl Rogers, there are two types of
tendencies: Formative and Actualizing.
1. FORMATIVE TENDENCY: The ability to grow from

simple to complex organisms
2. ACTUALIZING TENDENCY: The ability to reach one’s
fullest potential
Experiences can help us grow and develop. That is why Carl

Rogers gave emphasis on the subjective experience of a person.
As the individual goes through life experiences, he/she becomes a separate individual
from others. This is the SELF or SELF-CONCEPT defined by the words I, my, myself and me.
Similar to Horney, the self is also divided into two: Real self and Ideal self.
REAL SELF (Self-concept): Refers to the aspects of one’s being and experiences
that are perceived in awareness.
IDEAL SELF: This pertains to who you want to become in the future.
According to Rogers, everyone has an ideal self and it is perfectly “healthy” to have
one - unlike for Horney’s concept of Idealized Self-image. The Real self and Ideal self should
overlap and co-occur in order for us to become “psychologically healthy individuals”.
Problems and difficulties may arise once there is little to no overlap between the two.
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE IDEAL SELF AND REAL SELF TO OVERLAP:
1. Congruence/Genuineness - being real; accepting the self
2. Empathy -ability to recognize and understand others’ feelings
3. Unconditional Positive Regard -no conditions of worth; unconditional

acceptance
Before we continue with more psychological perspectives, take a break and do this
activity:
Real Self VS Ideal Self
Reflect using the idea of the Real VS Ideal Self by Carl Rogers
In a one short bond paper, identify the similarities and/or difference between your Real
self and Ideal self through a venn diagram.
For example, in terms of physical characteristics: real - short, dark, thin; ideal - tall, fair,
with curves.
Look into your real and ideal selves for the following: physical characteristics, talent/skill,
career goal, social life, and achievements.
You have the freedom to use words or pictures to depict your real vs ideal self.
Ready for more? Let’s continue.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
PROACTIVE
- acting in advance of a future situation, rather than just reacting
- taking control and making things happen rather than just adjusting to a situation or
waiting for something to happen
AGENTIC
- self-organizing, proactive, self-reflective and self-regulating as times change -
agentic perspective states that we are NOT merely reactive organisms shaped by
environmental forces or driven by inner impulses
ALBERT BANDURA
HUMAN AGENCY: Essence of humanness; People are self-regulating, proactive, self-
organizing and self-reflective. In addition, people have the power to influence their
own actions and produce the desired consequences.
CORE FEATURES OF HUMAN AGENCY:
1. Intentionality
- This pertains to the idea that people are continually
changing their plans and are aware of the consequences of
their actions.
2. Forethought
- This pertains to the idea that people are able to anticipate
the possible outcomes of their actions and select behaviors
that will produce the desired outcome.
4. Self-reactiveness
- This pertains to the ability to motivate themselves and regulate their actions.
5. Self-reflectiveness
- This pertains to the idea that people have the ability to examine themselves.
SELF-EFFICACY: Feelings of adequacy, efficiency and competence in coping with life.
HIGH LEVELS: Belief that they can deal effectively with events and situations
LOW LEVELS: Belief that they are unable to exercise control over events and situations
Sources of Self-efficacy:
1. Performance Attainment ü Previous successful attempts and experiences

provide clear indications of one’s level of mastery and competence.
ü Prior achievements demonstrate our capabilities and may
increase one’s level of self-efficacy.
2. Vicarious Experience ü Observing and witnessing others perform successfully

strengthen self-efficacy, particularly if the people being observed are similar in
abilities.
3. Verbal Persuasions ü Verbal feedback and encouraging words may help

strengthen levels of selfefficacy. ü The “WHO” is also an important factor.
4. Physiological and Emotional Arousal ü The more composed we are, the greater
one’s self-efficacy is.
References:
Bandura, A. (1999). Social Cognitive Theory of Personality. In Pervin and John (eds) Handbook
of Personality Theory and Research. 2™ ed. Guilford Press 134 — 194. (For the topic, The
Self from Various Perspectives - The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought)
Module II. UNPACKING THE SELF
This module explores the different dimensions of the self and identity, the different factors
and influences in the development of the self and the integration of these different aspects
of the self into a whole.
UNIT 1: THE PHYSICAL SELF

This unit aims to discuss the self and personal identity as impacted by the body. It shall
provide an opportunity for you to reflect on how culture and society, and possibly genes,
have shaped the way you look into your body image and develop your self-esteem.
WHAT IS BODY IMAGE?

- Body Image is an individual’s mental representation of their own body.
- Body image influences self-esteem. There are two types of body image:
1. Internal/Personal - Person’s perception of the level of attractiveness of his own body;

produces either satisfying or unsatisfying results
2. External/Social - Sense of how other people view our bodies
What if you don’t like the way you look? That is called Body Image Dissatisfaction
Body Image Dissatisfaction occurs when there is a discrepancy between actual (i.e.
what you really look like) and ideal body image (i.e. what you want to look like)
WHAT IS BEAUTY?
There are two general types of BEAUTY:
1. External Beauty
- Physical characteristics of a person
- Usually what is considered as pleasant to the aesthetic senses
2. Inner Beauty
- Pertains to the inner qualities of a person
WHAT IS CONSIDERED BEAUTIFUL/HANDSOME?

According to a study conducted by Gillian Rhodes (2006), averageness, rather than
distinctiveness, was correlated with facial attractiveness. This means that the more
common the facial features of a person, the more attractive that person is to others.
Rhodes explained that averageness makes a person’s face more familiar. Striking and
unusual features often make people appear strange.
WHY DOES BEAUTY MATTER?
• Aesthetic Capital refers to the privileges and wealth people receive from aesthetic
traits such as their face, hair, body, clothes, grooming habits, and other markers of
beauty
• Samantha Lovascio proposed that aesthetic traits impact our lives in matters of modest
importance (e.g., friend selection) and matters of great importance (e.g., career
mobility). This advertisement depicts this concept of aesthetic capital.
HOW DOES CULTURE INLUENCE OUR PERCEPTION OF BEAUTY?

“All cultures everywhere have attempted to change their body in an attempt to meet
their cultural standards of beauty, as well as their religious and/or social obligations” –
De Mello
• According to De Mello (2014), people seek to conform to certain standards of beauty

through the following:
1. Body Adornment - Practice of physically enhancing the body by temporary means
such as styling and decorating
2. Body Modification - Temporary or permanent physical alteration of the body
through means such as surgery, tattooing, piercing, and the like
• De Mello explains that the Culture of Physical Improvement necessitates these

behaviors. This culture pertains to the belief of people that all bodily processes should
be under our control. This culture also trains us to be ashamed of body parts that refuse
to comply with the cultural ideal.
• e.g., A Filipina with a morena complexion becomes self-conscious when seeing

advertisements of whitening products; An elderly man saying “pasensya na mga
anak, matanda na kasi” to the people behind him since he cannot walk any faster; A
child who is disabled feels discouraged in his P.E class since he is left out in the activities.
WHAT IS BODY SHAME?

• Lelwica clarifies that Body Shame is not a natural response to being fat, physically
impaired, chronically sick, or old. It is a culturally conditioned response to a
commercially fabricated fantasy of physical perfection.
• Some of the things that determine whether a person feels ashamed of their body are
the following:
a. Popular or ‘Pop’ Culture
- A culture that is widely accepted and patronized by the public
- Usually influences people to patronize products endorsed by popular
celebrities or products that are ‘on trend.’
b. Media
- People given the most exposure are usually attractive celebrities and models
that create ideals for men and women to admire and emulate.
- The constant exposure pressures individuals to conform to these expectations
c. Hyper-mediated Society
- Presence of advertisements representing appropriate body or skin types
- People internalize ideals presented and either attempt to conform to or resist
HOW DO ALL THESE AFFECT PEOPLE?

Self-esteem is a person’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value. In relation to the
concepts of body image and body image dissatisfaction, the way people perceive and
feel about their bodies significantly affects their self-esteem.
- Usually people who are dissatisfied with their bodies and perceive their physical
selves as far from dominant cultural ideals, they report having lower self-esteem.
- Puberty also plays a role in body image. Children who develop too fast (‘Tweeners’)
or too slow (‘Late Bloomers’) may experience an increase or decrease in their self-
esteem.
HOW CAN PEOPLE DEVELOP POSITIVE BODY IMAGE?

Here are a few tips to help you develop a positive body image:
1. Understand that healthy and attractive bodies come in many shapes and sizes.
2. Physical appearance says very little about our character or value as a person
3. Try to practice self-acceptance.
References:
De Mello, M. (2014). Beautiful Bodies. Body Studies: An Introduction. Routledge.
Gillian, R. (2006) The Evolutionary Psychology of Facial Beauty. Annual Review of Psychology.
57, 199-226.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. Society and the adolescent selfimage.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton
Publishing House Co. Ltd., Rm. 413 Villasi Mansion, N. Domingo St., Brgy. Kunlaran,
Cubao, Quezon City, Philippines.
UniversityPress.http://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/Self_
Measures_for_Self-Esteem_ROSENBERG_SELF-ESTEEM.pdf
UNIT 2: THE SEXUAL SELF

This unit shall examine the nature of the sexual self and the aspects of human sexuality. In
addition, the module will provide an understanding of the basic biology of sexual behavior
and the human sexual response. It shall also challenge you to critically analyze your sexual
behavior as it can impact your relationship with yourself and others by examining how
sexualization can have a major impact on how one understands the self.
Have you ever wondered why certain individuals seem to feel, think and act differently
from what is expected of a male or a female? Take a look at the illustration
Sexual orientation and gender are immensely complex, and their various terminologies
can be very confusing. Below is a complete list of definitions to help provide a clear
understanding of the terms.
• Sex - refers to the biological characteristics that define humans as female or male.
While these sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive, as some
individuals possess both, they tend to differentiate humans as males and females.
In general use in many languages, the term sex is often used to mean “sexual
activity”, but for technical purposes in the context of sexuality and sexual health
discussions, the above definition is preferred.
• Gender - a complex interrelationship between an individual’s biological gender,
gender identity, and gender expression.
• Biological sex - refers to the biological anatomy that is assigned at birth and
determines whether an individual is male (has a penis), female (has a vagina), or
intersex.
• Cisgender - an individual who’s sexual orientation, gender orientation/expression
matches their biological sex assigned at birth.
• Gender Identity - the sense of “being” a specific gender such as man, woman,
genderqueer, agender, etc.
• Gender Expression - the many ways in which an individual manifests femininity,
masculinity, neither or both such as behavior speech, sexual preferences,
clothing, etc.
• Gender Fluid - a person who is able to manifest and adapt to various genders.
• Gender Binary - the belief that there are only two genders: male and female.
• Gender Non-Conforming (GNC) - a person whose presentation of their gender
does not match the expectations associated with that gender.
• Gender Normative/ Gender Straight - an individual whose biological sex matches
their gender identity and expression. Also known as cisgender.
• Gender Role - expectations, rules, behaviors, and roles given to males and
females by society, such as masculine traits for males and feminine traits for
females.
• Gender Queer - an individual whose identity is outside what is generally
accepted as part of the gender binary. They tend to view the dominant beliefs
about sex, gender, and desire determined by society as problematic.
• Gender Variant - a person who does not conform to the gender expectations of
society by either choice or nature (e.g., transgender, transsexual, intersex, gender-
queer, cross-dresser, etc.).
• Transgender - an individual who presents themself and lives as a gender that does
not correspond with the sex they were assigned at birth.
• Transman - a label used by female-to-male transgender or transsexual individuals
who indicate that they are male while still asserting their birth sex.
• Transwoman - a label used by male-to-female transgender or transsexual individuals
who indicate that they are female while still asserting their birth sex.
• Sexual Orientation - how one feels drawn to other people in sexual or romantic
ways; A person’s romantic, sexual, emotional, or spiritual attraction to others based
on gender (This does NOT define their sexual preference).
• Asexual - the low level/ lack of sexual attraction to others and/or the lack of
interest/desire for sex and sexual partners.
• Bisexual - an individual sexually, emotionally and/or physically attracted to both
men and women.
• Demisexual - an individual who does not feel sexual attraction until they have
formed a strong emotional connection with a partner (usually within a romantic
relationship).
• Gay - the term used to describe the emotional, physical, and/or sexual attraction
between members of the same gender and usually used to describe identified men
who are attracted to other identified men.
• Heterosexual - an individual attracted emotionally, physically, and/or sexually to
members of the opposite sex.
• Homosexual - a person who is emotionally, physically, and/or sexually attracted to
members of the same sex or gender.
• Lesbian - a term used to describe identified women who are attracted emotionally,
physically, and sexually to other identified women.
• Metrosexual - a heterosexual man who spends more time, energy, and money on
his appearance than what is considered gender normative.
• MSM/WSW - stands for men “who have sex with men” and “women who have sex
with women” to differentiate sexual behaviors from sexual identities.
• Mx - alternative prefix for individuals who do not identify with either Mr. or Ms.
• Pansexual - an individual who is physically, emotionally, and sexually attracted to
all gender identities and expressions.
• Sexual Preference - the types of sexual stimulation, gratification, and intercourse
that an individual likes to receive and participate in.
• Sensuality - the attractiveness, love, relationships, and enjoyment of the world
through the five senses
• SOGIE is an acronym that is mostly used to understand human sexuality
S exual
O rientation
G ender
I dentity
E xpression
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES:
• Fluid(ity): Term used to describe an identity that shifts or changes over time (man
and woman, bi and straight, etc.).
• Heteronormativity: The belief by people and/or institutions that everyone is
heterosexual and that heterosexuality is superior to all other sexualities.
• Heterosexism: The behavior that gives preferential treatment to heterosexual
individuals.
• Homophobia: The fear, intolerance, resentment, discomfort, or hatred towards
members of the LGBTQ community.
• Intersex: An individual who is born with a combination of male and female gonads,
hormones, internal sex organs, and genitals.
• LGBTQ/GSM/DSG: stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bi, Transgender, and Queer/ Gender
Sexual Minorities/ Diverse Genders and Sexualities.
Note that it is crucial to respect an individual’s self-identification. A person should

never assume another person’s identification based on behavior and
appearances. Suppose you are ever unsure about a person’s identity. In that
case, we recommend asking the individual how they self-identify (in a respectful
manner) as well as by which pronouns they prefer to be called. Always make sure
to respect their choices.
Sexuality: “…a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex,
gender identities, and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy, and
reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies,
desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships.
While sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always
experienced or expressed. Sexuality is influenced by the interaction of biological,
psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, legal, historical, religious and
spiritual factors.” (WHO, 2006a)
THE CIRCLES OF SEXUALITY; A Holistic Model Of Sexuality By Dennis Dailey
The circles of sexuality break

sexuality into five components: Sensuality, intimacy, identity, reproduction and
sexual health, and sexualization. They are interconnected, and our values
influence how you perceive each circle.
SENSUALITY
Body image, our ability to allow ourselves pleasure, our need to be touched, and
fantasizing all are part of the sensuality circle. We can feel attracted to someone’s
sense of humor, intelligence, charisma, or kindness; whether it is sexual or non-
sexual, it is still part of sensuality.
An issue discussed in the unit on physical self is the media’s depiction of beauty
and how it pressures us to compare our bodies to an impossible-to-obtain
perception of “beauty.” These depictions push us further away from accepting
our bodies, and we make alterations to appeal to other people’s sensuality!
INTIMACY
While sensuality includes physical closeness to others, intimacy is about our
emotional closeness. Again, this can be sexual or non-sexual. Intimacy is caring
about or liking someone, trusting, being able to self-disclose, and sharing your
inner world. Taking risks in relationships by being emotionally vulnerable and
expressing our needs, wants, desires, and feelings creates intimacy.
IDENTITY
Who are you? Identity is not just about whether we are male, female, or intersex.
That identity is attributed to our biological sex. There’s also our gender identity,
which can be the same as our biological sex or totally different. Our gender
identity is how we feel about ourselves as a man, woman, agender (no gender),
gender fluid (changing and moving between genders), or non-binary (not
specifically male or female) person.
Our gender roles are established by society, so what our gender is expected to
do in one culture will be different in another culture. Traditionally people think of
gender roles as male or female, and even more traditionally as the woman being
the caregiver and the man being the breadwinner. Thankfully, as society evolves,
so do these roles. Our sexual orientation, as gay, straight, lesbian, bi, asexual, or
queer, whether or not their sexual behavior (whom they engage in sexual
activities with) reflects that, is also a part of one’s identity.
REPRODUCTION AND SEXUAL HEALTH

The sexual response cycle refers to the sequence of physical and emotional
changes that occur as a person becomes sexually aroused and participates in
sexually stimulating activities, including intercourse and masturbation. Knowing
how your body responds during each cycle phase can enhance your relationship
and help you pinpoint the cause of any sexual problems.
Phases of the Sexual Response Cycle

The sexual response cycle has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and
resolution. Both men and women experience these phases, although the timing
usually differs. For example, it is unlikely that both partners will reach orgasm
simultaneously. In addition, the intensity of the response and the time spent in
each phase varies from person to person. Understanding these differences may
help partners better understand one another's bodies and responses and
enhance the sexual experience.
Phase 1: Excitement
General characteristics of the excitement phase, which can last from a few
minutes to several hours, include the following:
- Muscle tension increases.
- Heart rate quickens, and breathing is accelerated.
- Skin may flush (blotches of redness appear on the chest and back).
- Nipples become hardened or erect.
- Blood flow to the genitals increases, resulting in swelling of the woman's clitoris
and labia minora (inner lips) and erection of the man's penis
- Vaginal lubrication begins.
- The woman's breasts become fuller, and the vaginal walls begin to swell.
- The man's testicles swell, his scrotum tightens, and he begins secreting a
lubricating liquid.
Phase 2: Plateau
General characteristics of the plateau phase, which extends to the brink of
orgasm, include the following:
- The changes begun in phase 1 are intensified.
- The vagina continues to swell from increased blood flow, and the vaginal walls
turn a dark purple.
- The woman's clitoris becomes highly sensitive (may even be painful to touch)
and retracts under the clitoral hood to avoid direct stimulation from the penis.
- The man's testicles tighten.
- Breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure continue to increase.
- Muscle spasms may begin in the feet, face, and hands.
- Muscle tension increases.
Phase 3: Orgasm
The orgasm is the climax of the sexual response cycle. It is the shortest of the
phases and generally lasts only a few seconds. General characteristics of this
phase include the following:
- Involuntary muscle contractions begin.
- Blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are at their highest rates, with
a rapid oxygen intake.
- Muscles in the feet spasm.
- There is a sudden, forceful release of sexual tension.
- In women, the muscles of the vagina contract. The uterus also undergoes
rhythmic contractions.
- In men, rhythmic contractions of the muscles at the base of the penis result in
the ejaculation of semen.
- A rash, or "sex flush," may appear over the entire body.
Phase 4: Resolution
During resolution, the body slowly returns to its normal level of functioning and
swelled, and erect body parts return to their previous size and color. This phase is
marked by a general sense of well-being, enhanced intimacy, and often, fatigue.
Some women are capable of a rapid return to the orgasm phase with further
sexual stimulation and may experience multiple orgasms. Men need recovery
time after orgasm, called a refractory period, during which they cannot reach
orgasm again. The duration of the refractory period varies among men and
usually lengthens with advancing age.
There is a Psychological Counterpart for the different phases of the Sexual

Response Cycle (David Reed):
1. Seduction: learning how to attract someone sexually. It is equivalent to the

excitement phase
2. Sensation: enhancement of sexual excitement by the senses. This is equivalent
to the plateau phase
3. Surrender: allowing passion to be expressed. This is equivalent to the orgasm
phase
4. Reflection: meaning is brought to the sexual experience. This is equivalent to the
resolution phase.
Sex is not merely a physical release of tension. There are accompanying

psychological effects and consequences to the sexual act. Mature human
sexuality needs to incorporate these aspects of the sexual experience.
The reproduction and sexual health circle also include our knowledge and
attitudes about sexual health: contraceptives, sexually transmitted infections
(STIs), the development of a baby in the uterus, and our general sexual health.
SEXUALIZATION
When we objectify people or objects as sexual (take a banana, for instance)
rather than see them for what they are, that is sexualization. It is also the use of
one’s sexuality to control, influence, or manipulate others. Flirting is an example of
a behavior that can either be sexualization or an interaction with someone you
have a trusting relationship with. When flirting is used to control, manipulate, or
influence someone negatively, it is considered sexualization. If it’s part of foreplay
or your relationship with someone, then it’s just flirting. Other aspects that play into
the sexualization category are using sex as punishment (usually withholding it),
sexual assault, and sexual harassment.
THE CHEMISTRY OF LUST, LOVE, AND ATTACHMENT:
Love is an amazing feeling. It is a special state of mind that can make you feel,
both, incredibly happy and incredibly sad. The intertwined thoughts and emotions
can change your behavior and your life when you are in love. There is chemistry
in love, and many hormones involved. Most people think of love as something
abstract and that it is something that exists only in spirit or as an idea. However,
many physical processes inside our bodies are responsible for that feeling we call
love. There are chemicals in your brain that influence all phases of love, such as
attraction, lust, and attachment. These are hormones and neurotransmitters with
important roles in many bodily functions.
• Lust: driven by sex hormones
• Attraction: a person starts to feel love. Some people are love-struck and
can’t think of anything else
• Attachment: bond helping a couple take their relationship to the next level;
it is future-oriented
NEEDS SATISFIED BY SEX:

*Biological *Psychological *Social *Existential
Remember, Consent must be given when deciding to engage in sexual intercourse.

Consent has to be:
1. explicit
2. change of mind is possible
3. slowing things down or stopping is okay
4. affected by drink and drugs
References:
“Comprehensive List of LGBTQ and Vocabulary Definitions.” It’s Pronounced Metrosexual,
12 Nov. 2016.
Human Reproduction Programme, World Health Organization, 2006
Love and Relationships Inventory
http://wendyfry.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/08/Love-and-Relationship-
Inventory1.pdf
Myths and facts about sexual health at
http://www.pbs.org/inthemix/educators/lessons/sex1/myths.html
“Sexual Orientation & Gender Identity.” Unitarian Universalist Association, 12 Nov. 2016. The
genderbread person at https://www.genderbread.org/ ”Understanding Gender.”
Gender Spectrum, 12 Nov. 2016.
UNIT 3: THE MATERIAL SELF

This unit will delve into the role of material possessions as they contribute to the definition
of the self and how consumer culture contributes to your sense of self and identity.
Reflective guide questions will facilitate your understanding of your economic self.
“A man’s self is the sum total of all that he can call his” – William James
WHAT IS THE MATERIAL SELF?
• The Material Self includes all the physical elements that reflect who a person is (e.g.,
possessions, cars, home, body, clothes, immediate family)
• The more people invest themselves in objects, the more attached they inevitably are
to them.
• Money can powerfully influence the thoughts and actions of individuals in ways that
they are often unaware of, no matter their economic circumstances.
HOW DOES MONEY CHANGE PEOPLE?
1. Social and Business Value: Motivations For Completing A Given Task (Heyman &
Ariely, 2004)
a. Social Value
• When people recognize the social value of a task, they think that it is a
worthy investment of their time, that it is part of social duty, and they are
often happy to help out
• When money is involved, people think less of social value and more of
business value
b. Business Value
• People who focus on a task's business value often demand
compensation before or after they have engaged in it.
E.g., When taking care of the elderly or young relatives, some do it
voluntarily (social value) while some ask for compensation (business
value).
2. Self-sufficiency and Service

• Money-conscious individuals typically strive to be more self-sufficient or
independent than those who do not prioritize money
3. Self-view
• The amount that people earn could have an effect on how they view
themselves
• Class Essentialism is the belief that differences between classes are
based upon identity and genetics rather than circumstance
• Wealthy people are more likely to believe they were entitled to wealth
based on their personal circumstances and actions, whereas poor
people tend to believe that anyone can be rich and anyone can be
poor.
4. Ethics
• Those who perceive themselves to be in a higher class are the most likely
to engage in unethical behavior
• According to Piff (2012), Self-interest Maximization is the idea that
suggests those that have the most money or occupy higher classes are
more likely to according ask, “What’s in it for me?”
5. Addiction
• Addiction is brought about by a positive response from a certain type of
behavior
• Behavioral or Process Addiction occurs when compulsive behavior is
motivated by a process that leads to a seemingly positive outcome (not
an addictive substance).
E.g. Earning can become ‘addictive’ since obtaining money or seeing a
large number one’s savings account can cause a chemical reaction in
the brain that results in positive feelings.
WHAT ARE THE ROLES OF CONSUMER CULTURE ON OUR SENSE OF SELF?
A. Possessions and the Extended Self:

• Since possessions are viewed as part of the self, unintentionally losing these
possessions is regarded as a loss or lessening of the self
Here are some research findings and articles that expound on possessions and the
self:
a. Goffman (1961) described this point in that a deliberate lessening of the self is
maintained in some institutions (mental hospitals, homes for the aged, prisons
etc.). When people go to these places, they become deprived of personal
possessions and adapt to standardized ‘identity kits’ (e.g., same uniforms,
haircuts). There is an elimination of one’s uniqueness and a traumatic lessening
of the sense of self.
b. According to Rosenblatt, Walsh, and Jackson (1976), the non-voluntary loss of
possessions through theft or casualty may diminish the sense of self. Possessions
have sentimental value, and people experience grief and mourning after losing
these possessions. E.g., When you lose your umbrella/bag/phone, you cry and
say “Sayang! Pinagipunan ko yun at matagal na sa akin”.
c. McLeod (1984) claims that feelings of loss of a part of the self are experienced
by victims of natural disasters or casualty. They undergo the process of grief or
DABDA (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance).
d. Juliet Schor (1998) studied the connection between wealth and well-being.
There is what she termed a “Cycle of Work and Spend” wherein people work
more to buy more, and the income one earns determines the level of
consumption which becomes a reward for working hard.
WHAT ARE SPECIAL CASES OF THE EXTENDED SELF?
1. Collections
• “I shop, therefore I am; I have, therefore I am”
• Modern humans assemble collections of non-necessities for
distinction and self-definition (e.g. cars, shoes)
• Collections may be security blankets for adults
2. Pets
• Representatives of the self and given characteristics of people
• Some pets are considered family members and become surrogate
parents for children and surrogate children for adults.
3. Body Parts
• Cathexis is defined as charging an object, activity or idea with
emotional energy.
• When a body part is more highly cathected, there is greater use of
grooming products to care for this part of the body
• Women generally groom and tend to cathect body parts to a
greater degree than men, and such cathexis reflects self-
acceptance.
• The body is more likely and more strongly cathected than other
objects since it is permanent.
References:
Heyman, J., & Ariely, D. (2004). Effort for Payment. A Tale of Two Markets. SAGE Journal
Nielsen (2016). ‘Filipino Consumers Are Most Optimistic in the World in Q2 2016’, 2 August.
Retrieved from http://www.nielsen.com/ph/en/insights/news/2016/filiinoconsumers-
are-most-optimistic-in-the-world-in-q2-2016.html/
Piff, P., et.al. (2012) Higher Social Class Predicts Increased Unethical Behavior. National
Academy of Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.pnas.org/content/109/11/4086.full
Inc., Quezon City
UNIT 4: THE POLITICAL SELF

In this unit, we will discuss the nature of politics, elements of active citizenship, and how
they shape one’s political self. It details how one can become actively involved in political
and communal affairs and how they are significant to shaping the self.
POLITICS, CITIZENSHIP, AND THE SELF
• As members of society, people are naturally obligated to participate in a political

system as social citizens. Politics refers to the actions or activities concerned with
achieving and using power in a nation or society. It is also defined as how power is
shared in an organization and how it is affected by personal relationships between
people who work together.
• As Aristotle stated, “man is, by nature, a political animal.” This is because man is a
social being, and people are naturally drawn to various political involvements to
satisfy their social needs.
POLITICS, AS IMBIBED BY MAN, IMPLIES SEVERAL THINGS:

• Politics is concerned with power. Power inequalities can be observed within
societies. The one who holds power holds influence.
• Politics functions based on a particular social, economic, and cultural context. The
nature of politics and political systems depends on the state's culture. Political claims
made by advocates are influenced by their geographical location and ideology.
• The political is also personal. One’s personal choices reflect one’s personal politics;
both are indistinguishable.
• Politics go hand in hand with society. Politics pervades the structure of society and
thus influences inhabitants in their beliefs, ethics, and behavior.
• However, the political self is not only shaped by one’s political affiliation or beliefs.
One’s sense of accountability should be manifested in promoting certain
advocacies through healthy political engagement. This is aligned with the concept
of active citizenship.
ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP
• Active citizenship refers to the structured forms of engagement with political
processes and everyday forms of participation in society. It is also defined as the
process of sharing decisions that affect one’s life and the life of a community in
which one lives. Participation is the fundamental right of citizenship.
• Active citizenship is anchored on one’s cognitive and behavioral engagement to
participate in formal and informal political activities. Different people manifest
different levels of active citizenship; some take a more active approach to making
their voices heard.
• Active citizenship is a practice of democracy. Democracy should not only be
thought of as a form of government. It is a communal system that allows volitional
freedom of citizens to make informed choices that allow them to be heard.
• Active citizenship is a social construct. It fosters social relatedness and
belongingness.
• The most important goal of active citizenship is to instill change and influence
society at large.
• Active citizenship is also associated with the “sense of community.” People,
including adolescents, participate in communal activities because they give a
sense of belonging to a particular group. Active citizenship may facilitate ethnic
pride and provide a voice to the woes of their social group.
• For the younger generation, active citizenship can contribute to their social
development. Engaging in such activities can also enhance the efficacy and
competence of the younger generation, as they are considered to be the “future
leaders” of society. The participation of the youth in nation-building activities
enhances their value orientation. It fosters integrity, compassion, and a sense of
justice, which are crucial to the holistic development of a citizen of a nation.
• Active citizenship helps an individual embrace their individuality through the
choices they make and the behavior they manifest. The political self results from
various personal and environmental factors that impact the individual. The
participation of the youth in political discourse and social activities can result in
cultural and political paradigm shifts that may be felt even by future generations.
References:
Diokno, MS (1997). Becoming a Filipino Citizen. In Perspectives on Citizenship and
Democracy. UP Third World Studies Center. 17 — 38 (For the topic, Unpacking the Self - The
Political Self)
Neudorf, A. Smets, K. Political Socialization and the Making of Citizens
https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com 2017
Ziatcita, F. (1997). Barriers and Bridges to a Democratic Culture. In Perspectives on

Citizenship and Democracy. UP TWSC. 39 — 68 (For the topic, Unpacking the Self - The
Political Self)
https://utsged101portfolio.wordpress.com/section-1-the-political-selfdeveloping-active-
citizenship/
UNIT 5: THE DIGITAL SELF
This unit shall discuss the sense of online self and the presentation and impression
management of the online self. A critical analysis of the sense of self in the digital world is
explored in this module. It shall challenge you to examine the boundaries of your online
self: public versus private; personal/individual versus social, digital identity; and your
gender and sexuality online.
“Privacy is not an option, and it shouldn’t be the price we accept

for just getting on the internet.” -Gary Kovacs
ONLINE IDENTITY AND THE SELF IN CYBERSPACE
Nowadays, different information that was once inaccessible is now within reach or
can be accessed with a single ‘click’. Apart from accessible information, people
continued to develop systems intended to bring people closer together through the
different social media platforms where people could interact with each other as made
possible by the internet and the world wide web. With the rise of these platforms, people
could now easily express themselves through online interactions. It may be as simple as
sharing your basic information to expressing your likes or dislikes, hobbies, interests,
relationship status, and the like. All of these, when taken together, is the aspect of the self
known as the ‘digital self’.
Online Identity constitutes the sum of your characteristics and interactions online.
The different websites you access obtain a subset of information you share, thus, having
different pictures of who you are. Similarly, you may express yourself differently in the
websites or social media platforms you access. The different representations of your
identity seen and expressed online are also known as your partial identities. These identities
are not full and true pictures of who you really are and do not include how you react in
particular situations.
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT AND SELECTIVE SELF-PRESENTATION
Have you ever changed how you behave in a particular situation because
you know you are being watched? The same can be said in terms of how you present
yourself online. Our behaviors change if we notice that we are being watched and
observed, and how we present ourselves changes depending on who we interact
with.
In a digital world where one’s self-concept may be greatly influenced by the

“likes”, “reacts,” and “comments” that one gets, people try to express themselves in
a manner by which one can elicit positive reactions from others or one may be
perceived as likable. This is what we term impression management.
Impression management may involve limiting the personal information we provide

to present ourselves in a way acceptable to others. Some may even carefully choose
which parts of their real-world will be shown or represented in the online world to create
an identity defined by the few chosen and curated events in one’s life. For example, one
may post only travel photos or videos and may already give the impression that he or she
is already living a good life, but who knows what happens behind shooting those videos
and editing some photos? How is this person like in other aspects of his/her life?
IMPACT OF ONLINE INTERACTIONS ON THE SELF
According to Kraut, within the first two years people first accessed the internet, their
level of happiness decreased. The use of digital technology and online interactions seem
to replace or limit physical or face-to-face interactions, thus drawing people away from
more genuine encounters and meaningful connections with others. As people create their
different online personas, this may result in feelings of jealousy and envy toward the
seemingly perfect lives of other people.
Our online interactions or internet use generally have both positive and negative
impacts. Its value in ease of communication has been emphasized in the earlier parts of
this unit. Besides making communication more accessible, online interactions may likewise
empower individuals to change themselves and their communities. Through responsible
use of and participation in social media, essential information may be obtained or used to
our advantage, like keeping up to date with current events and political issues. It may
facilitate the expression of opinions and lobbying of concerns or needs, such as in the case
of online petitions aiming to promote different advocacies or to lobby grievances to
concerned authorities. However, online interactions also have a fair share of negative
consequences on the self. As everyone could create and distribute content all over the
internet, anyone could be a target of identity theft, like you. Anyone could be a victim of
false information, and the most rampant today, fake news. That is why fact-checking is
emphasized today more than ever.
The risk of developing poor social skills, internet addictive behaviors, and low self-
esteem comes with prolonged and irresponsible internet use. Last but not least, it is
common knowledge that here in the Philippines, we have the R.A. 10175 (Cybercrime
Prevention Act of 2012) primarily aimed to protect internet users from several legal offenses
committed online or through a computer system like cyberbullying, cybersex, child
pornography, identity theft, illegal access to data, and libel.
EXTENDED SELF IN A DIGITAL WORLD (BELK)
1. Dematerialization: Now that we are in the digital age, formerly tangible things have
become invisible and immaterial. To research, we browse the internet more, and
fewer and fewer people visit libraries to get a hold of books. Photos, videos, and
music now have what we call “soft copies”.
2. Reembodiment: As people interact behind their own screens, people are now freer
to create new constructions and definitions of the self. On the internet, people have
the liberty to “reembody” themselves through the creation of avatars, characters
or “heroes” in online games, photoshopped photos, and dating site profiles, among
others.
3. Sharing: Through the internet, people can now easily and freely access and share
information, movies, photos, music, and the like. A simple tap on your digital device
allows you to share to the world wide web a photo of yourself, the food you eat,
the places you go to, etc. You can create your own blog and share your innermost
thoughts, or create your own Youtube channel to share whichever content you
choose, may it be your cooking skills, makeup skills, lifestyle, travels, online gaming,
and a whole lot more.
4. Co-construction of the Self: Our online interactions allow us to give and receive
comments on the posts or contents shared by other people, thereby facilitating the
construction of our individual self and our extended self (the self shared online). This
is also known as the “collaborative self”. We continually develop or work on
ourselves through the help of our online interactions.
SETTING BOUNDARIES FOR YOUR ONLINE SELF
Now that much has been said about the digital self and online interactions. Knowing how
to protect yourself from digital offenses and harm is equally important. Here are some tips
you can observe:
• Stick to safer sites. Leave immediately if a website is not secure or appears
suspicious.
• Guard your passwords. Avoid using your basic information as your passwords. Strong
passwords often include both UPPERCASE and lowercase letters, numbers, symbols,
and special characters.
• Be choosy about your online friends. Avoid adding or accepting as friends/contacts

those individuals whom you do not know personally. Remember that these people
will see the things you share. If you do not trust them with your shared content,
decline.
• Remember that anything you put online or post on a site is there FOREVER, even if
you try to delete it. If you do not want it to be available on the internet forever, do
not post or upload it. You might want to ask yourself first, “Is this really worth sharing,
or is this something I might regret in the future?”
• Do not be mean or embarrass other people online. Remember that you may be
criminally liable when you do online acts that directly or indirectly harm other
people. When you see something wrong, there are better ways to approach your
concern than being mean or embarrassing others. Be a responsible internet
consumer.
• Limit what you share. Again, everything you share on the internet stays there forever.
Avoid oversharing, especially those which you think are things that can be used
against you, or worse, used to blackmail you. Is it helpful? Does it really concern
others? Think before you click.
Above everything, always remember to use the internet responsibly, and know that
digital devices and the internet were only created by humans, not the other way
around
References:
Belk (2013). Extended Self in a Digital World. Journal of Consumer Research. 40. 3. 477 —
500.
Ellison et. Al. (2006). Managing Impressions online: Self presentation processes in the online
dating environment. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication. 11. 415 — 441.
Doi: 10.1114.1083-6101.2006.00020x
Gonzales & Hancock (2010). Mirror, Mirror on my FB Wall: Effects of Exposure to FB on self-
esteem. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour and Social Networking. Doi:
10.1089/cyber.2009.0411 (For the topic, Unpacking The Self - The Digital Self) Harter, S.
(1996). Historical Roots of Contemporary Issues Involving the Self Concept. In Bracken
(ed)
Villafuerte, S., Quillope, A., Tunac R., and Borja, E. (2018). Understanding the Self. Nieme
Walther (2007). Selective self-presentation in computer mediated communication:

Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology, language and cognition. Computers in
Human Behavior. 23. 2538 — 2557.
UNIT 6: THE SPIRITUAL SELF

This unit of the Unpacking the Self, shall explore the practice of religion and spirituality in
defining the sense of self. It shall also examine the functions of rituals, ceremonies, culture,
and traditional traits in shaping one’s spiritual self. At the end of the module, it shall move
you to look into your personal ways of discovering meaning in your life. The topics in this
module shall include the concept of spirituality, Viktor Frankl’s Search for Meaning, and
Carl Jung’s Archetypes.
The Spiritual Self is said to be the subjective and most intimate dimension of the self. It is
experienced and understood by the person him/herself, and it would be difficult to explain
this experience to others. The Spiritual Self is who we are at our core. The spirit and the soul
are sometimes seen as one and the same. The concept of the soul is the non-physical
aspect of the person that manifests consciousness, thought, feeling, and will. The person’s
moral and emotional nature is where one’s most private thoughts and feelings are kept.
Frequently, people perceive spirituality and religion to be the same. There is, however, a
difference between the two.
SPIRITUALITY is said to be a way of seeking and expressing the meaning and purpose of
one’s life. It speaks of the quality of one’s relationships with others and with the Divine. It
embraces all faiths and social and political ideologies. Spirituality reflects great refinement
or a high level of Christian maturity and concern with, as well as direct and personal
connection with the Divine or Sacred.
RELIGION, on the other hand, is the belief in and worship of a personal God or gods. It is a
set of beliefs, feelings, dogmas, and practices that define the relationship between human
beings and the Sacred.
VIKTOR EMIL FRANKL: FINDING AND CREATING MEANING
A pioneer of Existentialism, Frankl stressed that “meaning is something to discover

rather than to invent”. His concept of EXISTENTIAL VACUUM explains how one may find that
life is empty, meaningless, or aimless. Because of this, one may fill his/her life with pleasure,
which is frequently destructive.
For instance, because Bill has been working at his job for several years, doing the
same thing every day, he sees his life as boring, with no goals and hopes for a better life
anytime soon. He then starts joining his old friends, gambling, and drinking, which makes
him think that his life is now more exciting. He fails to see, however, how destructive it could
be to his job, his family, and himself in general.
WAYS OF DISCOVERING MEANING IN LIFE
Frankl proposed three ways of discovering meaning in life:
1) EXPERIENTIAL VALUES - experiencing something or someone we value; the most

important experiential value could be the love we feel towards others – our family,
friends, and other significant people.
2) ATTITUDINAL VALUES – involves practicing virtues and values such as compassion,

courage, a good sense of humor, humility, etc. For Frankl, the most famous example
is achieving meaning through suffering, where the ultimate goal is self-
transcendence.
3) CREATIVE VALUES - becoming involved in projects and the creativity and passion
involved in art, music, writing, and work.
CARL JUNG
Jung’s concept of the COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS refers to a structural layer of the

human psyche containing inherited elements. It contains the whole spiritual heritage of
mankind’s evolution, born anew in the brain structure of every individual.
The Collective Unconscious also contains ARCHETYPES. We draw from these

fundamental personalities and roles to develop our unique personality.
THE MOST FAMOUS ARCHETYPES ARE:
1) Anima and Animus

The “anima/animus” is the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the
unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women.
Each sex manifests the attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries
of living together. A woman's psyche contains masculine aspects (the animus
archetype), and a man's psyche contains feminine aspects (the anima
archetype).
2) Hero
The character displays courage and will for self-sacrifice.
3) Shadow
This is the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud). It is the source of
both our creative and destructive energies. In line with evolutionary theory, it
may be that Jung’s archetypes reflect predispositions that once had survival
value.
4) Persona
The persona (or mask) is the outward face we present to the world. It conceals
our real self, and Jung describes it as the “conformity” archetype. This is the
public face or role a person presents to others as someone different from who
we really are (like an actor).
5) Wise Old Man/Woman

The archetype of meaning and wisdom symbolizes a human being’s pre-existing
knowledge of the mysteries of life; kind and wise and offers guidance.
6) The Good Mother

This archetype reflects maternal solitude and sympathy, any helpful instinct or
impulse, and all that cherishes and sustains and fosters growth and fertility.
For Jung, man’s goal is to achieve INDIVIDUATION, which involves increasing awareness of
one’s unique psychological reality, including personal strengths and limitations, and at the
same time, a deeper appreciation of humanity in general. It refers to the process through
which a person achieves a sense of individuality separate from the identities of others and
begins to exist as a human in the world consciously. The goal of the individuation process
is the synthesis of the self.
References:
Villafuerte, S. Quillope, A. Tunac, R. Borja, E. Understanding the Self, NIEME Publishing

House Inc., Quezon City 2018
https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-jung.html
MODULE III. MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF

This module examines ways to manage and care for the self and identify
conditions conducive to the healthy development of the self.
UNIT 1: MARTIN SELIGMAN’S PERMA MODEL IN MANAGING THE SELF

This unit will probe on the well-being theory as it impacts one’s pursuits to
happiness. It will goad you to reflect on ways to establish positive relationships,
developing positive emotions, finding meaning and engagements and celebrating your
achievements.
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Positive psychology is the study of happiness, flourishing, and what makes life
worth living. Positive psychology has spurred research in a variety of areas, such as
happiness, optimism, self- esteem, well-being, motivation, flow, strengths and virtues,
hope, resilience, mindfulness, and positive thinking. Specifically, it focuses on three areas
of positive experiences: the past (well-being and satisfaction) the present (happiness and
flow) and the future (hope and optimism).
Martin Seligman, one of the proponents of Positive Psychology, developed a five

core element of psychological well-being and happiness, called the PERMA Model.
Seligman believes that these five elements can help people work towards a life of
fulfillment, happiness, and meaning. It is anchored on the Well-Being Theory which
emphasizes the goal of reaching well-being. The five factors of well-being are (P)ositive
emotion, (E)ngagement, (R)elationships, (M)eaning and purpose, and (A)ccomplishment

(PERMA). Here, character strengths are relevant in order to maximize well-being obtained
from each factor. Maximum well-being leads to a state of flourishing, which is described
as a state of thriving, of being full of vitality, and prospering as individuals and as a group.
POSITIVE EMOTION
Positive Emotion is about experiencing happiness, optimism, joy, zest, amusement,

hope, interest, love, gratitude, compassion, kindness, pride, and savoring good times. It
does not, however, only mean the ability to smile,
but rather focuses more on the ability to be
optimistic. It entails looking at the past, present, and
future with a more positive attitude. Having a
positive perspective sparks our creativity and
enables us to be open to new possibilities. It also
helps our relationships, our work/studies, and
basically inspires us to carry on with life. Part of our
capacity to experience positive emotions is genetic,
and there are indeed people who are what we
term, “masayahin”, but all of us have the ability to purposefully experience more positive
emotion.
How can you build positive emotions? You may want to try some of these:
✓ Keep a gratitude journal: Everyday, write down 5 things you are grateful for. It may
be a person, object, pet, experience, event, your own physical characteristics,
talents, etc.
✓ Do random acts of kindness: It could be as simple as picking up litter and throwing
it in the right place, letting someone go ahead of you in a queue, sending a thank
you message, etc. A simple act of kindness goes a long way.
✓ Spend time with people who matter: Despite your busy schedule, set some time to
catch up with family, friends, people you have not spoken to for a while. Do this
without the distraction of your cellphone/gadget.
✓ Surround yourself with “real” friends: Doing so enables you to build a resilience
circle, where friends can energize and make you feel renewed during down times.
What else can you do?
ENGAGEMENT AND FLOW
Engagement refers to “being one” with a certain activity, that you lose track of
time because of being absorbed in it. It is about doing things you enjoy, things that make
you a better person, things that promote good. Being engaged in these activities leads
us to be so focused that time seems to stop – what is referred to as “flow”. According to
Professor Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, the leading researcher in the field, flow is experienced
when our greatest strengths correspond to the challenges we face. Engagement and
flow is about using our strengths to meet challenges, and we get to achieve flow when
we have the combination of a challenging situation and the opportunity to use our skills
and strengths.
To achieve engagement and flow, It is first

important and meaningful to find an activity
that we can be totally and blissfully
engaged in. These activities differ from
person to person, and depends on interests,
talents, and resources. We have to find what
fits us, and leads us into the state of flow. It
may be sports, music, cooking, creative
hobbies, etc.
Do you want to achieve engagement and

flow? Try these:
✓ Identify your strengths: What are you good at? Where do you excel? In what
instances do people compliment you?
✓ Be mindful: Practice mindfulness techniques that can help you be in the moment
and limit distractions so you can fully focus on what you are doing.
✓ Savor the moment: Be aware of your thoughts, notice how you are feeling, and
take note of your bodily sensations and reactions.
✓ Have a “buddy”: Sometimes, it helps to have someone who shares the same
interests as you. This can motivate you, as well as provide necessary feedback for
you to improve and develop in a particular skill or task.
What activity engages you?
RELATIONSHIPS
As humans, we are “social beings”. We constantly build connections with others

and establish positive relationships with our family, friends, classmates, and others. This is
significant and relevant to be able to spread and receive love and joy. Building
relationships with others enable us to feel loved, supported, and valued. Our well-being is
positively affected when we have good relationships with people. In this day and age
where technology has become a big part of our lives, relationships can be maintained
more easily with the many applications and platforms that enable us to communicate
with each other, no matter the distance.
How can you build good relationships? Consider these:
✓ Re-establish relationships with people you have lost touch with: Think of those you
have not spoken to in a while, and find ways to reach out to them.
✓ Give time: Create time to see (or call, text, message) friends to maintain your
current relationships.
✓ Show positivity: People enjoy being around those who are happy, optimistic, and
hopeful.
✓ Develop your listening skills: When talking to someone, make an effort to really
listen to, and not just hear, what the person is saying. Make it about them, and not
always about you.
When was the last time you talked with your

parents?
MEANING
Meaning is about belonging to and serving something you think is better than the
self. It is feeling and knowing the value of what we are doing, and is an intrinsic human
quality. This means that to find meaning, we need to be able to feel a sense of fulfillment
and satisfaction. Having meaning in life is also relevant to having and feeling a sense of
purpose. This experience is different for each and every person. It is dependent on what
we are passionate about. Meaningful experiences can be created each time you
choose to make an experience meaningful. Even negative experiences can be
meaningful, when we learn from them. Furthermore, having connections with something
bigger is an effective barrier against stress, depression, and anxiety.
How can you build meaning in your life?

✓ Discover meaning: Go back to our discussion on Frankl’s ways to discover
meaning. Which of these have you already done?
✓ Find your passion: What interests you and makes you happy? What do you enjoy
doing that makes you a better person, and helps others as well?
✓ Reflect on your values: What do you value in life? How are these reflected in the
things you do?
✓ Do something for someone: Make it a habit to be selfless, and do something to
make someone feel good.
How do you make your experiences meaningful

ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Accomplishment is a positive experience. It is the sense of satisfaction at the end

of a process. When we work towards our goals and are able to achieve them, the end
result would be the feeling of being “accomplished”. Accomplishments give meaning to
all performed tasks, as well as to all realistic goals set. When we experience a sense of
accomplishment, it means that we have worked towards and reached our goals. It
means we have overcome barriers and surpassed challenges. This contributes much to
our well-being, and we are able to say with confidence and pride, “I did it…I did it
well!”.
How can you feel a sense of accomplishment? Let’s take a look at these:
✓ Set goals: Set goals that are SMART (specific,

measurable, attainable, realistic, time bound) as
these are more likely to be achieved.
✓ Celebrate success: No matter how “small” the
achievement, celebrate it and savor it. It is a
positive experience which should not be taken for
granted. Reward yourself for all your successes.
✓ Be patient and persevere: Remember that there
is a right time for everything, and you will “get there”
soon enough. In the meantime, keep going and
keep trying.
What was your most recent accomplishment?
References:
Seligman, M. & Czikszentmihalyi (2014). Flow and the foundations of positive psychology,
279-298.
Seligman, M. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being.
Simon and Schuster.
https://www.learning-theories.com/positive-psychology-perma-theory-seligman.html
http://iwenhappinesslessons.com/the-perma-model-the-scientific-theory-of-happiness/
https://www.wellbeingandresilience.com/sites/swrc5/media/pdf/permaandcentreoverview.pdf
https://positivechangeguru.com/the-perma-model/
UNIT 2: GRIT AND GROWTH MINDSET

This unit shall discuss the concept of Grit and the components and factors that
describe a gritty individual. The module seeks to inspire you to demonstrate and apply
grit in different areas of your life amidst experiences of failure, adversities and other forms
of challenges.
To get a feel of this topic, ponder on the following questions:
1. Have you heard of the following people: Efren Penaflorida (a Filipino teacher
and development worker who made it to be a CNN hero of the year 2009);
Jeff Bezos (CEO of Amazon, a multinational technology company for e-
commerce and other areas)? And of course you know Bill Gates (a college
drop-out but turned out to be a co-founder of Microsoft Corporation)…..What
is common among these people?
2. How come people of the same intelligence differ with regards to their
achievements?
3. Why are some more successful than others? What could be the factors
affecting this difference?
Now think of a successful person you have been rooting on lately (i.e., Jack Ma) Then
identify the valuable character traits you think that person possesses that contributed
greatly to his success.
GRIT: WHEN TOUGHNESS IS WELLNESS
WHAT IS GRIT?
• working strenuously toward challenges,
• maintaining effort and interest over years despite failure, adversity, and plateaus
in progress
• approaches achievement as a marathon
• advantage is STAMINA
• disappointment or boredom may lead most people to change trajectory
• the gritty individual stays the course (Duckworth et al, 2007).
What are the psychological assets of gritty people?
1. Interest: passion begins with intrinsically enjoying what you do

Interests are not discovered through introspection. You have to find out what
you are interested in or develop an interest in an otherwise uninteresting task.
What is important is you find out the “why” in doing so. Interests also thrive when
there are encouraging supporters even if it is just working alongside people who
are also busy doing their own tasks.
2. Practice: daily discipline of trying to do things better than you did yesterday
Before you start giving up on a difficult task, ask yourself how much time you
have devoted to actually work on it, and how much time are you planning to
work on it again. Look at the requirements of Deliberate Practice below:
▪ Clearly defined stretch goal.
▪ Full concentration and effort
▪ Immediate and informative feedback
▪ Repetition with reflection and refinement
3. Purpose: Have the conviction that your work matters.
4. Hope: learn to keep going even when things are difficult

“Fall seven, rise eight.” So the saying goes. If you cannot work on a textual
lesson, find another way of learning it by googling a related video clip tutorial.
Sometimes, engaging our other senses (if not visual, make it auditory, etc.) to
learn a subject matter can make us more hopeful because we find results in
other venues of learning.
THE GROWTH MINDSET
GRIT AND MEANTAL HEALTH
Research findings show:

• Increased self-control, better mental well-being, life satisfaction, feelings of worth,
resilience and growth mindset and lower levels of perceived stress were
associated with higher levels of grit. In addition, grittier individuals believe that
their skills and abilities will improve with hard work. (Kannangara, et al., 2018)
• Lower grit levels were found among University students with self-reported anxiety
and depression. (Tuckwiller & Dardick, 2018)
• Gritty individuals: “life is meaningful” Maintain perseverance and passion in order
to achieve their long-term goals. (Masumari, et al., 2018)
References:
Duckworth, A. L., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1087-1101.
Duckworth, A., & Quinn, P. (2009). Development and validation of the Short Grit Scale
(GritS). Journal of Personality Assessment, 166-174.
Joelson, R. B. (2017, April 20). Hardiness and Grit. Retrieved from Psychology Today:
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/moments-matter/201704/hardiness-and-
grit
Kannangara, C. S., Allen, R. E., Waugh, G., Nahar, N., Khan, S. Z., Rogerson, S., & Carson, J.
(2018). All That Glitters Is Not Grit: Three Studies of Grit University Students. Frontiers in
Psychology, 1-14.
UNIT 3: GOAL-SETTING
A discussion on strategies to plan and work on achieving personal goals that pave
the way for success shall be the focal point of the last module for the Short Term period. It
shall explore goal-setting theories that can provide practical ways for you to set,
maintain, pursue, and attain goals.
Before we start with our discussion, read the passage below:
Once there was a man named Howard Hill. He was a very famous archer. With
a single arrow he can kill a buffalo. He can send his first arrow and it can kill a
moving target – a Bengal tiger, straight out.
If he has a target. His first arrow can hit the target bull’s eye! No practice
needed. And he can send a second arrow and split into two the first arrow.
Now you might be thinking, “Wow! That is great talent! No one can beat
Howard Hill.” But I tell you, you can! And you think again…”How can I? I have
not even touched a bow and arrow my whole life?” You see, you can. Yes you.
For that, you would need a big handkerchief to blindfold Howard Hill. Make him
turn around three times before you start the contest and for sure you will beat
Howard Hill because he would not know which direction he is facing and you
can.
Silly as it goes, here is the most important point of the story: IF HOWARD HILL
CANNOT HIT A TARGET HE COULD NOT SEE, HOW CAN YOU HIT A TARGET YOU
DO NOT HAVE?
(Adapted from the speeches of Zig Ziglar)
How do I usually spend my 24 hours?

Success is not only dependent on what we know. Execution is. So get to know more
about goal setting and proceed to the evaluation exercise at the end of this unit.
Let’s look into what goals are and how we can achieve them.
A goal is a target or objective of a motivated and directed chain of behaviors (Coon,

2001). Without goals, one’s behaviors would be random and tasks that need to be
accomplished may not be done well or not done at all. If a person is goal directed, he
recognizes the presence of tasks (needs) that need to be accomplished, experiences
tension or drive that directs and maintains his actions towards such goals. Locke and
Latham’s extensive studies on different types of goals across a wide variety of subjects
show that there are basic principles in goal setting that increase the probability of
success.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
1. CLARITY
Clear goals identify specifically measurable tasks to be accomplished, the
standards of efficient work and definite completion dates. There is less ambiguity on
expectations of what is to be achieved and how accomplishments are rewarded. The
SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time-bound) goals mnemonic
by Blanchard and Johnson is very useful in goal setting. Clarity will also specify the
concrete steps, the basic actions, toward the goal hence making the goal closer to
reality than simply eyeing it. Hence it becomes an action rather than just a vision.
Practitioners term it as the key results under each objective or goal. Wanting to
graduate (goal) has to be concretized in daily school tasks; Daily school requirements
(finishing a paper) has to be concretized into smaller concrete tasks of reading
background data, watching video clips, and listing down key points you need to cover
before you get to finally write that paper. When you divide up the long term goal into
manageable short term goals, what was initially daunting becomes more achievable.
You would find yourself flying and skipping through hurdles that you initially perceived
as insurmountable.
2. CHALLENGE
The level of difficulty of a goal determines the motivation in maintaining
effort in doing a task. Too easy goals may not be deemed as important while too
difficult goals may not give immediate feedback of accomplishment.
3. COMMITMENT
The degree to which one is engaged in the task from start to finish can be
measured by the time and effort all throughout. Commitment may be dependent
on factors such as task difficulty, incentives and teamwork.
4. FEEDBACK
This provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal, adjust
difficulty, and gain recognition. This can also be a time to adjust resources.
Feedback can come from others or it can be measured against the progress of
work as specified in the first principle.
5. TASK COMPLEXITY
Difficult tasks can be given longer deadlines and divided into achievable
batches. People working on it should have the basic know-how and the
availability of coaching when needed.
HIERARCHY OF GOALS
Low level goals are the day-to-day actions like jogging, checking messages, reading,
etc. Check out if they are means to an end of a higher level goal such as passing this
subject.
Mid-level goals like putting in hours for work are less abstract because they lead the
person to a higher goal in the hierarchy.
Top-level goals are the ultimate goals that will drive every action at lower levels. If an
activity does not fit strongly within an ultimate goal it can be removed from the person’s
repertoire of daily activities. Or the time allotted for them can be reduced. The greater
the time spent for them, the greater the likelihood that the person is engaging in a lot of
time wasters.
Goals are important, but theories also stress the importance of the process and means by
which they are realized. Concretize the principles above on this journal exercise.

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COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE

Document Code FM-STL-013

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

Module I. KNOWING THE SELF 40

Unit 1: The Philosophical Perspectives of the Self 40

Unit 2: Sociological Perspectives 51

Unit 3: Anthropological Perspectives 58

Unit 4: Psychological Perspectives 67

Module II. UNPACKING THE SELF 74

Unit 1: THE PHYSICAL SELF 74

Unit 2: THE SEXUAL SELF 84

Unit 3: THE MATERIAL SELF 95

Unit 4: THE POLITICAL SELF 100

Unit 5: THE DIGITAL SELF 104

Unit 6: THE SPIRITUAL SELF 111

Module III. MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF 117

Unit 1: Martin Seligman’s PERMA Model 117

Unit 2: Grit and Growth Mindset 125

Unit 3: Goal-Setting 131

Module I. KNOWING THE SELF

Unit 1: PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHIES

To know and understand oneself, one should live an

According to Plato, the examination of the self is a unique

Plato proposed three elements of the psyche: the

The appetitive consists of one’s pleasures, desires, physical satisfactions, and

St. Augustine considered himself a sinner. He

strengths, weaknesses, and discerning what changes to make to be a better individual.

St. Augustine’s perspective centers on religious conviction and belief as he

Modern philosophical perspectives view the self as a dialectic synthesis between

Rene Descartes is a pioneer or Rationalism. To understand the

Human rationality, according to Descartes, is the primary condition for the

John Locke was an advocate of Empiricism. His concept of

Perhaps the most different perspective in terms of the

For example, upon asking a person, “Who are you?”, the

Immanuel Kant synthesized the rationalist and empiricist

Rationality enables sensible ideas about ourselves and

The Contemporary philosophical perspectives present a wide variety of theories

Freud introduced two models to enable the understanding of

At the conscious level, one is aware of thoughts, feelings, and

The ID is the primitive or instinctive component, which consists of one’s

In summary, Freud’s perspective explains that to understand the self, one

To illustrate: You are known to be a very responsible student

Maurice Merleau-Ponty developed a phenomenological view of the self/ A

Merleau-Ponty’s concept of “lived body” refers to an entity

PAUL and PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

The Churchlands brought neuroscience into the fore of

As such, these should be abandoned, and focus should be on brain

Unit 2: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF

SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGM FOCUS

EMILE DURKHEIM: SOCIAL INTEGRATION and MORAL INDIVIDUATION

Before we were born, there are already societal influences on us

theories shall anchor the structuralist and functionalist perspective in answering

Durkheim proposed that the task of sociology is to analyze social facts.

Social Facts – conditions and circumstances external to the individual that,

Durkheim emphasized that the society is not a result or an aftereffect of

Social Integration is the degree to which an individual is connected to the society.

Moral Individualism and the experience of the SACRED