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Maturation periods for Coffea arabica cultivars and their implications for yield
and quality in Brazil

Article  in  Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · January 2018

DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8905

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Research Article
Received: 4 January 2017 Revised: 16 January 2018 Accepted article published: 24 January 2018 Published online in Wiley Online Library:

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.8905

Maturation periods for Coffea arabica cultivars

and their implications for yield and quality in
Brazil
Lucas Eduardo de Oliveira Aparecido,a* Glauco de Souza Rolim,b
José Reinaldo da Silva Cabral de Moraes,b Taynara Tuany Borges Valerianob
and Guilherme Henrique Expedido Lenseb

Abstract
BACKGROUND: Climatic conditions directly affect the maturation period of coffee plantations, affecting yield and beverage
quality. The quality of coffee beverages is highly correlated with the length of fruit maturation, which is strongly influenced
by meteorological elements. The objective was to estimate the probable times of graining and maturation of the main
coffee varieties in Brazil and to quantify the influences of climate on coffee maturation. We used degree days to estimate
flowering/graining periods (green fruit) and flowering/maturation periods (cherry fruit) for all cultivars. We evaluated the
influence of climate on the time of maturity using Pearson correlation and nonlinear regression analysis and successfully
mapped the influences of these elements.

RESULTS: Arabica coffee matured up to 2–3 months earlier in São Paulo, where air temperatures (T AIR ) were higher, than
in Minas Gerais, which would allow earlier harvesting and the training of seedlings at the beginning of the rainy season.
Catuaí-Amarelo-IAC-62 cultivar needed 205–226 days between the end of flowering and maturation at locations with high T AIR
and 375–396 days at locations with low T AIR .

CONCLUSION: Water surplus and deficit were generally the most important variables for coffee maturation. Coffee matured
faster in regions with high T AIR and evapotranspiration, moderate altitudes and deficits. Acaiá-Cerrado-MG-1474 and
Icatu-Precoce-Amarelo-3282 were cultivars with an early cycle.
© 2018 Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: coffee drink; crop zoning; fruit quality; agrometeorology; modelling

INTRODUCTION Coffee maturation is usually accelerated in regions with high

Coffee-producing regions can have high yields, but the quality of
the beverage can vary widely. Beverage quality is highly correlated
with the length of fruit maturation, which is strongly influenced by
meteorological elements.1,2 When the time of fruit maturation is
not known, there is a greater chance of defects occurring, such as
black and burnt grains.3,4
Coffee is a product whose value depends on the quality of the
beverage,5 which in turn depends on the level of fruit maturity at
harvest.6,7 More mature fruit produces a better beverage and thus
a higher return to farmers in Brazil.8 Ripening is the developmental
phase where the fruit fully forms and can be removed from the
plant. Various changes occur in the fruit during this phase, such
as variation in colour and chemical and enzymatic changes.9
Ripening and grain formation in coffee vary widely with climatic
conditions,10 which can even change the fermentative properties
of the fruit and thus the quality of the beverage.2 Air temperature is
a climatic element that most influences fruit ripening.11 Ripening is
usually later in higher and cooler regions, regardless of cultivar.12
This longer cycle is more desirable, because the accumulation of
biochemical precursors can be completed, naturally producing a
more flavourful beverage.13
rainfall and air temperatures, which promote an earlier cultivation
cycle.13,14 A very short cycle, however, is not favourable, because
tryptophan and chlorogenic acid do not form properly, causing
negative changes to the quality of the product and providing a
bitter taste to the beverages.15
The quality of coffee beverages is better when obtained from
fully mature grains.7,16 The harvesting of green and even dry fruits
adds a bitter taste to the fermented product.17 Knowing the time
of maturity of the various cultivars in the main coffee regions
is therefore very important so that producers can carry out the
∗ Correspondence to: LE de Oliveira Aparecido, IFMS – Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Mato Grosso do Sul – Campus of Navi-
raí, Rua Hilda, 203 - Conj. Hab. Boa Vista, Naviraí, MS 79950-000, Brazil. E-mail:
lucas-aparecido@outlook.com
a IFMS – Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Mato Grosso
do Sul – Campus of Naviraí, Naviraí, MS, Brazil
b Department of Exact Sciences, UNESP – São Paulo State University, Jabotica-
bal, SP, Brazil

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 www.soci.org LE de Oliveira Aparecido et al.

planning of their harvest. Predicting the time of maturity, however,

Table 1. Geographic and climatic characteristics of the regions used
is difficult for the farmers. in this study
The thermal index, also known as growing degree days, has
been used to estimate the maturation period.18 The concept of Latitude Longitude Altitude
degree days assumes a basal temperature above which the crop Location (∘ S) (∘ W) (m) Climatea
can develop and be productive. Each degree above the basal
Araxá–MG 19∘ 36′ 00′′ 46∘ 56′ 24′′ 973 B3 rB′ 3 a
temperature corresponds to a degree day, which will accumulate
Barbacena–MG 21∘ 15′ 01′′ 43∘ 45′ 36′′ 1126 B3 rB′ 3 a
during the growing season. Low air temperatures slow plant
Caldas–MG 21∘ 54′ 36′′ 46∘ 22′ 48′′ 1150 ArB′ 2 a’
growth, and energy is used mostly for maintenance.19 Each plant
Campos do 22∘ 45′ 00′′ 45∘ 36′ 01′′ 1642 ArB′ 2 a’
species has a basal temperature for each phenological phase, or a Jordão–SP
single basal temperature can be adopted for the entire cycle.20 Caparaó–MG 20∘ 30′ 38′′ 41∘ 54′ 00′′ 843 B2 rB′ 2 a
Degree day is used for determination of the crop cycle,21,22 and Juiz de Fora–MG 21∘ 45′ 36′′ 43∘ 21′ 36′′ 939 B4 rB′ 2 a
the distribution of species in scenarios of future climate23 have Lavras–MG 21∘ 45′ 00′′ 45∘ 00′ 00′′ 918 B3 rB′ 3 a
been modelled for estimating yield,24 irrigation requirements in Machado–MG 21∘ 40′ 48′′ 45∘ 56′ 24′′ 873 B3 rB′ 3 a
grapevine cultivation18 and the timing of fruit maturation. São Carlos–SP 21∘ 57′ 36′′ 47∘ 51′ 38′′ 856 B3 rB′ 3 a
Climate greatly influences the coffee maturation period. Early São Lourenço–MG 22∘ 06′ 00′′ 45∘ 00′ 36′′ 953 B3 rB′ 3 a
information of the time of coffee maturation is essential for facil- São Sebastião 20∘ 54′ 36′′ 47∘ 06′ 34′′ 820 B4 rB′ 2 a
itating the planning of harvesting and the collection of seeds for Paraiso–MG
seedling production. Thus the purpose this study was to estimate São Simão–SP 21∘ 28′ 48′′ 47∘ 33′ 00′′ 617 B1 rB′ 4 a
the probable times of graining and maturation for the main coffee Viçosa–MG 20∘ 45′ 36′′ 42∘ 51′ 39′′ 712 B2 rB′ 3 a
varieties in Brazil and to quantify the influence of energetic, hydric Votuporanga–SP 20∘ 24′ 36′′ 49∘ 58′ 48′′ 502 C2 rA’a’
and geographical elements on the time of coffee maturation.
a Climatic classification of Thornthwaite.26

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We used data for daily maximum and minimum air temperatures
(∘ C) and rainfall (mm), from 1950 to 2016, collected by 14 weather
stations in areas with intensive Coffea arabica cultivation in the
Brazilian states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, the world’s largest
coffee-producing region. Data were from the National Institute of
Meteorology network (INMET) (Table 1 and Fig. 1).
The daily rainfall and maximum and minimum air temper-
atures were organized on a monthly scale for estimating the
potential evapotranspiration (PET) using the model proposed by
Camargo25 (Eqn (1)). This model is similar to the Thornthwaite
method26 for tropical regions and has the advantage of not need-
ing normal monthly temperatures.27 The average air temperature

Figure 1. Main regions for coffee production in the states of Minas Gerais and São Paulo, Brazil.

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Table 2. Degree days total subperiods flowering–graining Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between matu-
and flowering–maturation of the main coffee varieties in Brazil ration time of coffee and the geographical elements (ALT, alti-
tude), water elements (WS, water surplus; WD, water deficit)
Sum of degree days (∘ )
and energetic elements (T AIR , air temperature; PET, evapo-
Σ Flowering– Σ Flowering– traspiration; PET/R, evapotraspiration/rainfall)
Number Cultivar graining maturation
Maturation ALT WS WD T AIR PET PET/R
C1 Acaiá Cerrado MG 1474 2009.4 2423
Maturation 1.000
C2 Icatu Precoce Amarelo 3282 2094.2 2440.9
ALT 0.677 1.000
C3 Mundo Novo 379-19 1987.8 2569.3
WS 0.903 0.683 1.000
C4 Catuaí Vermelho IAC 99 2133.2 2674.2
WD −0.902 −0.749 −0.721 1.000
C5 Topázio MG 1190 2373.8 2719
TAIR −0.717 −0.921 −0.773 0.786 1.000
C6 Catuaí Vermelho IAC 15 2496.2 2742.9
PET −0.718 −0.837 −0.785 0.829 0.965 1.000
C7 Catuaí Amarelo IAC 17 2423 2779.3
PET/R −0.838 −0.717 −0.926 0.873 0.845 0.914 1.000
C8 Rubí MG 1192 1987.8 2811.4
C9 Catuaí Vermelho IAC 144 2423 2811.4
C10 Catuaí Amarelo IAC 62 2423 2843.5

was estimated as the mean of the maximum and minimum air

temperatures. PET was calculated from solar extraterrestrial irra-
diance (Qo , MJ m−2 d−1 ) (Eqn (2)). Qo is a function of the relative
earth–sun distance (DR) (astronomic units, AU) (Eqn (3)), the solar
declination (𝛿 ∘ ) (Eqn (4)) and the hour of sunrise (hn, ∘ ) (Eqn (5)):

Qo
PET = 0.01 × × T × ND (1)
2.45

Qo = 37.6 × DR
[( ) ] Figure 2. Decreasing influence of the geographical elements (ALT, alti-
𝜋
× × hn × sin Φ × sin 𝛿 + cos Φ × cos 𝛿 × sin hn tude), water elements (WS, water surplus; WD, water deficit) and energetic
180 elements (T AIR , air temperature; PET, evapotraspiration; PET/R, evapotraspi-
(2) ration/rainfall) during coffee maturation.

( )
360 × JD
DR = 1 + 0.033 × cos (3) DEF = PET − AET (10)
365
[( ) ] {
𝛿 = 23.45 × sin
360
× (JD − 80) (4) 0, if WC < 0
SURi = (11)
365 (P − PET)i − ALTi , if WC = 0

hn = arcos [− tan Φ × tan 𝛿] (5) where SUR = water surplus at the soil–plant–atmosphere sys-
tem (mm); ALT = soil water storage of the current month −
where ND is the number of days in the month, JD is Julian day and soil water storage of the preceding month (mm); i = the monthly
Φ is altitude. period; PET = potential evapotranspiration (mm); P = rainfall (mm);
We evaluated the influence of hydric conditions on the matu- NAC = total rainfall − potential evapotranspiration; WC = available
ration period. Water deficit (WD) and surplus (WS) – components water capacity (mm); STO = soil water storage (mm); DEF = water
of the monthly climatic water balance – were calculated follow- deficiency at the soil–plant–atmosphere system (mm) and
ing the methodology of Thornthwaite and Mather,28 using a water AET = actual evapotranspiration (mm).
storage capacity of 100 mm: We used degree days (DD) (Eqn (12)) to estimate the flower-
ing/graining period (green fruit) and flowering/maturation period
{
NACi = NACi−1 + (P + PET)i (cherry fruit) for all cultivars in both states. DD was set for all cli-
if (P − PET)i < 0 = (NACi ) (6) matic series and was recorded daily from the start of flowering:
STOi = WCe WC
[ ]
{ ∑ Tmax − Tmin
STOi = (P − PET)i + STOi−1 DD = − Tbase (12)
if (P − PET)i ≥ 0 = (STOi ) (7) 2
NACi = WC ln WC

where DD = sum of degree days; T max = maximum air temperature

ALTi = STOi − STOi−1 (8) (∘ C); T min = minimum air temperature (∘ C); T base = minimum base
air temperature equal to 12 ∘ C, this being an approximation of the
{ value reported previously.20–29
P + ||ALTi || , if ALT < 0 Little precise information is available for the date of flowering
AETi = (9)
PETi , if ALT ≥ 0 in these regions. It was reported30,31 that full flowering occurs on

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 www.soci.org
Figure 3. Water balance28 for São Paulo State: (A) Campos do Jordão; (B) São Carlos; (C) São Simão; and (D) Votuporanga. Water surplus (WS, mm mo−1 );
water deficit (WD, mm mo−1 ).
average near 18 September (with a standard deviation of 10 days)
in all regions. We therefore used 18 September as the average date
of flowering for all regions.
The maturation time varies greatly from year to year. The use
of the date of 18 September in this work is valid because it
reflects the average of several scientific and unpublished works
of coffee cooperatives in the region, which always indicate the 2∘
ten-day period of September as the most likely period of coffee
maturation. Years with marked thermal and/or water stress will
probably influence these estimated dates; however, the objective
of this work was an average evaluation of the maturation period
that is in agreement with previous studies.20–31
The DDs were retained from the flowering, and the dates of
graining and maturation were considered when the total DD
was reached. Thermal requirements quantified by Carvalho et al.32
were used to determine the DDs for the main Brazilian coffee
cultivars (Table 2).
We also evaluated the influence of the hydric (rainfall, water sur-
plus and water deficit), energetic (air temperature and PET) and
geographical (altitude) elements on the time of maturity using
Pearson correlation and nonlinear regression analysis. The uni-
variate Pearson correlation (Eqn (13)) analysis provided a more
detailed quantification of the relationships between coffee mat-
uration and the energetic, hydric and geographical elements. This
analysis was also important for understanding how each element
affected coffee maturation:
n ( )
∑ tively affected the maturation time (Table 3). High T AIR , high PET
Yobsi − Yobs) × (Yelementsi − Yelements
i=1
r= √
)2 √∑ (
∑(
n
n
)2
Yobsi − Yobs × i=1
Yelementsi − Yelements
i=1
(13)
where Yelements = energetic, water and geographical elements;
Yobsi = observed maturation; n = number of data; and k = number
of independent variables in the regression.
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LE de Oliveira Aparecido et al.
The regression analysis allowed us to verify the dependence of
the maturation period on the hydric, energetic and geographical
elements. We used linear and nonlinear regression analysis with
four parameters (logistics models) (Eqn (14)). Maturation time was
the dependent variable, and the other variables were the inde-
pendent variables. We used ordinary least squares for estimating
the nonlinear models, which minimizes the sum of squares of the
model errors33 by optimizing the ‘generalized reduced gradient’34 :
ymax − ymin
y = ymax + ( )p (14)
1 + xx
0
where y = the estimated cumulative variable; ymax = the maximum
point of the curve (amplitude); Y min = the minimum point of the
curve; x 0 = the inflection point (X is value of maximum growth);
and p = maximum growth rate.
The geographic information system was used for spatial interpo-
lation of the probable dates of coffee graining and maturation for
all locations using the method of kriging35 with a spherical model
with one neighbour and a spatial resolution of 0.25∘ (27.7 km).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Coffee maturation correlated variously with the hydric, energetic
and geographical elements. Altitude (ALT) and water surplus (WS)
positively affected, and water deficit (WD), air temperature (T AIR ),
evapotranspiration (PET), and the PET/rainfall ratio (PET/R) nega-
rate, moderate ALT and WD thus contributed to faster coffee mat-
uration. These results are consistent with previous studies,5–11
which also reported that ALT and PET/R showed positive and neg-
ative effects with coffee maturation, respectively.
Pearson correlation coefficients were arranged in descending
order to identify variables with the most influence on the matu-
ration period. The hydric variables (WS and WD) were the most
important, with correlations of 0.903 and −0.902, respectively
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Maturation periods for Coffea arabica cultivars www.soci.org

Figure 4. Water balance28 for Minas Gerais State: (A) Araxá; (B) Barbacena; (C) Caldas; (D) Caparaó; (E) Juiz de Fora; (F) Lavras; (G) Machado; (H) São Lourenço;
(I) São Sebastião do Paraiso; and (J) Viçosa. Water surplus (WS, mm mo−1 ); water deficit (WD, mm mo−1 ).

(Fig. 2). ALT was less well correlated with maturation time, with a
coefficient of 0.677. These correlations indicated that the climatic
conditions of the environment had more influence than altitude
on the time of maturity of the coffee crop. Moreto et al.36 also
observed that water conditions were the elements that most influ-
enced the quality and maturation of orange fruits.
We analysed the hydric elements for all locations, because
WS and WD correlated most strongly with maturation time.
Water balance is the most efficient indicator for characterizing
the soil–plant–atmosphere system.37 In the state of São Paulo,
WD was >25 mm mo−1 for April–October at São Simão and for
April–November at Votuporanga, which promoted a reduction
in the maturation time of coffee (Fig. 3). In Minas Gerais, WD was
highest in July and August at all locations. WD was highest at
Araxá, reaching 50 mm mo−1 in August, and lowest at Caldas and
São Lourenço in August, at <10 mm mo−1 (Fig. 4). In São Paulo
State, Campos do Jordão location had the lowest T AIR , around
15 ∘ C in the period of May to August (Fig. 3). In Minas Gerais,

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 www.soci.org LE de Oliveira Aparecido et al.

Figure 5. Annual water deficit (A) and water surplus (B) of locations producing coffee in the State of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Figure 6. Estimation of flowering/maturation period (days) of coffee in function of (A) altitude (m), (B) water surplus (mm y−1 ), (C) water deficit (mm y−1 ),
(D) air temperature (∘ C y−1 ), (E) evapotranspiration (mm y−1 ) and (F) evapotranspiration/rainfall rate (mm y−1 ).

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Maturation periods for Coffea arabica cultivars www.soci.org

Figure 7. Likely month for the occurrence of granado and the maturation of coffee in São Paulo. CPJ, Campos do Jordão; SSM, São Simão; SCL, São Carlos;
VTP, Votuporanga. (A) Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474; (B) Icatu Precoce Amarelo-3282; (C) Mundo Novo 379-19; (D) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-99; (E) Topázio MG-1190;
(F) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-15; (G) Catuaí Amarelo IAC-17; (H) Rubí MG-1192; (I) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-144; and (J) Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62.

T AIR was highest in November and December and lowest for
May–August. Average T AIR was lowest (around 15 ∘ C) at Caldas
and highest (around 24 ∘ C) at Araxá (Fig. 4).
WD has most influence on the development of agricultural
crops.38 The cumulative WDs and WSs varied among the locations
(Fig. 5). The annual average WD was 90.35 mm y−1 in São Paulo and
63.40 mm y−1 in Minas Gerais. Annual WD was highest in São Paulo
at Votuporanga and in Minas Gerais at Araxá, reaching 231.40 and
126.10 mm y−1 , respectively. WD was <20 mm y−1 in São Paulo at
Campos do Jordão and in Minas Gerais at Caldas and São Lourenço.
Modelling the effects of meteorological elements on coffee mat-
uration time resulted in different relationships. The accumulation
of WS and increasing ALT had a sigmoidal relationship with the
time of coffee maturation. An ALT of 1550 m and WS of 950 mm
y−1 promoted the stabilization of maturation at 390 days (Fig. 6A,
B). ALT was an indicator of fruit ripening, because the length of
the crop cycle increased with ALT.13–39 Coffee maturation time in
our study decreased as WD, T AIR , PET and PET/R increased. A WD of
1200 mm y−1 (Fig. 6C), T AIR of 25 ∘ C (Fig. 6D) and PET of 1450 mm
y−1 (Fig. 6E) promoted a time from flowering to maturation of
200 days.
The probable days of graining and maturation varied among
locations and cultivars. Campos do Jordão–SP showed an average
monthly T AIR < 15 ∘ C, and graining occurred in February for culti-
vars Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474, Icatu Precoce Amarelo 3282, Mundo
Novo 379-19, Catuaí Vermelho IAC-99 and Rubí MG-1192 (Fig. 7A,
B, C, D, H) and in April for cultivars Topázio MG-1190, Catuaí Ver-
melho IAC-15, Catuaí Amarelo IAC-17, Catuaí Vermelho IAC-144
and Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62 (Fig. 7E, F, G, I, J).
Maturation occurred mostly in March to June for all cultivars, but
in places with high T AIR there is a reduction in the cycle of coffee,
as observed in VTP, SSM and SCL (Fig. 7).

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 www.soci.org LE de Oliveira Aparecido et al.

Figure 8. Likely month for the occurrence of granado and the maturation of coffee in Minas Gerais. ARX, Araxá; BBC, Barbacena; CLD, Caldas; CPR, Caparaó;
LVR, Lavras; MCH, Machado; SLR, São Lourenço; SSP, São Sebastião Paraiso; JUF, Juiz de Fora; VIÇ, Viçosa. (A) Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474; (B) Icatu Precoce
Amarelo-3282; (C) Mundo Novo 379-19; (D) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-99; (E) Topázio MG-1190; (F) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-15; (G) Catuaí Amarelo IAC-17; (H) Rubí
MG-1192; (I) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-144; and (J) Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62.

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Figure 9. Duration of graining season of the main coffee cultivars A) Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474; B) Icatu Precoce Amarelo-3282; C) Mundo Novo 379-19; D)
Catuaí Vermelho IAC-99; E) Topázio MG-1190; F) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-15; G) Catuaí Amarelo IAC-17; H) Rubí MG-1192; I) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-144 and, J)
Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62.

The periods of graining and maturation varied in Minas Gerais
(Fig. 8). Graining occurred on average between January and
April and maturation between May and July. The time between
flowering and maturation was shortest at Araxá, Lavras and
Machado, which detracts from fruit quality.
Average monthly T AIR is <15 ∘ C at Barbacena and Caldas,22 so the
cultivars in our study formed grains between April and August and
matured between July and October, increasing the crop cycle and
the amplitude of the phenological phases of the cultivars (Fig. 8).
In these colder places, the quality of the drink is higher, because
the fruits presented high amounts of caffeine, trigonelline and
chlorogenic acid.5–11
Hydric conditions and temperatures varied widely in São Paulo
and Minas Gerais (Figs 3 and 4), so the coffee period from flowering
to maturation varied by up to 6 months among locations (Figs 7
and 8). The time between flowering and fruit formation was

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 www.soci.org LE de Oliveira Aparecido et al.

Figure 10. Duration of maturation season of the main coffee cultivars: (A) Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474; (B) Icatu Precoce Amarelo-3282; (C) Mundo Novo 379-19;
(D) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-99; (E) Topázio MG-1190; (F) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-15; (G) Catuaí Amarelo IAC-17; (H) Rubí MG-1192; (I) Catuaí Vermelho IAC-144;
and (J) Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62.

longer in the regions with milder T AIR , such as in the southern
and east-central regions of Minas Gerais. T AIR was highest in
São Paulo, especially in the north, with the longest maturation
period (Fig. 3D) and annual WD accumulation (Fig. 5) on fewer days
between flowering and grain formation (Fig. 9).
Cycle times were similar for the cultivars Catuaí Amarelo IAC-17,
Catuaí IAC-144, Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62 and Catuaí IAC-15 (Fig. 9).
The flowering/graining period for the long-cycle cultivar Catuaí
Vermelho IAC-15 varied between 179 and 197 days in the northern
and northeastern regions of São Paulo and between 333 and
352 days in the south of Minas Gerais. This result shows that the
same cultivar presents distinct maturation in different places.
Cultivars with premature cycles, such as Mundo Novo 379-19
and Catuaí Amarelo IAC-17, had flowering/graining durations of

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Maturation periods for Coffea arabica cultivars
147–160 days in the north of São Paulo and of 251–263 days in the
southern region of Minas Gerais (Fig. 9). These two cultivars are the
most commonly planted by the coffee producers in the region.39
Rapid grain formation is not optimal, because nutrient assimilation
and accumulation are not successful, which cause problems in
grain filling, less dense fruit, and even a lower quality of coffee
beverage.17
Faster maturing cultivars such as Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474 had
shorter periods between flowering and maturation in São Paulo,
mainly in the north, with a length between 174 and 193 days
(Fig. 10). Very early ripening produces poor coffee beverages,
because chlorogenic acids and tryptophan have not fully devel-
oped, promoting bitter-tasting beverages.15 The harvest of very
early crops can also coincide with the end of the rainy season,
which is not ideal, because the high relative humidity favours
microorganisms that ferment coffee grain pulp, which also reduces
the quality of the coffee beverage.40
The cultivars Rubi MG-1192 and Catuaí IAC-144 had flowering
periods similar to the maturation period of the late cultivar Catuaí
Amarelo IAC-62. Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62 needed 205–226 days
between the end of flowering and maturation at locations with
high T AIR (northern and northeastern São Paulo) and 375–396 days
at locations with low T AIR (southern and east-central Minas Gerais)
(Fig. 10).
A slow ripening of the coffee grains produces better coffee
beverages, because more sugar can accumulate.13 The longest
period between flowering and maturation was in Minas Gerais,
mainly in the south, with durations between 324 and 343 days.
Moderate T AIR and WD and high WS are prevalent in the southern
region of Minas Gerais (Fig. 4).
CONCLUSIONS
Coffee arabica L. matured up to 2–3 months earlier in São Paulo,
where T AIR is higher, than in Minas Gerais.
The climatic conditions in southern Minas Gerais allow a slow
ripening of the fruit. Water surplus and water deficit are the most
important variables for coffee maturation.
The fruit matures earlier where air temperature and evapotran-
spiration are high, altitude is moderate and when even a small
water deficit occurred. Low air temperature and water deficit have
larger effects on short-cycle cultivars.
Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474 and Icatu Precoce Amarelo 3282 were
cultivars with an early cycle. Acaiá Cerrado MG-1474 had shorter
periods between flowering and maturation in the north of São
Paulo, with a length between 174 and 193 days. Catuaí Vermelho
IAC-144 and Catuaí Amarelo IAC-62 were late cycle cultivars.
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