INVESTIGATING THE POTENTIAL FOR THE DESIGN

OF ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS WITH LOW

EMBODIED ENERGY AND OPERATIONAL ENERGY

Gihan Anuradha Tennakoon

(142709 K)

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Honours

Degree of Bachelor of Science in Quantity Surveying

Department of Building Economics

University of Moratuwa
Sri Lanka

November 2018
DECLARATION
I declare that this is my own work and this dissertation does not incorporate without
acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a Degree or Diploma in any
other University or institute of higher learning and to the best of my knowledge and
belief it does not contain any material previously published or written by another
person except where the acknowledgement is made in the text.

Further, I acknowledge the intellectual contribution of my research supervisor

Dr. K.G.A.S. Waidyasekara for the successful completion of this research dissertation.
I affirm that I will not make any publication from this research without the name of
my research supervisor as contributing author unless otherwise I have obtained written
consent from my research supervisor.

Also, I hereby grant to University of Moratuwa the non-exclusive right to reproduce

and distribute my dissertation, in whole or in part in print, electronic or other medium.
I retain the right to use this content in whole or part in future works (such as articles
or books).

Signature: …………………………… Date: ………………………….

The above candidate has carried out research for the Dissertation under my
supervision.

Signature: …………………………… Date: ………………………….

i
DEDICATION

My humble effort, I dedicate to my beloved

Father and Mother,

And my loving Sister,

Who stood with me through thick and thin….

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I make this an opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to all those who
encouraged and supported me throughout the research process. All such contributions
are highly appreciated, which ultimately lead to the successful completion of this
research.

First and foremost, I pay my gratitude to all the academic and non-academic staff
members of the Department of Building Economics, University of Moratuwa, for the
tremendous service rendered. I extend my special gratitude to Dr. Yasangika
Sandanayake, Head of the Department of Building Economics, for her keen interest,
encouragement and guidance provided in producing this dissertation.

I pay my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. K.G.A.S. Waidyasekara, my dissertation supervisor,

for her guidance, advice and encouragement in making this research a success. I also
wish to extend my sincere appreciation to Ms. B.J. Ekanayake, for her constant support
and encouragement provided throughout the research. I am also grateful to Dr. Thanuja
Ramachandra, the dissertation coordinator, for her dedication in coordinating all
research activities throughout the year.

I am highly indebted to all the professionals who contributed their valuable time,
knowledge and expertise during the data collection process amidst their busy
schedules.

Finally, I express my heartfelt appreciation to my family members and colleagues for

their constant support to make this dissertation a success.

Tennakoon G A

November 2018

iii
ABSTRACT
INVESTIGATING THE POTENTIAL FOR THE DESIGN OF ENERGY
EFFICIENT BUILDINGS WITH LOW EMBODIED ENERGY AND
OPERATIONAL ENERGY
Unsustainable rapid growth in the global energy demand has driven concerns towards
regulating energy consumption. As affirmed through literature, building sector is a prime
consumer of energy, consuming approximately 50% of the annual global energy production.
Consequently, the significance of regulating energy consumption in the building sector has
been recognized. Building energy consumption is of two main forms as embodied energy (EE)
and operational energy (OE). Although OE dominates over EE in conventional buildings, the
significance of EE is increasing as buildings become more efficient in terms of OE
consumption. Therefore, considering either EE or OE in its individuality does not seem to be
a pragmatic approach. Determining avenues for reducing both EE and OE in parallel has been
recognized as a challenge faced by the construction industry at present. Since most crucial
project decisions are taken during the design stage, it was identified as the ideal stage for
integrating energy efficiency into buildings.
Although many studies have focused on the concepts of EE and OE individually, a dearth of
studies that focuses on both these concepts together was identified. Therefore, this research
aimed to investigate the potential for the design of energy efficient buildings with low EE and
OE. Initially, a critical literature review on the concepts of EE and OE was conducted. A
qualitative approach with semi-structured interviews as the data collection technique, was
followed in pursuing the research aim. A preliminary survey followed by a detailed survey
was conducted to collect the required data on strategies, barriers, measures to overcome
barriers and professional involvement in the design of buildings with low EE and OE. Further,
strategies that could provide simultaneous EE and OE reductions were also explored. Manual
content analysis and code based content analysis was used to analyse the data collected.
Research findings revealed that the possibility for the design of energy efficient buildings with
both low EE and OE exists. Strategies related to material selection, design approach, building
morphology and procurement process were identified as having the potential to reduce both
EE and OE simultaneously. Even though barriers towards achieving energy efficiency exists,
they can be managed through the implementation of the identified enabling measures. Specific
roles of construction professionals belonging to different fields of expertise, during the design
stage of energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE were also recognized. Based on the
findings, a framework for the design of energy efficient buildings with both low EE and OE
was developed. The framework provides valuable guidance to construction professionals in
the design of energy efficient buildings.
Keywords: Buildings, Design stage, Embodied Energy, Operational Energy

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ......................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ iii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. xi
1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................ 4

1.3 Aim and Objectives ....................................................................................... 5

1.4 Research Methodology .................................................................................. 5

1.5 Scope and Limitations ................................................................................... 6

1.6 Chapter Breakdown ....................................................................................... 6

1.7 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................... 6

2 LITREATURE REVIEW .................................................................................. 7

2.1 Introduction to the Chapter ............................................................................ 7

2.2 Environmental Impacts of the Construction Industry ................................... 7

2.3 Sustainability and the Construction Industry ................................................ 8

2.3.1 The Concept of Sustainability ................................................................ 8

2.3.2 Sustainability in the Construction Industry ............................................ 9

2.4 Lifecycle Energy Consumption of Buildings .............................................. 10

2.5 Embodied Energy (EE) and Operational Energy (OE) in Buildings ........... 13

2.5.1 The Concept of Embodied Energy (EE) .............................................. 13

2.5.2 The Concept of Operational Energy (OE) ........................................... 15

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 2.6 Embodied Energy (EE) in Buildings ........................................................... 15

2.6.1 Factors Affecting Embodied Energy (EE) in Buildings ...................... 16

2.6.2 Strategies for Reducing the Impact of Embodied Energy (EE) in

Buildings during Building Design ...................................................................... 16

2.7 Operational Energy (OE) in Buildings ........................................................ 18

2.7.1 Factors Affecting Operational Energy (OE) in Buildings ................... 18

2.7.2 Strategies for Reducing the Impact of Operational Energy (OE) in

Buildings during Building Design ...................................................................... 18

2.8 Embodied Energy (EE) vs Operational Energy (OE).................................. 23

2.9 Significance of the Building Design Stage in Achieving Energy Efficiency

24

2.10 Role of Construction Professionals in the Design Stage of Developing Energy

Efficient Buildings with Low EE and OE .............................................................. 25

2.11 Barriers towards the Development of Energy Efficient Buildings.............. 28

2.12 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................... 30

2.13 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 32

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................... 33

3.1 Introduction to the chapter .......................................................................... 33

3.2 Research Design .......................................................................................... 33

3.3 Research Approach ...................................................................................... 33

3.3.1 Qualitative Approach ........................................................................... 34

3.3.2 Quantitative Approach ......................................................................... 34

3.3.3 Mixed Method Approach ..................................................................... 34

3.3.4 Selection of the Suitable Research Approach ...................................... 35

3.4 Research Process ......................................................................................... 35

3.4.1 Background Investigation .................................................................... 36

3.4.2 Literature Review ................................................................................. 36

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 3.4.3 Data Collection Techniques ................................................................. 37

3.4.4 Data Analysis Techniques .................................................................... 38

3.5 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 38

4 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................... 39

4.1 Introduction to the Chapter.......................................................................... 39

4.2 Preliminary Survey ...................................................................................... 39

4.2.1 Profile of the Interviewees for the Preliminary Survey ....................... 39

4.2.2 Findings of the Preliminary Survey ..................................................... 40

4.3 Detailed Interview Survey ........................................................................... 44

4.3.1 Profile of the Interviewees for the Detailed Interview Survey ............ 44

4.4 Analysis and Discussion of Findings of the Detailed Interview Survey ..... 45

4.4.1 Material Selection Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction ........ 46

4.4.2 Design Approach Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction.......... 48

4.4.3 Building Morphology Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction ... 50

4.4.4 Building Services Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction ......... 52

4.4.5 Procurement Process Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction .... 54

4.4.6 Interrelationships between the EE and OE Reduction Strategies and the

Potential for Simultaneous EE and OE Reduction ............................................. 56

4.4.7 Role of Construction Professionals in the Design Stage of Developing

Energy Efficient Buildings with Low EE and OE .............................................. 62

4.4.8 Barriers towards Developing Energy Efficient Buildings in the Sri

Lankan Context ................................................................................................... 66

4.4.9 Measures for Overcoming the Barriers in Moving towards Energy

Efficiency ............................................................................................................ 71

4.5 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 74

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 75

5.1 Introduction to the Chapter .......................................................................... 75

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 5.2 Revisiting the Aim and Objectives of the Study ......................................... 75

5.2.1 Objective One: Identify strategies to reduce EE and OE respectively, in

buildings during the design stage........................................................................ 75

5.2.2 Objective Two: Determine common strategies that could be used during
the building design stage to reduce both EE and OE simultaneously ................ 76

5.2.3 Objective Three: Examine the role of construction professionals in the

design stage of developing energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE ..... 77

5.2.4 Objective Four: Identify the barriers towards the development of energy
efficient buildings in the local context and measures to overcome such barriers
77

5.2.5 Objective Five: Develop a framework for the design of buildings with
low EE and OE ................................................................................................... 78

5.3 Contribution to Knowledge ......................................................................... 79

5.4 Recommendations for Industry Practitioners .............................................. 79

5.5 Recommendations for Academic Research ................................................. 80

5.6 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................ 80

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 81
APPENDIX-01: INTERVIEW GUIDELINE FOR PRELIMINARY SURVEY
………………………………………………………………………………….95
APPENDIX-02: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT OF THE PRELIMINARY
SURVEY ................................................................................................................... 99
APPENDIX-03: INTERVIEW GUIDELINE FOR DETAILED SURVEY ..... 101
APPENDIX-04: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT OF THE DETAILED SURVEY
………………………………………………………………………………...109
APPENDIX 05: FRAMEWORK FOR THE DESIGN OF ENERGY EFFICIENT
BUILDINGS WITH LOW EMBODIED AND OPERATIONAL ENERGY .. 118

viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Chapter breakdown .................................................................................... 6
Figure 2.1: The building life cycle stages as per BS EN 15978:2011 ....................... 11
Figure 2.2: Annual and estimated world populations and energy demand in Millions
of Barrels per Day of Oil Equivalent (MBDOE) ....................................................... 12
Figure 2.3: Impacts of design decisions on life cycle impacts and cost .................... 24
Figure 2.4: The conceptual framework ...................................................................... 31
Figure 3.1: The research process ................................................................................ 36
Figure 4.1: Barriers specific for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions ...... 67
Figure 4.2: General barriers towards achieving overall energy efficiency ................ 68
Figure 4.3: Measures for overcoming the barriers in moving towards energy efficiency
.................................................................................................................................... 71

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Definitions for embodied energy (EE) ...................................................... 14
Table 2.2: Definitions for operational energy (OE) ................................................... 15
Table 2.3: Strategies for minimizing EE in building ................................................. 17
Table 2.4: Strategies for reducing operational energy (OE) during building design . 20
Table 2.5: Barriers for energy efficient design .......................................................... 29
Table 4.1: Details of interviewees for the preliminary survey ................................... 40
Table 4.2: Details of interviewees who participated in the detailed survey............... 45
Table 4.3: Material selection related EE reduction strategies .................................... 47
Table 4.4: Material selection related strategies for OE reduction .............................. 48
Table 4.5: Design approach related strategies for EE reduction ................................ 49
Table 4.6: Design approach related strategies for OE reduction ............................... 50
Table 4.7: External building morphology related strategies for OE reduction .......... 51
Table 4.8: Internal building morphology related strategies for OE reduction ........... 52
Table 4.9: Building services related strategies for EE reduction ............................... 53
Table 4.10: Building services related strategies for OE reduction............................. 54
Table 4.11: Procurement process related strategies for EE and OE reduction .......... 54
Table 4.13: Strategies common for both EE and OE reduction ................................. 61

x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASMI − Athena Sustainable Material Institute

BIM − Building Information Modelling
BREEAM − Building Research Establishment Environmental
Assessment Method
EE − Embodied Energy
EPBD − Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
EU − European Union
GBCSL − Green Building Council of Sri Lanka
GDP − Gross Domestic Product
GHG − Green House Gas
HVAC − Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
IEA − International Energy Agency
IEE − Initial Embodied Energy
LEED − Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
NZEB − Nearly Zero Energy Buildings
OE − Operational Energy
QS − Quantity Surveyor
REE − Recurring Embodied Energy
RIBA − Royal Institute of British Architects
UN − United Nations
UNEP − United Nations Environment Programme
US − United States
USGBC − United States Green Building Council
WBCSD − World Business Council for Sustainable Development

xi
 CHAPTER ONE

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The construction industry is as a large, dynamic and a multifaceted industry that
encompasses developing new structures and engineering projects (Celik, Kamali, &
Arayici, 2017). The built environment, which is a combination of both buildings and
infrastructure, is an integral element of socio-economic development (Huang,
Krigsvoll, Johansen, Liu, & Zhang, 2018). Horta, Camanho, Johnes and Johnes (2012),
have recognized the construction industry as a major contributor to the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) of most countries. The authors have further stated that the construction
industry accounts for nine percent (9%) of the global GDP, which is indicative of the
significance of the construction industry in the global context.

The positive impact of the construction industry on the economic growth is

overshadowed by the industry’s negative environmental impacts (Yusof, Awang, &
Iranmanesh, 2017). Babak (2017) stated that the adverse impacts of construction
activity on the environment is among the highest, when compared with other
industries. According to Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) in
Malaysia (as cited in Abidin, 2010), the construction industry is responsible for rapid
depletion of natural resources, emission of environmental contaminants and also
natural disasters.

As per Zeng and Chini (2017), the impact of the construction sector on the
environment cannot be ignored and thus, the energy usage and environmental impacts
of construction has received widespread attention globally. According to Huang et al.
(2018), the built environment, in nature, consumes a significant quantity of material
and energy. According to Dixit (2017), buildings consume a staggering forty-eight
percent (48%) of global energy production annually, during the stages of construction,
operation, maintenance and deconstruction. Studies conducted in the EU identified
that the construction sector is a leading contributor for greenhouse gas emissions and

1
waste flows (Pomponi & Moncaster, 2016). The authors further established that the
built environment exerts the greatest pressure on the natural environment when
compared with all other industrial sectors.

Energy consumption of buildings is of two major forms as embodied energy (EE) and
operational energy (OE). Chastas, Theodosiou and Bikas (2016) defined EE as the
energy used in manufacture and transport of material, construction, repair and
maintenance, demolition and end of life management of demolished material. Troy,
Holloway, Pullen and Bunker (2003) identified EE as the energy for fabrication of
construction products, assembly of the building and that which is embodied within the
upstream inputs of the above processes. A difference in the definitions for EE is
evident based on the system boundaries considered. OE is construed as the energy
needed for preserving comfortable conditions within the building and for regular
maintenance (Ramesh, Prakash, & Shukla, 2010). According to the authors, it includes
the primary energy demand for building facilities such as ventilation, heating, cooling,
lighting and hot-water production.

Most researches mainly focused on the OE consumption whereas comparatively, fewer

studies have targeted the aspects of EE (Praseeda, Reddy, & Mani, 2016). Kua and
Wong (2012) identified the reason for this trend as the majority contribution of OE
towards the total life cycle energy consumption of conventional buildings. However,
with the rapid development of low energy buildings that use energy efficient
equipment and material, the OE demand has reduced significantly, increasing the
prominence of EE (Dixit, Fernandez-Solis, Lavy, & Culp, 2010). According to the
findings of Sartori and Hestnes (2007), EE ranged between two percent (2%) and
thirty-eight (38%) of the total life cycle energy in conventional buildings, whereas for
low energy buildings it was in the range of nine percent (9%) and forty-six percent
(46%). Thormark (2007) concluded that EE accounted for approximately half of the
total lifecycle energy of low-energy houses. The impact of EE is further increased in
buildings with lower service lives (Gan, Chan, Tse, Lo, & Cheng, 2017). According
to Zeng and Chini (2017), the impact of EE is expected to increase further over the
next fifty (50) years. These findings highlight the increasing prominence of EE, in
comparison with OE. It is evident that the consideration of OE alone, which was the

2
major concern until now, would not be sufficient to achieve energy efficient buildings.
Minimizing EE also needs to be factored, in the energy efficiency decision.

According to Braganca, Vieira and Andrade (2014), the design stage is significant in
any construction project, since most crucial project decisions are taken at this stage.
Decisions taken during the early design stages has a critical impact on the
environmental performance of buildings (Basbagill, Flager, Lepech, & Fischer, 2013).
Hakkinen, Kuittinen, Ruuska, and Jung (2015) also emphasized the significance of the
design phase in developing sustainable built environments. Therefore, the design stage
seems to be the most appropriate stage to integrate energy efficiency measures for
buildings.

Different strategies are followed in the global construction industry to minimize the
EE and OE requirements from the initial design stages. Selection of material with low
EE has been identified to have greater potential in reducing EE impacts (Cabeza et al.,
2013). Relatively new concepts such as the adaptive reuse of buildings and integrating
Building Information Modeling (BIM) tools during building design have also
contributed for low EE design (Fuertes, 2017; Shadram, Johansson, Lu, Schade, &
Olofsson, 2016). Passive design techniques as well as efficient active systems are used
in collaboration for developing buildings with low OE requirements (Huang & Niu,
2016). Rather than considering the EE and OE individually, a combined approach
seems to be more beneficial in developing buildings with low overall energy
requirements.

Building energy consumption, at present, has received increased attention in the Sri
Lankan context as well. Establishment of governmental bodies such as the Sri Lanka
Sustainable Energy Authority in 2007 can be viewed as a promising forward step in
this regard. However, Fernando and Jayasena (2008), studying on energy efficient
building designs in Sri Lanka identified that most professionals involved in building
design are not concerned with integrating energy efficiency measures in building
design. The authors revealed that even though measures for OE reduction are practiced
to a certain extent, EE has received almost no consideration in terms of building
design. The “Sri Lanka country report on energy efficiency improvement and

3
conservation” has also recognized that there is a lack of research and development
regarding energy efficiency in Sri Lanka (Wickramasinghe, 2009). This emphasizes
the need for increasing the focus of energy efficiency related research locally.

1.2 Problem Statement

As revealed through the background study, a variety of methods are followed in
different countries to minimize the impacts of EE and OE in buildings. Research
carried out by Pomponi and Moncaster (2016) revealed robust evidence that the EE
impacts of buildings have become significant with the increased efficiency in OE
usage. Therefore, considering either EE or OE in its individuality is not a pragmatic
approach. Birgisdottir et al. (2017) highlighted that it is important to consider means
of reducing both EE and OE in parallel and according to Balouktsi and Lützkendorf,
(2016), it is a challenge faced by the construction industry at present.

As highlighted by Braganca et al. (2014), improvement of sustainability performance

of buildings must begin at the design stage due to the higher optimization potential and
low cost of change during the early project phases. In going with this concerns,
reducing building energy demand should ideally commence from the design stage
itself.

The background study revealed that a multitude of research has been carried out
regarding the concepts of embodied and operational energy individually, but there
seems to be a lack of research that focuses on both these aspects together. The need to
consider EE and OE during building design was also recognized. Further, the lack of
research regarding building for energy efficiency in the Sri Lankan context was
highlighted. Considering these issues, this study focused on identifying strategies to
minimize the impact of EE and OE in buildings during the design stage and the design
strategies common for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions. The barriers
that needs to be managed in achieving energy efficiency and the means of overcoming
them, along with the role of construction professionals in the design of energy efficient
buildings with low EE and OE, was also examined through this research.

4
1.3 Aim and Objectives
The aim of the study is to investigate the potential for the design of energy efficient
buildings with low embodied energy (EE) and operational energy (OE). The aim of
the study was fulfilled by achieving the following objectives;

1. Identify strategies to reduce EE and OE respectively, in buildings during the design

stage
2. Determine common strategies that could be used during the building design stage
to reduce both EE and OE simultaneously
3. Examine the role of construction professionals in the design stage of developing
energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE
4. Identify the barriers towards the development of energy efficient buildings in the
local context and measures to overcome such barriers
5. Develop a framework for the design of buildings with low EE and OE

1.4 Research Methodology

Literature review: A comprehensive literature review was carried out by referring to
journals, conference proceedings, books, thesis, magazines, reports and databases to
identify the concepts of EE and OE, factors affecting EE and OE along with strategies
for its reduction during building design stage, barriers encountered in designing for
energy efficiency and the involvement of different professionals during building
design in achieving buildings with low EE and OE requirements.

Data collection: A qualitative approach which comprised of a preliminary survey with

subject matter experts, followed by a more detailed interview survey with
professionals from the field of construction was carried out to gather data regarding
the applicable strategies for EE and OE reduction, the barriers for reducing the impact
of EE and OE in buildings and the means of overcoming such barriers. The
involvement of different construction professionals in the reduction of EE and OE
impacts during building design was also identified.

Data analysis: Manual content analysis and code based content analysis using N-vivo
12 software developed by QSR International was used to analyse the data collected.

5
1.5 Scope and Limitations
The strategies considered for reducing the impact of EE and OE are limited to
buildings and specifically limited to the design stage of buildings. The literature
findings showed that the EE and OE reduction strategies are country specific and so
are the barriers for achieving EE and OE reduction. Since data collection was carried
out in Sri Lankan with the participation of professionals from the Sri Lankan
construction sector, the framework developed for the design of energy efficient
buildings with low EE and OE, is specific to the Sri Lankan context. However, a
general idea about EE and OE reduction in building design can be obtained through
the outcomes.

1.6 Chapter Breakdown

The chapter breakdown is presented in Figure 1.1.

Chapter 01: Elaborates the background to the research problem, problem

Introduction statement, aims and objectives, research methodology and scope
and limitations

Chapter 02: Literature Comprehensive literature review on the concepts of EE and OE

Review in buildings, significance of the building design stage in achieving
energy efficiency and role of construction professionals in
reducing EE and OE in buildings during building design stage

Chapter 03: Research Describes the research methodology inclusive of the data
Methodology collection and analysis methods followed in the study

Chapter 04: Data Presents the data collected and a detailed analysis of the data
Analysis and Discussion along with discussion of research findings

Chapter 05: Conclusions Presents the conclusions drawn from the research findings and
and Recommendations recommendations

Figure 1.1: Chapter breakdown

1.7 Chapter Summary

The background study, problem statement, aim and objectives, research methodology
and the scope and limitations of the research were described in this chapter. The
breakdown of chapters and the contents of each chapter are also briefly presented.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2 LITREATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction to the Chapter

The findings of the literature survey conducted are presented through this chapter.
Findings regarding sustainability in construction, life cycle energy consumption of
buildings, embodied and operational energy use of buildings, significance of the
building design stage decisions in achieving energy efficiency, the role of design
professionals towards implementing energy efficient design and the barriers towards
achieving energy efficiency is elaborated in this chapter.

2.2 Environmental Impacts of the Construction Industry

Construction is a highly complex yet a progressive industry, which involves
developing new structures as well as the renovation, addition, alteration, repair and
maintenance of existing structures (Çelik, Kamali, & Arayici, 2017). Being such a
large industry with different aspects, construction industry accounts for a significant
proportion of the global energy and resource consumption (Basbagill, Flager, Lepech,
& Fischer, 2013). Findings of De Ia Rue du Can and Price (2008) and Krausmann et
al. (2009), ascertain that construction is the largest consumer of material and energy
resources in the global context. As per the statistics from the United States (US),
construction industry consumes more materials by weight, rather than any other
industry (Horvath, 2004). Fumo, Mago and Luck (2010) found that buildings alone
account for forty-one percent (41%) of the total energy consumption in the US.
Construction waste has also increased over the years, where majority of the waste is
being dumped into landfills without further treatment, resulting in added
environmental pressure (Hossain, Wu, & Poon, 2017). Although the rates of reuse and
recycle of construction and demolition waste in certain developed countries such as
US, Singapore and Germany is high, it is not the case with most developing countries,
even economic super-powers like China (Huang et al., 2018). This major resource
crunch by the construction sector, has in turn, resulted in significant adverse impacts
on the environment.

7
According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2009), the building
sector is responsible for one third (1/3) of the global green-house gas (GHG)
emissions. With accelerated urbanization, that requires more built environments, the
construction sector emissions are expected to grow further in the future (Du, Wood,
Stephens, & Song, 2015). These facts indicate that the construction industry has a
greater potential to influence the achievement of global sustainability goals.

2.3 Sustainability and the Construction Industry

Sustainability and sustainable development has received widespread attention
globally, during the last few decades (Khalfan, 2006). The author described the
construction industry as a critical sector for adopting sustainability, due to multiple
reasons such as the size of the industry, activities, services provided, number of people
employed and the amount of waste generated. The concept of sustainability and its
integration with the construction industry is elaborated further under this sub topic.

2.3.1 The Concept of Sustainability

Sustainability has become a widely used term in many contexts, but there is a high
uncertainty as to what the term “sustainability” really means (Sfakianaki, 2015). The
concept of “sustainability” is integrative, and recognize the fact that responsible
development should consider a balance between the environmental, social and
economic aspects (Schoolman, Guest, Bush, & Bell, 2011). These three (03) aspects;
social, economic and environmental are identified as the three (03) pillars of
sustainability in literature.

The idea behind social sustainability is the implementation of practices that creates
value to the society and uplifts the entire community (Alhaddi, 2015). According to
Jamali (2006), the notion of social sustainability integrates factors such as workplace
safety and health, labour and human rights and satisfactory working conditions. As
defined by Alhaddi (2015), economic sustainability is the ability of the economy to
endure and evolve over time, so as to support future generations. Environmental
sustainability refers to controlled natural resource consumption and emissions, which
prevents the compromise of environmental resources for the future (Dyllick &
Hockerts, 2002). Goel (2010) identified environmental sustainability as, those

8
measures that minimize the compromise of environmental resources and conserve
them for the future. Basically, environmental sustainability discusses about eco-
systems and its role in facilitating life support functions for human-kind (Dong &
Hauschild, 2017).

Development that integrates all the three (03) pillars of sustainability is recognized as
sustainable development. The Brundtland Report defined sustainable development as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment
and Development, 1987). According to the United Nations Agenda for
Development, “economic development, social development and environmental
protection are interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable
development” (UN, 1997). However, balancing the three (03) pillars in achieving
sustainable development is a complex task since they involve different values that
cannot be measured together (Rodríguez-Serrano, Caldés, De La Rúa, Lechón, &
Garrido, 2016).

2.3.2 Sustainability in the Construction Industry

It is possible to recognize sustainable construction as a sub-category of sustainable
development where societal progress and economic growth is combined with effective
environmental protection mechanisms and careful resource utilization (Plank, 2008).
The sustainability indicators have increasingly focused their attention on the
construction industry, which has become a dynamic sector in the global context (Ortiz,
Castells, & Sonnemann, 2009).

When discussing about sustainability in construction, it is important to recognize how

the construction industry impacts the three (03) pillars of sustainability. The
construction industry can be viewed as a key player, responsible for shaping the global
economic environment, accounting for approximately nine percent (9%) of the world’s
GDP (Horta, Camanho, Johnes and Johnes, 2012). In-spite of the recent technological
advancements and development of production management techniques, construction
is still a people-reliant sector that offers a significant number of employment
opportunities (Dainty, Grugulis, & Langford, 2007). According to the European

9
Commission (EC), construction sector alone creates eighteen (18) million direct jobs
and contributes towards nine percent (9%) of the GDP of the EU, thereby driving
economic growth and assisting in overcoming social challenges (European
Commission, 2018). Therefore, it is clear that the construction industry can play a
major role in achieving economic and social sustainability.

On the contrary, when considering the environmental sustainability aspects of the

construction industry, it is seen that the industry is responsible for significantly high
energy consumption levels and solid waste generation (Ortiz et al., 2009). The authors
further noted that the contribution of the industry towards global GHG emissions,
resource depletion and overall pollution of the environment is monumental. Due to the
significant consumption of natural resources and negative environmental impacts, the
requirement of incorporating environmental sustainability in construction has been
emphasized for a long period (Wong & Zhou, 2015).

A number of building sustainability assessment schemes are in use at present such as

the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM)
developed by the Building Research Establishment UK, Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) developed by the United States Green Building
Council (USGBC) and GREEN STAR developed by the Green Building Council of
Australia (Markelj, Kuzman, & Zbasnik-Senegacnik, 2013). Sri Lanka also has its own
green building rating scheme developed by the Green Building Council of Sri Lanka
(GBCSL). It is indicative of the fact that the need for achieving sustainability in built
environments has been recognized in the global context and it is also gaining ground
locally.

2.4 Lifecycle Energy Consumption of Buildings

In order to better understand the life cycle energy consumption of buildings, it is
important to study the different building life cycle models. According to BS EN
15978:2011 (European Committee for Standardisation) (as cited in Giesekam, Barrett,
& Taylor, 2016), the building life cycle comprises of four main stages as product stage,
construction process stage, use (operational stage) and the end of life stage. A further
stage beyond the life cycle, referred to as “Beyond the System Boundary” has also

10
been defined that involves re-use, recovery and recycle. The Athena Sustainable
Material Institute (ASMI) (2014), has defined a building life cycle with six stages
comprising of resource extraction, manufacturing, on-site construction, occupancy &
maintenance, demolition and recycle, reuse and disposal. The ASMI definition
considers the recycle and reuse stages to be a part of the building life cycle whereas
BS EN 15978:2011 considers these stages to be supplementary and beyond the
building life cycle. The building life cycle model identified by Watson (2003),
comprises of six stages; initiation, production, construction, operation, maintenance
and demolition/disposition. It is evident that there are different perceptions regarding
the building life cycle.

The interpretation of the building life cycle in BS EN 15978:2011 is widely accepted.

Figure 2.1 depicts the building life cycle stages as identified in BS EN 15978:2011
along with the sub-divisions of the key stages.

Figure 2.1: The building life cycle stages as per BS EN 15978:2011

Source: (Giesekam, Barrett, & Taylor, 2016)

According to this model, the product stage includes the processes of extraction and
primary processing of raw materials, transportation and conversion of raw materials
into finished products. The construction process stage involves the transportation of
building materials and products to the site and all activities involved in the construction

11
of the building, including site clearance, removal of existing structures, site
improvements, earthwork and completion of the building itself. The use stage covers
the functions involved in operation of the building as well as maintenance, repair,
replacement and refurbishment. The end of life stage considers the demolition or
deconstruction of the building, disposal and waste processing along with the related
transportation work.

Building life cycle energy consumption and associated GHG emissions have received
widespread attention globally (Tam, Le, Tran, & Wang, 2018). Buildings consume
energy during the entire life cycle, directly as well as indirectly (Sartori & Hestnes,
2007). As identified by the authors, buildings consume energy directly for
construction, operation, repair, maintenance and demolition and indirectly for the
manufacturing of construction materials and components. Based on the findings of
Dixit (2017), forty-eight percent (48%) of the annual global energy is consumed by
buildings, throughout the stages of construction, operation, maintenance and
disposition. Population growth, building services enhancement, rising comfort levels
along with the increase in the time spent within buildings have increased life cycle
energy consumption in buildings to substantial levels (Pérez-Lombard, Ortiz, & Pout,
2008).The ever increasing trend of energy consumption with population growth is
depicted in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Annual and estimated world populations and energy demand in Millions of Barrels
per Day of Oil Equivalent (MBDOE)
Source: (Omer, 2009)

12
According to the graph, the energy demand is predicted to increase exponentially. As
a sector that demands significant energy requirements, the building sector offers
numerous avenues for cost effective energy efficiency improvements that would
undoubtedly assist in managing the rapid increase of the global energy demand (Nii
Addy, Adinyira, & Koranteng, 2014). Similarly, Omer (2009) also emphasized the
need for regulating energy consumption, where building energy use could play a major
role. As further highlighted by Zhao and Magoulès (2012), improving energy
performance is a crucial element in the development of sustainable buildings.

2.5 Embodied Energy (EE) and Operational Energy (OE) in Buildings

The lifecycle energy consumption of buildings can be divided into two main categories
as Embodied Energy (EE) and Operational Energy (OE) (Iddon & Firth, 2013). The
authors defined EE as the energy utilized in the construction of the building and OE
as the energy consumed post-construction, when the building is commissioned and
occupied. It should be noted that alternative definitions of EE and OE are expressed in
literature. These definitions are elaborated in detail in the ensuing sections.

As per the statistics of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development
(WBCSD) (as cited by Mani and Venkatarama-Reddy, 2012), the ratio of the general
energy consumption breakup of EE to OE of buildings is found to be sixteen to eighty-
four (16:84) respectively. This indicates that OE contributes to a major proportion of
the building energy consumption when compared with EE. However, research shows
the increasing significance of EE with the evolvement of buildings with very low OE
requirements. The concepts of EE and OE will be discussed in detail under this
subtopic.

2.5.1 The Concept of Embodied Energy (EE)

Different researchers have presented varying definitions for EE, as identified through
literature. Table 2.1 summarises the different definitions for EE.

13
Table 2.1: Definitions for embodied energy (EE)

Definition Source of reference

Energy expended in extraction, processing, manufacturing and Yohanis & Norton,
transportation of construction material and equipment 2002
Energy consumed in fabrication of construction products, Troy, Holloway, &
physical assembly of the building, as well as the energy embodied Pullen, 2003
within the upstream inputs of the above processes.
Aggregated energy requirement for the manufacture of a good, Sartori & Hestnes,
measured in terms of primary energy which might also include 2007
the feedstock energy in the materials used
Energy utilized in manufacture and transport of materials, Chastas, Theodosiou,
construction, repair and maintenance, demolition and end of life & Bikas, 2016
management of demolished materials
Total quantity of non-renewable primary energy demand for International Energy
direct and indirect processes involved in creation of a building, Agency (IEA), 2016
maintenance as well as the end of life stage

It is evident that there are differences in the EE definitions put forward by different
researchers, based on the different life cycle stages considered. Similarities in the life
cycle stages considered for defining EE can be seen in the more recent definitions by
Chastas et al. (2016) and International Energy Agency (IEA) (2016). These definitions
provide a holistic view of EE, considering the entire building life cycle.

EE can be further divided into two categories as initial EE (IEE) and recurring EE
(REE). IEA (2016) has defined IEE and REE as follows;

• IEE is the primary energy consumed during both off-site and on-site building
activities that includes extraction of raw materials, component manufacture,
final assembly of products and transportation.
• REE is the primary energy consumed in maintenance and refurbishment of a
building over its’s life cycle.

Based on literature, it can be inferred that most research and legislative enactments has
focused only on reducing OE of buildings with minimum focus given for EE reduction.
This is mainly due to the greater contribution of OE to the life cycle energy demand
of buildings. However, as emphasized by many researchers, (Dixit, Fernández-Solís,
Lavy, & Culp, 2012; Giordano et al., 2017; Iddon & Firth, 2013) development of
energy efficient buildings with significantly low OE requirements has resulted in EE

14
contributing to a significant proportion of the life cycle energy in buildings. Therefore,
the need to investigate potential measures for EE regulation has arisen.

2.5.2 The Concept of Operational Energy (OE)

Similar to EE, alternative definitions regarding OE is also evident in literature. Table
2.2 summarises the definitions for OE. However, the definitions for OE are largely
similar, unlike for EE where significantly different interpretations have been provided.

Table 2.2: Definitions for operational energy (OE)

Definition Source of reference

Energy that is consumed to maintain a stable internal Crowther, 1999
environment inside a building
Energy used during the operational stage of a building for the Sartori & Hestnes, 2007
purposes of lighting, ventilation, heating, cooling, hot water
generation and operation of other electrical appliances
Energy needed for preserving comfortable conditions within the Ramesh, Prakash, &
building and for regular maintenance (i.e. the energy for HVAC Shukla, 2010
systems, domestic hot water generation, lighting and for running
electrical appliances)
Primary energy demanded for lighting, heating, cooling and Giordano, Serra,
powering of building services Demaria, & Duzel, 2017

As identified by Sartori and Hestnes (2007), OE dominates over EE, when considering
the life cycle energy use of buildings. The significance of achieving OE reductions has
been emphasized for a long time and extensive research has been carried out in relation
to OE, which has resulted in the development of buildings with very low or nearly zero
OE requirements, commonly referred to as Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs).
A number of codes, standards and legislative enactments have been formulated which
have pushed buildings to be highly efficient in terms of OE usage.

2.6 Embodied Energy (EE) in Buildings

Existing research has identified certain key factors that affects the EE in buildings.
Different strategies have been implemented globally, to mitigate the impact of EE
during building design. The factors affecting EE in buildings and design strategies to
minimize the impact of EE is discussed in detail under this sub topic.

15
2.6.1 Factors Affecting Embodied Energy (EE) in Buildings
EE impacts are generally considered as those impacts that are material related which
arise from the life cycle processes undergone by building materials from extraction to
final disposal or reuse (Rasmussen, Malmqvist, Moncaster, Wiberg, & Birgisdóttir,
2018). Jackson (2005) showed that a majority of the EE in a building can be attributed
to its constituent materials and components. This indicates that building materials can
have a profound impact in determining the EE of buildings. Material related
considerations such as the material extraction and manufacturing processes,
transportation, content of recycled, reused or natural material, locally sourced material
can affect the EE in buildings (Yohanis & Norton, 2006; Venkatarama Reddy &
Jagadish, 2003; Thormark, 2003).

Construction stage activities will also have an impact on the EE of buildings. Energy
consumption in onsite management, operation of construction tools and equipment,
transportation of material, labour, plant and equipment are several means through
which EE shall accumulate in buildings during the construction stage (Shrivastava &
Chini, 2016). Regular maintenance activities and replacement of building components
during repair and maintenance of a building throughout the useful life shall also
contribute to the EE of buildings (Qarout, 2017). The EE expended in construction and
maintenance of a building cannot be recovered easily (Fuertes, 2017). According to
the author, the longer a building remains functional, the efficiency of the utilization of
the energy consumed would be higher, which indicates that the useful life of a building
can also be a determinant of EE. Moreover, the energy utilized for demolition and
disposal of buildings at the end of its useful life would also form part of the EE of
buildings (Crowther, 1999).

2.6.2 Strategies for Reducing the Impact of Embodied Energy (EE) in Buildings
during Building Design
With the increasing significance of EE, researchers have focused on developing
strategies that can be used to minimize the EE in buildings. The Annex 57 (Evaluation
of Embodied Energy and CO2eq for Building Construction) study conducted by the
IEA (2016) proposed a number of measures to minimize EE impacts during the design
stage. The strategies identified have been classified under four categories as

16
substitution of material, reduction of resource use, reduction of construction stage
impacts and designing for low end of life impacts in the Annex 57 documents. Since
this research focuses only on the building design stage, the strategies proposed under
“reduction of construction stage impacts” have not been considered. Several other
researchers have also proposed different means of mitigating the EE impacts. Table
2.3 presents the different strategies for EE reduction, identified through literature. The
classification of strategies is based on the classification used by IEA.
Table 2.3: Strategies for minimizing EE in building

No Strategy Key References

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1.0 Substitution of material
1.1 Selection of natural material (e.g. timber) 9 9 9
with low EE
1.2 Selection of recycled and reused material 9 9
and components
1.3 Selection of innovative material with low 99
EE (e.g. geo-polymer concrete)
1.4 Selection of locally sourced material 9
1.5 Selection of material manufactured 9 9
through less energy intensive
manufacturing processes
2.0 Reduction of resource use
2.1 Alteration of the building form and layout 9
plan to optimize the resource use
2.2 Design for flexibility and future 9
adaptations
2.3 Designing for low maintenance and 9 9
service life extension in mind
2.4 Reuse of existing building structures 99
where possible
3.0 Design for low end of life impacts
3.1 Design for disassembly at the end of 9 9 9
useful life
4.0 Other strategies
4.1 BIM integrated design (determine impacts 9
of alternative designs with low EE)
4.2 Collaborative contractual arrangements 9
(integrate the efforts of the design team,
contractors and suppliers during early
stages of building design)

17
Adapted from: (1 = Buchanan & Honey, 1994; 2 = Crowther, 1999; 3 = Cullen,
Carruth, Moynihan, Allwood, & Epstein, 2011; 4 = Fuertes, 2017; 5 = Hargroves,
Gockowiak, Wilson, Lawry, & Desha, 2014; 6 = IEA, 2016; 7 = Jackson, 2005; 8 =
Salama, 2017; 9 = Shadram, Johansson, Lu, Schade, & Olofsson, 2016; 10 =
Thormark, 2003; 11 = Venkatarama Reddy & Jagadish, 2003; 12 = Yohanis & Norton,
2006)

Strategies that do not fall under any of the main categories have been grouped as “other
strategies” in the Table 2.3.

2.7 Operational Energy (OE) in Buildings

Extensive research in the area of OE has identified a wide range of strategies which
can be implemented during building design, to minimize the impact of OE. Factors
that affects OE of buildings and the strategies to reduce the impact of OE during
building design are elaborated in this section.

2.7.1 Factors Affecting Operational Energy (OE) in Buildings

Literature sources have established that heating, ventilation, air conditioning, glazing
and the building envelop can have a major impact on the OE demand of a building
(Tam, Le, Tran, & Wang, 2018). Rattanongphisat and Rordprapat (2014), stated that
the most influential factor which determines energy consumption in buildings is the
building envelop, specifically, the material used and the design. As emphasized by the
authors, plants and vegetation in the building surroundings will also impact the energy
use in buildings. OE varies widely with the required comfort levels, operation
schedules and climatic conditions of the location of the building (Ramesh et al., 2010).

2.7.2 Strategies for Reducing the Impact of Operational Energy (OE) in

Buildings during Building Design
A wide range of strategies to minimize OE of buildings are expressed in literature.
According to Sartori and Hestnes (2007), both active and passive measures for OE
reduction are incorporated in delivering buildings with low OE requirements. The
authors identified measures such as increased insulation, recovery of heat from
ventilation air/waste water, windows with better thermal performance and reduction
of infiltration losses as passive design strategies for achieving OE reductions. Further,

18
use of service equipment with improved energy performance, solar photovoltaic
panels, solar thermal collectors and biomass burners etc. have been identified as active
measures that contributes towards low OE. Research conducted by Naboni, Malcangi,
Zhang and Barzon (2015) emphasized the higher OE reduction potential associated
with alteration of a building and its elements in terms of the form, orientation,
openings, shading mechanisms and use of materials. Naboni et al., (2015) recognized
the need to consider changing energy requirements with seasonal variations, in
deciding on the strategies to be used for reducing OE. Factors such as the window to
wall ratio (WWR) and shading were found to have varying effects with seasonal
changes where designs that increase solar heat gain in winter might result in over
heating during summer. Rattanongphisat and Rordprapat (2014), studying on energy
efficient buildings in tropical climates noted that the building envelops, cooling
systems and appliances should be considered specifically, during building design.
They also emphasized the major role that can be played by natural ventilation in
tropical climates. Since this study is being conducted in Sri Lanka, a country with a
tropical climate, OE reduction strategies suitable for tropical climatic conditions were
given prominence.

The strategies identified through literature for reduction of OE during the building
design stage has been summarized in Table 2.4. The identified strategies have been
grouped under several sub categories based on the classification in the energy efficient
building guideline developed for the city of Johannesburg in South Africa (City of
Joburg, 2008) with alterations. Strategies that do not fall under any of these categories
have been expressed under “other strategies” in Table 2.4.

19
Table 2.4: Strategies for reducing operational energy (OE) during building design

No. Strategy Key References

1 2 3 4 5 6
1.0 Site
1.1 Orientation of the building to avoid unwanted solar heat gains (maximize façade facing north and minimize 9
those facing east and west)
1.2 Orientation of the building to minimize obstructions from adjacent buildings 9
1.3 Orientation of the building to facilitate natural lighting and ventilation 9
1.4 Minimize dark coloured external hard surfacing (e.g. paved car parks) that contribute to heat island effects 9
1.5 Developing comfortable outside spaces that minimize the demand on active systems that condition the internal 9
spaces
2.0 Building Form and Envelop
2.1 Design to minimize infiltration losses 9
2.2 Orientation and sizing of windows to regulate the amount of heat transfer and improve daylighting and natural 9 9 9 9
ventilation
2.3 Selection of glazing with improved thermal performance (double or triple layered glass with vacuum or inert 9 9 9 9
gas between glass plates, spectrally selective glazing, low emissivity coatings)
2.4 Introduction of shadings/overhangs to minimize the solar heat gains 9 9 9
2.5 Selection of double skinned curtain walls to regulate heat infiltration 9
2.6 Insulation on walls and roofs to minimize heat transfer and thermal bridging 9 9 9 9
2.7 Specification of light colours for roofs and external walls that provides greater solar reflectance 9 9
2.8 Design of roofs to receive maximum benefit from installation of solar photovoltaic panels 9 9
2.9 Design of green roofs and vegetated facades 9
2.10 Passive cooling (use of natural cool resources such as ground water/design for night time cooling) 9 9
2.11 Design of thermal chimneys (stack effect) for ventilation 9 9
3.0 Internal Spaces

20
No. Strategy Key References
1 2 3 4 5 6
3.1 Locating functions within buildings to enhance energy efficiency (e.g. bedrooms and kitchens to be east facing 9
to get maximum sunlight during morning hours)
3.2 Design of internal walls to facilitate natural ventilation 9
3.3 Specification of the colour of finishes based on daylighting/heat absorption requirements 9
3.4 Thermal regulation of buildings through the use of thermal mass and exposed concrete or masonry 9
4.0 Mechanical Systems (HVAC/Motors and Pumps)
4.1 Zoning buildings based on HVAC requirements 9
4.2 Selection of equipment and systems based on energy efficiency ratings 9 9
4.3 Use of automatic controls (e.g. temperature/occupancy sensors) to regulate equipment usage 9 9
4.4 Use systems capable of recovering heat from ventilation air/waste water 9 9
5.0 Appliances and Equipment
5.1 Use of automatic controls to regulate equipment usage 9 9
5.2 Selection of equipment and systems based on energy efficiency ratings 9 9
6.0 Lighting
6.1 Selection of lighting systems with improved energy efficiency 9
6.2 Zoning to ensure that each area can be regulated separately and avoid unnecessary lighting 9
6.3 Use of automatic controls (e.g. temperature/daylighting/occupancy sensors) to regulate usage 9
7.0 Water Heating
7.1 Use of solar water heaters 9
7.2 Specification of water efficient delivery devices 9
8.0 Renewable Energy
8.1 Solar photovoltaic panels on roofs and facades 9
8.2 Building integrated windmills 9
8.3 Biomass plants that use waste products 9

21
 No. Strategy Key References
1 2 3 4 5 6
9.0 Integrated Control and Monitoring Systems
9.1 Implementation of integrated control systems such as Building Management Systems 9
10. Procurement Approach 
10.1 Collaborative contractual arrangements (integrate the efforts of the design team, contractors and suppliers 9
during early stages of building design)
10.2 Novel procurement approaches such as the use of BIM integrated procurement 9

Adapted from: (01 = City of Joburg, 2008; 02 = Hargroves et al., 2014; 03 = IEA, 2008; 04 = Naboni et al., 2015; 05 = Ramesh et al.,
2010; 06 = Sartori & Hestnes, 2007)

22
2.8 Embodied Energy (EE) vs Operational Energy (OE)
The general understanding is that OE accounts for a significant portion of the energy
build-up in buildings when compared to EE. This has resulted in building energy
efficiency decisions to be more focused on reducing OE consumption at the detriment
of EE considerations (Dixit et al., 2012). Recent years has seen the development of a
number of legislative frameworks for improving the energy efficiency of the European
built environments which are specifically focused on minimizing the OE consumption
(Giordano, Serra, Demaria, & Duzel, 2017). According to Giordano et al. (2017),
Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) in Europe requires new buildings
and properties used by European public authorities to be NZEBs by 31st December
2018, and all new buildings to be NZEBs by 31st December 2020. These targets have
been fixed considering the OE requirements leaving out the EE component.

With such policies promoting buildings with low OE, the significance of EE is
predicted to increase (Iddon & Firth, 2013). Reports compiled by the “Government
Construction Strategy and Government Response to the Low Carbon Construction
Innovation and Growth Team” in UK, has recognized the need for in-depth
investigation on EE impacts, which indicates a shift towards EE considerations (Iddon
& Firth, 2013). Even though the total energy consumption of modern buildings in
absolute terms have decreased as a result of efficient OE reduction measures, the
percentage of EE has increased (Koezjakov, Urge-Vorsatz, Crijns-Graus, & Van den
Broek, 2018) and therefore, the authors have stressed on the significant role that would
be played by EE in the future. Nevertheless, minimum action has been taken on the
legislative front, to regulate EE (Iddon & Firth, 2013).

In an environment where EE is beginning to gain widespread attention, Birgisdottir et

al. (2017) emphasized the importance of reducing impacts of EE in parallel with OE
impacts. However, according to Sartori and Hestnes (2007), reduction of OE will
generally be accompanied by an increase in the use of material, specifically those
which are energy intensive, in the building envelop and in technical installations. The
authors highlighted that this may result in a substitution effect where the resulting
reduction of OE will, to a great extent be counter balanced by an increase in the
associated EE, making it difficult to reduce EE and OE simultaneously. Stauffer (2016)

23
elaborates on this issue with the example of extending the roof beyond the building
edge, where the extension of the roof provides shading for windows, resulting in a
reduction of the cooling energy demands in hot climates. However, the construction
of the overhang requires more energy intensive material thereby resulting in an
increase of EE. This disparity has been recognized by researchers, and the possibility
of reducing both EE and OE in parallel is being considered.

Existing strategies for reducing the impacts of EE and OE respectively have been
examined in this research. The possibility of integrating the identified strategies for
EE and OE reduction was then studied to facilitate the development of buildings with
both low EE and OE.

2.9 Significance of the Building Design Stage in Achieving Energy Efficiency

Most crucial decisions in any construction project are taken during the building design
stage, and such decisions will determine the ultimate outcome of the project (Braganca
et al., 2014). The decisions taken during the early design stages can have a critical
impact on the development of sustainable built facilities (Basbagill et al., 2013;
Hakkinen et al., 2015). According to Braganca et al. (2014), projects which are well
planned, with sustainable criteria integrated at the early design stages have a greater
potential to reduce negative impacts and are also benefited by reduced implementation
costs as expressed graphically in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3: Impacts of design decisions on life cycle impacts and cost

Source: (Braganca et al., 2014)

24
According to the graph, the possibility for influencing the impacts and costs is highest
during the early design stages, and it drops considerably as the projects proceeds from
the planning stages, through to the construction stages. Alternatively, the cumulative
impacts and costs of design decisions are lowest during the planning stage. This
provides a clear indication of the significance of the design stage decisions.

Despite the significance of the design stage decisions being emphasized constantly in
literature, the general practise is to consider sustainability assessments when the
building designs are almost finalized and the potential for incorporating changes is
limited (Ding, 2008), which is a non-productive approach. Factors such as non-
collaborative design have aggregated this issue (Stauffer, 2009). As emphasized by the
energy efficiency expert Joseph Romm (as cited in Hargroves et al., 2014), a crucial
factor in developing buildings with higher energy efficiency is the recognition of the
significance of building design phase in terms of achieving energy efficiency. As
further elaborated, even though the upfront design costs reflects on a small fraction of
the total life cycle cost of buildings, a greater percentage of the life cycle costs would
be committed during this stage.

With energy consumption being a major criteria in the sustainability assessment of

built facilities, the necessity to provide due consideration on reducing building energy
consumption during design is established. This led to the focus of this research on
determining strategies for reducing the impacts of EE and OE during building design.

2.10 Role of Construction Professionals in the Design Stage of Developing

Energy Efficient Buildings with Low EE and OE
Literature findings highlight the profound impact architectural and construction
decisions have on energy and environmental performance of buildings. Architectural
and construction decision making involves a number of decision makers such as
developers, designers, builders and financiers whose decisions can affect the energy
efficiency of buildings (Nii Addy et al., 2014). According to the authors, the lack of
knowledge on energy efficiency among these decision makers, is a major impediment
for the integration of energy efficiency measures in buildings. This research aims to
address this issue by proposing a framework for the design of energy efficient

25
buildings with low EE and OE, which provides strategies for professionals involved
in the building design stage to minimize the impacts of EE and OE. The role of certain
key professionals involved in building design is discussed further. The selection of key
professionals was based on the traditional Sri Lankan construction project set up.

Architects - Naboni et al., (2015) studying on the potential of energy savings that
could be achieved through architectural design found that a strong relationship exists
between architectural decisions and energy saving potential. However, according to
Ryghaug and Sorensen (2009), a majority of the architects give more prominence for
aesthetics rather than for energy efficiency. A major reason for this is the demand by
clients for improved aesthetics over energy efficiency. It is evident that this situation
is gradually changing with extensive concerns on concepts such as “Green Buildings”.
The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) has also included “sustainability
checkpoints” in their latest Plan of Work (RIBA, 2013), indicating a shift towards
energy efficient and sustainable architecture.

Engineers – The engineering profession comprises of different disciplines as

structural engineering, service engineering, mechanical engineering etc. This research
focused only on the structural and service engineering disciplines. Hargroves et al.,
(2014) recognized engineering as a profession which can have a substantial impact in
the development of energy efficient buildings. The authors emphasized that engineers
will play a key role in ensuring sustainability in construction, through design of
structures using innovative material and efficient service systems to design buildings
with nearly zero energy demands. It has become evident that engineers will have to
face the challenge of embedding energy efficient measures in their professional
practices in the near future.

Quantity Surveyors (QS) - The traditional role of a QS involves the provision of

construction finance and contract management related services from the inception to
the ultimate completion of a construction project (Dada & Jagboro, 2012). In an
environment where energy efficiency of built environments is becoming paramount,
the traditional role of a QS needs to be moderated to accommodate environmental
considerations (Wong, n.d.). A QS can contribute towards delivery of energy efficient

26
buildings through the selection of alternative procurement arrangements that facilitates
energy efficient design, providing information regarding alternative design options
and assessing feasibility of sustainable development options (Ma & Luu, 2013).

Apart from the above identified professionals, the client and the contractor can also
influence energy efficient building design. According to Barret (2008), the client is the
initiator of any construction activity and is bestowed with the power to initiate design
and construction. As the main regulator of the requirements and finances of a
construction project, the construction client has a major standpoint on building for
energy efficiency. Under the traditional project setup, the contractor will not be
involved in building design. However, as highlighted by Stauffer (2009), collaborative
contractual arrangements will facilitate energy efficient building design, during which
a construction contractor could also contribute towards energy efficiency. Evidence
for this can be seen from the 2012 Olympic Games held in UK. By getting the
contractors involved during the design stage, the designers were able to reduce the
quantity of virgin steel in the Olympic venues since the contractors proposed the use
of recycled steel which was accessible to them (Cullen et al., 2011). However, this
study mainly focuses on the roles of professionals only and does not take account of
the role of construction clients or contractors.

27
2.11 Barriers towards the Development of Energy Efficient Buildings
Building energy use has been given marginal consideration in building design,
especially in developing countries (Bodach, Lang, & Auer, 2016). Lack of government
regulations on energy efficient design, unfamiliarity among professionals such as
architects and engineers on energy efficient design, undermining the potential cost
savings through energy efficient design and comparatively higher initial costs in the
integration of energy efficiency were identified as contributing factors. Nii Addy et
al., (2014) identified a comprehensive list of barriers that impede the development of
energy efficient buildings, from the perspective of architects in the Ghanaian context.
Issues such as the limited availability of finance, lack of knowledge and information
on energy efficiency measures, building owners perspectives on energy efficiency
were highlighted. As emphasized by Stauffer (2009), non-collaborative design
approaches also impede the development of energy efficient buildings.

Certain barriers specific to EE reduction were also identified through the review of
literature. Dixit (2007) recognized the lack of accurate and comprehensive databases
on the EE of building materials as a barrier for determining EE of buildings. According
to the author, previous studies that quantifies EE in buildings showed significant
variations in the reported EE values. Complexities in EE calculations was also
expressed as a challenge for considering EE during early design stages (Qarout, 2017).
Further, the author mentioned that the published data bases regarding material
embodied energies are out of date and their applicability can be questionable with
changes in manufacturing technologies and mechanisms. Dixit et al. (2012)
highlighted the comparative lack of standards and regulations governing EE, as a
major barrier for promoting EE reductions.

The barriers identified are summarised in Table 2.5. The barriers have been
categorized under six categories as social/behavioural related, knowledge related,
policy related, market and production related, financial related and other barriers.

28
Table 2.5: Barriers for energy efficient design

No. Barriers Key References

01
02 03 04 05 06
Social/Behavioural related barriers
1 Multiple decisions to be made, resulting in compromise 9
of energy efficiency
2 Lack of internalisation of energy related costs 9
3 Construction decisions not being focused on potential 9
future cost savings through energy efficiency
4 Less priority being given for energy efficiency in 9
developing buildings
5 Attitude and behaviour of the clients regarding energy 9
efficient buildings
Knowledge related barriers
1 Lack of knowledge about the potential cost savings and 9 9
benefits of energy efficient buildings among clients
2 Lack of expertise among construction professionals on 9 9
building for energy efficiency 
3 Lack of access to third party energy-saving evaluations 9

4 Lack of accurate, comprehensive and up to date 9
databases on EE/OE related knowledge
Policy related barriers
1 Lack of regulatory bodies to regulate energy efficiency 9
in buildings
2 Lack of regulations and standards on energy efficiency 9 9 9
of buildings
3 Lack of subsidies being provided for moving towards 9
energy efficiency
Market and production related barriers
1 Non-availability of energy saving systems in the market 9
2 Lack of investors to invest in energy efficient products 9
3 Lack of appropriate production technologies for 9
developing energy efficient buildings
Financial related barriers
1 Higher initial investment required for energy efficient 9 9
technologies
2 Focus on known costs 9
3 Limited access to sources of finance 9
Other barriers
1 Non collaborative approach towards building design 9
2 Complexities involved in calculating life cycle energy 9
requirements during building design stage

29
Adapted from: (01 = Bodach et al., 2016; 02 = Dixit, 2007; 03 = Dixit et al., 2012; 04
= Nii Addy et al., 2014; 05 = Qarout, 2017; 06 = Stauffer, 2009)

2.12 Conceptual Framework

Through the literature survey, the need for reducing both EE and OE in parallel, to
develop energy efficient was identified. The building design stage was viewed as the
most critical stage where energy efficiency measures can be incorporated to a building.
Therefore, the requirement for professionals involved in the building design stage, to
consider energy efficient building design concepts is paramount. A framework which
presents design stage strategies for achieving both EE and OE reductions, barriers
towards achieving energy efficiency and means of overcoming them along with the
role of construction professionals in energy efficient building design, would assist in
promoting the design of energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE. Figure 2.4
presents the conceptual framework developed to facilitate the investigation for
achieving the research aim.

A key aspect of this research was identifying strategies common for both EE and OE
reduction. Therefore, the need for developing a common classification of EE and OE
reduction strategies arose. Through the review of the identified strategies and based on
literature, a common classification was developed that comprises of the seven
categories as material selection, design approach, internal building morphology,
external building morphology, building services, procurement process and renewable
energy. This categorisation is expressed in the conceptual framework under
“Strategies Common for EE and OE Reduction”.

30
Figure 2.4: The conceptual framework

31
2.13 Chapter Summary
Sustainability has become an extensive topic of discussion in the global context.
Sustainable construction has received widespread attention due to the significant
impact, the sector has on economic, social and environmental sustainability. With
global energy consumption reaching unsustainable levels, the need for regulating
energy consumptions has been emphasized. It is recognized that the building sector
can have a profound impact in minimizing global energy consumption, since the sector
is at the forefront in terms of energy consumption, based on the recent statistics.

Building energy is broadly categorized into two as EE and OE where EE is defined as

the energy utilized in the creation of a building, its maintenance and the end of life
stages whereas OE is defined as the energy consumed post-construction, after the
building is commissioned and occupied. Even though traditionally, OE represented a
major proportion of the building energy consumption, the scenario has changed with
the development of buildings with very high OE efficiencies such as NZEBs, resulting
in an increase of the proportion of EE in the life cycle energy consumption. Shifting
concerns towards minimizing EE, has therefore been emphasized. Building design
stage was identified as the most suitable stage for implementing strategies for
minimizing the impacts of EE and OE, and the different professionals who can impact
energy decisions were recognized. Barriers towards achieving energy efficiency were
also found out through literature. In order to develop energy efficient buildings, the
need for considering both EE and OE in parallel, during building design, was
highlighted. Finally, a conceptual framework was developed to facilitate the
investigation for achieving the research aim.

32
 CHAPTER THREE

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction to the chapter

The purpose of the research methodology chapter is to explain the research path
undertaken by the researcher, to address the research problem. As defined by Kothari
(2004), research in simple terms, refers to the search for knowledge. Kumar (2008)
defines research as “an intensive and purposeful search for knowledge and
understanding of social and physical phenomena” (p.01). The author further elaborated
on research methodology, as a systematic way of solving the research problem, which
identifies the different steps adopted by a researcher in studying the particular problem
along with the logic behind it. According to Tan (2018), research methodology covers
the range of steps undertaken, from the formulation of the research problem up to the
arrival at the ultimate conclusion. The research methodology followed in this research
is presented in this chapter, highlighting the research design, research approach and
the research process adopted.

3.2 Research Design

Research design can be viewed as the path followed to move from the research
problem to the conclusion (Tan, 2002). Having a proper research design will ensure
that the evidence collected, enables the researcher to provide answers to the research
questions as clearly as possible (de Vaus, 2001).

This research entails a background study, a critical review of literature, a preliminary

survey with subject matter experts to validate literature findings and determine future
directions of the research, a detailed interview survey for qualitative data collection,
analysis and discussion of research findings and finally, conclusions and
recommendations.

3.3 Research Approach

Research approach has been described by Smith, Thorpe and Jackson (2012) as a
methodical procedure that organizes research activities to ensure that the research aims

33
and objectives are achieved successfully. Kothari (2004) highlighted two basic
research approaches as the qualitative approach and the quantitative approach. The
mixed method approach, which combines the features of qualitative and quantitative
approaches is adopted to overcome the weaknesses in the use of either qualitative or
quantitative approaches individually (Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarshar & Newton, 2002).
The ultimate decision on the suitable research approach depends upon the nature of
the research problem (Noor, 2008). A detailed review of the research approaches and
the selection of the suitable approach is further elaborated.

3.3.1 Qualitative Approach

Qualitative research was defined by Creswell (2014) as, “An approach for exploring
and understanding the meaning, individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem” (p.04). As explained by Yin (2011), qualitative research enables the
researcher to gain an in depth understanding on new and emerging topics. Further, the
author expressed that qualitative research is suitable for studies where the sample of
interviewees is limited. According to Dawson (2007), it is not the intention of
qualitative research to generalise findings but rather to gain an in-depth understanding
of the area in study.However, the inability to generalise findings to a wider population
with the same certainty as a study conducted using quantitative approach is considered
as a drawback of the qualitative approach (Atieno, 2009).

3.3.2 Quantitative Approach

Quantitative research is construed as an approach for testing theories through
determination of relationships among different variables (Creswell, 2014).
Researchers using the quantitative approach emphasize on ways of empirically
measuring data collected from a variety of sources and testing the data through
statistical means which enables the findings to be generalized (Walsh, 2003). A
drawback of quantitative research is that it most often reports the empirical findings
without elaborating the reason behind it (Walsh, 2003).

3.3.3 Mixed Method Approach

The mixed method approach builds on the idea that an effective research on a given
topic should incorporate more than one research approach (Abowitz & Toole, 2010).

34
Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches enables confirmation and
corroboration of findings and developing analysis with richer details (Rossman &
Wilson as cited in Amaratunga et al., 2002). As expressed by Creswell (2014), a
growing interest in mixed method research is seen among social and behavioural
science researchers.

3.3.4 Selection of the Suitable Research Approach

During the preliminary survey, all subject matter experts expressed the opinion that
conducting interviews under a qualitative research approach would be the most
suitable data collection technique for achieving the stated aim and objectives.
Moreover, the background study and the literature review conducted showed that an
in-depth knowledge on developing energy efficient buildings, among the Sri Lankan
construction industry professionals, was limited. Therefore, drawing a large sample of
interviewees for carrying out the data collection was restricted. Literature suggests the
use of the qualitative approach, where existing knowledge regarding a particular area
is limited and the potential to draw a large sample of interviewees is constrained.
Therefore, based on the opinion of the subject matter experts and the literature
findings, a qualitative research approach was adopted to undertake this research.
3.4 Research Process
“Research” is a process comprising of multiple stages that should be followed in order
to achieve the expected outcomes (Saunders, Lewis, & Thronhill, 2009). The research
process can be identified as the basic plan for conducting the research. According to
Saunders et al. (2009), the exact number of stages for conducting a research may vary,
however it generally includes formulating research problem, aims and objectives,
reviewing literature, determining methodology, data collection and analysis and
writing up. The research process undertaken is depicted in Figure 3.1.

35
Figure 3.1: The research process

3.4.1 Background Investigation

As the initial step of the research, a background study was conducted to establish the
research problem. Journals, conference proceedings, books, institutional websites etc.
were referred in determining the research problem. After formulating the research
problem, the aim, supporting objectives and the scope of the research with limitations
were developed and presented as the background of the study.

3.4.2 Literature Review

A comprehensive literature review was conducted regarding the concepts of EE and
OE in buildings, the significance of the building design stage in achieving energy
efficiency, and the role of different professionals in designing energy efficient
buildings. The facts necessary for successful achievement of the research objectives
were compiled through the literature review.

36
3.4.3 Data Collection Techniques
Collection of suitable data is crucial in answering the research problem.
Questionnaires, interviews, participant observations, focus groups and document
review are the commonly used data collection techniques in research (Dawson, 2002;
Kumar, 2011). With multiple methods available for collecting data, the most
appropriate method/s needs to be selected, considering the data requirements to
address the research problem and the merits and demerits of the individual data
collection methods. According to Saunders et al., (2009), interviews are widely used
for qualitative data collection. Interviews are elaborated as purposeful discussions
among two or more parties which provides valuable and in-depth insights related to a
specific area (Khan & Cannell, as cited in Saunders et al., 2009). Saunders et al. (2009)
classifies interviews into three types as structured, semi-structured and unstructured
based on the nature of questions used in the interviews.

Considering the qualitative approach adopted in this research, semi-structured

interviews were selected as the suitable data collection technique. Semi-structured
interviews were selected, since it enabled the researcher to gather specific information
that could be compared and at the same time allowed to remain flexible to gather any
other important information that arose in the course of data collection. Further, the
decision to select semi-structured interviews as the data collection technique for the
detailed survey was influenced by the opinions expressed by the experts during the
preliminary survey.

Preliminary survey with subject matter experts: The purpose of conducting the
preliminary survey was to validate the literature findings and obtain the opinion of
subject matter experts on the future directions of the research. Interviews were
conducted with five (05) subject matter experts with knowledge on the concepts of EE
and OE and experience in energy efficient building design. The number of interviews
were limited to five (05) considering the time availability and constraints in access to
professionals.

Detailed interview survey: Considering the opinions expressed by the subject matter
experts during the preliminary survey, a detailed interview survey was conducted with

37
the participation of construction industry professionals belonging to different fields of
expertise. Twelve (12) interviews were conducted under the detailed survey.
Awareness on the concepts of energy efficiency and prior experience in the design of
energy efficient buildings were considered in selecting the interviewees. The mix of
professionals was determined based on the traditional Sri Lankan construction project
team setup. Data on strategies, barriers, measures to overcome barriers and
professional involvement in the design of buildings with low EE and OE was collected.
The potential for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions was also examined.

3.4.4 Data Analysis Techniques

Determining appropriate data analysis techniques is also vital in interpreting the
collected data and arriving at an informed conclusion. Content analysis, statistical
analysis, cognitive mapping and pattern-matching can be identified as the commonly
used data analysis techniques in research (Saunders et al., 2009). The analysis
technique depends on the nature of the data collected and since the data collected in
this study is of a qualitative nature, qualitative data analysis techniques were used.

The commonly used analysis technique for qualitative data is content analysis
(Wahyuni, 2012). Content analysis derives subjective interpretations of text data,
through coding and identifying patterns (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). In content analysis,
coding schemes are created by researchers to organize concepts and analyse qualitative
data (Walsh, 2003). Manual content analysis and code based content analysis using N-
Vivo 12 software developed by QSR International was used for analysing the
qualitative data collected in this research.

3.5 Chapter Summary

The research methodology chapter presents the systematic process that was followed
by the researcher in achieving the aim of the research. The research design, research
approach and the research process that was undertaken is discussed in this chapter.
This research was conducted using the qualitative approach. The justifications behind
the selection of the research approach, methods, tools and techniques are discussed in
this chapter. This chapter presents an overall picture as to how the researcher has
approached to address the research problem identified.

38
 CHAPTER FOUR

4 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction to the Chapter

This chapter presents a detailed analysis of the collected data and the discussion of the
research findings. Interviews were selected as the suitable data collection technique
and conducted in two stages as a preliminary survey with subject matter experts in the
field of building energy efficiency in Sri Lanka, followed by a more detailed survey
with the participation of construction industry professionals from different fields of
expertise. The data collected was analysed using manual content analysis and code
based content analysis using N-vivo 12 software.

4.2 Preliminary Survey

A preliminary survey was undertaken prior to the detailed survey, with experts in the
field of building energy efficiency in Sri Lanka. The objective of conducting the
preliminary survey was to enquire the opinion of the experts regarding the validity of
the literature findings and their feedback on the future directions of the research. The
experts were requested to comment on any modifications to be done to the data
collection instrument developed for the detailed survey.

4.2.1 Profile of the Interviewees for the Preliminary Survey

Five (05) number of interviews were conducted with expert professionals in the
construction industry, who were well aware of the concepts of embodied and
operational energy and with prior experience in the design of energy efficient
buildings. Experts were selected to represent both industry practitioners as well as
academia. The profile of the subject matter experts who participated in the preliminary
survey is summarized in Table 4.1. Experts from different professions related to the
construction field were selected so that any variations in opinions based on the
professional roles could be taken into account.

39
Table 4.1: Details of interviewees for the preliminary survey

Interviewee Profession Experience Qualifications

ID
PE1 Services 14 years Chartered Engineer / Professional member
Engineer of the Green Building Council Sri Lanka
(GBCSL)
PE2 Architect 10 years Chartered Architect
PE3 Architect 15 years Chartered Architect / Involved in the
design of a leading LEED Platinum
certified garment factory in Sri Lanka
PE4 Civil 15 years Senior Professor of Civil Engineering at a
Engineer leading state sector university in Sri Lanka
with research experience on energy
efficient buildings
PE5 Architect 8 years Chartered Architect with research
experience in energy efficient buildings

4.2.2 Findings of the Preliminary Survey

The preliminary survey guideline comprised of two sections (Refer Appendix 01). The
section one was developed to gather information regarding the interviewees. Section
two focused on validation and refinement of the literature findings and determination
of the future directions of the research. The findings of the preliminary survey are
discussed in the following sections.

4.2.2.1 Significance of Energy Consumption of Buildings and Awareness on the

Concepts of Energy Efficiency
Through the review of literature, the researcher found out that the building sector
consumes a major proportion of the global energy production. The interviewees were
questioned as to whether a similar trend is evident in Sri Lanka. All the interviewees
answered positively. Further, PE2 commented as follows, ³7KHWUDQVSRUWVHF
Lanka also consumes a significant proportion of the energy produced. However, with
the increase in the development of high-rise buildings and other mega development
projects, the building sector would soon surpass the transport sector by a greater
margin´
This statement gives an indication of the projected increase in energy
consumption associated with the building sector and the need for incorporation of
control measures.

40
When questioned regarding the importance of focusing on energy efficiency during
the building design stage, all the interviewees agreed that it is of importance to give
due consideration for energy efficiency at the building design stage. According to PE1,
majority of the negative environmental impacts associated with buildings are
committed during the design stage and therefore, decisions taken during the design
stage would be critical in developing energy efficient buildings. When inquired about
the level of awareness on the concept of energy efficiency among the Sri Lankan
construction professionals, all the interviewees responded that it is currently not at a
satisfactory level. These responses provided by the experts further strengthens the
research gap identified in this research.

4.2.2.2 Suitability of the Proposed Categorisation of Embodied and Operational

Energy Reduction Strategies
The researcher identified different strategies for EE and OE reduction through the
review of literature. In order to undertake the detailed survey, these strategies were
then grouped under seven (07) categories by the researcher based on literature findings
as;
• Material Selection
• Design Approach
• External Building Morphology
• Internal Building Morphology
• Building Services
• Procurement Strategy
• and Renewable Energy
The opinion of the interviewees on the appropriateness of this categorization of
strategies was inquired. All the interviewees agreed on the first six (06) categories.
However, according to the view of a majority of the experts, the use of renewable
energy sources could not be considered as a method for reducing either operational or
embodied energy. This is because the use of renewables does not reduce the overall
energy demand but rather they meet the same energy demand through the use of
environment friendly renewable sources. Contrary to this opinion forwarded by the
subject matter experts, use of renewables was recognized through literature as a
potential energy reduction measure. This difference could be attributed to the varying
definitions of EE and OE used, where some identify EE and OE in terms of the primary

41
energy demand (i.e. demand on energy generated from non-renewable energy sources)
whereas others define EE and OE in terms of the total energy demand (i.e. energy
demand from both renewable and non-renewable sources). Therefore, those who
define EE and OE in terms of the primary energy demand would consider the use of
renewable energy as an energy reduction measure whereas those who define EE and
OE in terms of the total energy demand would not. The responses from the subject
matter experts show that there is a tendency to define EE and OE in terms of the total
energy demand in the local practice and therefore a similar approach is followed in
this research.
Further PE1 expressed that “use of renewables such as solar panels may provide OE
savings through the absorption of solar heat and provision of a shading effect but these
savings are not significant and also this is not the primary intention of using solar
panels.” Moreover, PE 3 stated that “use of renewables is not a mandatory requirement
at present and is dependent upon the perceptions of the individual clients and is not a
significant component of all buildings developed.” Therefore, the “renewable energy”
category was removed and the remaining six categories of material selection,
construction methods, external building morphology, internal building morphology,
building services and procurement process were selected to be used for the detailed
survey.

4.2.2.3 Opinion of the Interviewees on the Detailed Survey

The initial intention of the researcher was to undertake a detailed questionnaire survey
after concluding the preliminary survey. A questionnaire was to be developed to rank
the embodied and operational energy reduction strategies identified through literature,
based on energy reduction potential and the implementation cost and thereafter
investigate potential strategies for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions. The
role of different professionals in the design of energy efficient buildings with low EE
and OE were also to be inquired through the questionnaire. Further, a separate section
was to be included in the questionnaire to identify the barriers towards the
development of energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE in the local context
and means to overcome such barriers.

42
All the interviewees were of the opinion that it is not possible to rank the strategies as
anticipated. They highlighted that the potential impacts of implementing these
strategies is highly dependent upon the specific circumstances of a given scenario. PE4
elaborated on the issue with the following example, “The use of natural material such
as timber would result in the reduction of EE as long as it is sourced locally. However,
if timber is sourced from a distant source, then the EE reduction realised through the
selection of the timber, would be negated by the higher transportation energy of timber
over long distances.´ Therefore, all the interviewees expressed that the planned
ranking exercise would result in an invalid outcome. Since the accuracy, validity and
reliability of outcomes is a prime concern in research, this comment by the experts was
considered on a serious note.
Alternatively, the interviewees requested to retain the question on the role of
construction professionals in the design of energy efficient buildings with low EE and
OE, since the findings through this question would enable the researcher to address
the issue of the lack of awareness on the concepts of energy efficiency among Sri
Lankan construction industry professionals. Furthermore, the questions related to the
barriers in moving towards energy efficiency and the mean to overcome such barriers
were accepted by the interviewees. All the interviewees proposed to go for a qualitative
approach based on semi-structured interviews since it would enable the researcher to
undertake a more holistic study on the research area and arrive at more valid research
outcomes. Considering the feedback received from the expert interviewees, a
qualitative interview based approach was selected for the detailed survey to meet the
research objectives.

4.2.2.4 Key Outcomes of the Preliminary Survey

The key outcomes of the preliminary survey can be summarised as follows;
• The building sector was identified as a major consumer of energy in the local
context.
• The significance of design stage decisions in the development of energy efficient
buildings was established
• The need to improve awareness on energy efficiency concepts among construction
professionals was recognized

43
• Material selection, design approach, internal building morphology and external
building morphology, building services and procurement process were highlighted
as potential avenues for EE and OE reduction
• A qualitative research approach with semi-structured interviews as the data
collection technique was identified as the most appropriate approach to achieve the
aim and objectives of this research

4.3 Detailed Interview Survey

Based on the outcomes of the preliminary survey, a detailed interview survey was
conducted with construction industry professionals belonging to different fields of
expertise. Semi-structured interviews were selected for the detailed survey since it
provided greater flexibility in collecting the required data and also enabled the
researcher to comprehensively understand and gather important information related to
the area in study while ensuring that the data collected is comparable.

4.3.1 Profile of the Interviewees for the Detailed Interview Survey

In selecting the sample of interviewees for the detailed survey, knowledge on the
concepts of embodied and operational energy and prior experience in the design of
energy efficient buildings were considered. Accordingly, twelve (12) number of
interviews were conducted with professionals belonging to the fields of architecture,
civil engineering, services engineering and quantity surveying. The mix of
professionals was determined based on the traditional Sri Lankan construction project
team setup. As in the preliminary survey, interviewees from both industry and
academia were selected to gain a better understanding on the theoretical and practical
aspects related to the topic. The profile of the interviewees who participated for the
detailed survey is summarized in Table 4.2.

It was observed in the selection of interviewees that the knowledge on the concepts of
embodied and operational energy was quite low among quantity surveying
professionals when compared with other professions. However, since the input from
QSs was required to achieve the third objective of the research, two QSs with prior
involvement in the development of energy efficient buildings were selected for the
detailed survey.

44
Table 4.2: Details of interviewees who participated in the detailed survey

Interviewee Discipline Designation Experience

ID
IP-1 Architecture Chartered Architect 15 years
IP-2 Architecture Chartered Architect & Town 12 years
Planner
IP-3 Architecture Chartered Architect 10 years
IP-4 Civil Engineering Senior Professor 35 years
IP-5 Civil Engineering Senior Professor & 15 years
Consultant
IP-6 Civil Engineering Senior Professor & 19 years
Chairman
IP-7 Civil Engineering Deputy Director 17 years
IP-8 Services Engineering Manager-Facilities 14 years
Management
IP-9 Services Engineering Chief Executive Officer 23 years
IP-10 Services Engineering Director 15 years
IP-11 Quantity Surveying Project Quantity Surveyor 8 years
IP-12 Quantity Surveying Project Quantity Surveyor 10 years

4.4 Analysis and Discussion of Findings of the Detailed Interview Survey

The interview guideline developed for the detailed interview survey comprised of four
sections (Refer Appendix 03) and was organized as follows.

Section I: Personal data of the interview participants.

Section II: Identification of embodied and operational energy reduction strategies.

This section was further organized under six sub-sections as material selection,
construction methods, external building morphology, internal building morphology,
building services and procurement process. The interviewees were presented with
strategies already identified through literature under each of the above sub-sections
and were requested to propose any other strategies which they were aware of. Further,
the inter-relationships among the EE and OE reduction strategies identified under each
of the above sub-sections were explored.

Section III: Identification of role of different professionals in the design of energy

efficient buildings with low EE and OE

Section IV: Identification of the barriers towards the development of energy efficient
buildings in the Sri Lankan context and measures to overcome them

45
The findings from the detailed interview survey was analysed using manual content
analysis and code based content analysis using N-vivo 12 software.

4.4.1 Material Selection Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction

The material selection related strategies for EE and OE reduction, identified through
the review of literature were presented to the interviewees to identify any further
strategies which can be implemented. Accordingly the findings are elaborated under
this section.

4.4.1.1 Material Selection Related EE Reduction Strategies

Selection of material manufactured with fewer number of process steps was identified
by a majority of the interviewees as a strategy for EE reduction. Since each process
step requires a certain amount of energy for the transformations which the material
undergo, increase in the number of process steps results in an increase of EE. Selection
of durable material with longer replacement cycles was highlighted as having the
potential to reduce EE by most interviewees. The specification of material
manufactured by manufacturers who utilize energy efficient manufacturing processes
was also identified as crucial for developing buildings with low EE. As elaborated by
IP-9, apart from the EE reductions realised through the specification of such material,
it also encourages other manufacturers to move towards energy efficient
manufacturing processes, thereby stimulating the growth of an environmentally
responsible and energy efficient supply chain.

The adoption of a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach for material selection with a
focus on embodied energy was captured as a material selection related EE reduction
strategy. IP-08 explained as follows, “EE is accumulated through material
replacements throughout the building life cycle. Increased frequency of material
replacements results in an increase in the accumulated EE levels and is especially an
issue with regularly replaced material such as paints.” This emphasizes importance
of material selection to be undertaken with a life cycle EE perspective in mind rather
than being concerned about the initial EE expended. This fact is further established
through the findings of Menzies (2011), which states that the decision regarding the

46
type of construction materials to be used should not just be based on the initial EE of
the material but should rather consider a broader lifecycle perspective.

An interdependency among the EE reduction strategies was also emphasized by the

interviewees. As stated by IP-5, ³W
he use of recycled material would offer EE savings
as long as the recycling process is energy efficient. Inefficient recycling processes
would deter the advantage of EE UHGXFWLRQ´
. Similar comments were received from
the experts who participated for the preliminary survey as well. Therefore, rather than
considering the EE strategies individually, significance of the use of a combination of
strategies was highlighted. The findings regarding material selection related EE
reduction strategies are summarized in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Material selection related EE reduction strategies

Material selection related strategies for EE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the interviews
Selection of natural material (e.g. timber) Selection of material manufactured with
with low EE fewer process steps
Selection of recycled and reused material Selection of durable material with longer
and components replacement cycles
Selection of innovative material with low EE Specification of material manufactured by
(e.g. geo-polymer concrete) energy efficient manufacturers
Selection of locally sourced material LCA approach for material selection with a
focus on embodied energy
Selection of material manufactured through
less energy intensive processes

4.4.1.2 Material Selection Related OE Reduction Strategies

Apart from the strategies identified through the literature review, interviewees
identified the selection of certain natural material such as clay bricks which was found
to offer comfortable internal environmental conditions, thereby minimizing the
demand on alternative high energy consuming air conditioning systems. However, as
explained by IP-2, ³success of the use of natural material would depend upon location
specific factors such as the climatic conditions of the region in which the building is
located and the humidity and absorption levels.´ Furthermore, the need to give due
consideration for the surface properties of material such as surface reflectance and
refractive index which governs the heat gain through the material, especially with
regard to transparent material was identified by IP-6 and IP-9. As expressed by IP-9,

47
³WKH DPRXQW RI KHDW WUDQVIHUUHG ZLOO VL
pact the air conditioning
requirement and thus the OE.´Table 4.4 summarises the findings on the material
related OE reduction strategies.

Table 4.4: Material selection related strategies for OE reduction

Material selection related strategies for OE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the interviews
Selection of glazing with improved thermal Selection of natural material (e.g. clay
performance bricks) that offer comfortable internal
environment conditions
Insulation of walls and roofs which Consideration on material surface properties
minimizes heat transfer and thermal (e.g. surface reflectance, refractive index) in
bridging material selection especially with regard to
transparent material
Thermal regulation of buildings through the
use of thermal mass

4.4.2 Design Approach Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction

The design approach related strategies for EE and OE reduction, identified through the
review of literature were presented to the interviewees to gather any further strategies
which can be implemented for EE and OE reduction. Accordingly the findings are
elaborated under this section.

4.4.2.1 Design Approach Related EE Reduction Strategies

Design for material optimization was affirmed by a majority of the interviewees as a
vital design consideration for minimizing the impacts of EE. IP-9 explained material
optimization as the development of building designs which optimizes the use of
material, avoiding any wasteful material allocations, thereby reducing the quantum of
material required without compromising on the expected functionality. As pointed out
by IP-3, the use of non-plastered walls and slabs is a common example for this strategy,
where avoiding the plastering reduces the material requirement without creating an
impact the structural integrity of the building elements. Apart from the material
optimization, optimization of the form and layout of the building was emphasized.
According to IP-9, ³XQQHFHVVDU\FRUULGRUVDFFHVVZD
to reduce the amount of material required which will result in a reduction of the
associated EE.´ Further, “In the search for better aesthetics, architects tend to
incorporate unwanted corridors, access ways, walls etc. which increases the material

48
requirement, resulting in a rise of EE. Such measures cannot be altogether avoided
since aesthetics is also important, but aesthetics need to be balanced with resource
efficiency”, IP-6 stated, elaborating on the compromise of energy efficiency over
aesthetics. Moreover, IP-6 also specifically encouraged the reuse of existing building
structures since it provides greater potential for the conservation of already expended
EE. Table 4.5 summarises the design approach related EE reduction strategies.

Table 4.5: Design approach related strategies for EE reduction

Design approach related strategies for EE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the interviews
Design for flexibility and future adaptations Design for material optimization
Design with low maintenance and service Design for optimization of the building form
life extension in mind and layout
Reuse existing building structures where
possible
Design to facilitate disassembly at the end of
useful life

4.4.2.2 Design Approach Related OE Reduction Strategies

When considering the Sri Lankan context, adoption of traditional building design
principles such as the integration of courtyards and open verandas was elaborated by
both IP-2 and IP-9 as a pragmatic approach towards OE reduction, which is in line
with the commonly accepted passive design principles.

Furthermore, development of flexible building designs was also seen as a promising

approach towards OE reduction. ³,QKRWHO
s designed according to a flexible design
approach, when only a particular section of the hotel is being used that section is
isolated and the lighting and air conditioning is adjusted to meet only the demand of
the area in use, thereby achieving OE reductions. Similar arrangements can be
followed in university lecture rooms when operating at reduced capacity and in school
buildings were occupancy levels are expected to increase. ´, IP-9 explained. The
design approach related OE reduction strategies are summarized in Table 4.6.

49
Table 4.6: Design approach related strategies for OE reduction

Design approach related strategies for OE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the interviews
Adoption of a passive design approach (e.g. Adoption of traditional Sri Lankan building
promote natural lighting and ventilation) design concepts (e.g. courtyards, open
verandas)
Developing flexible building designs

4.4.3 Building Morphology Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction

Most building morphology related strategies for EE and OE reduction were identified
through the review of literature. Only a limited number of additional strategies were
identified through the interviews. Therefore, strategies related to both external and
internal morphology are discussed in this section under the common heading of
building morphology.

4.4.3.1 Building Morphology Related EE Reduction Strategies

Altering the building form and layout plan to optimize the resource utilization was the
only EE reduction strategy identified by the interviewees with regard to both the
external and internal building morphology. Incidentally, this was the only strategy
identified for EE reduction associated with building morphology through literature as
well. IP-1 specifically emphasized the resource optimization of the building façade
since a significant proportion of structural material with high EE levels such as
concrete and steel are integrated into the building façade. This strategy draws from the
material and layout optimization strategies proposed under design approaches in the
previous section.

4.4.3.2 Building Morphology Related OE Reduction Strategies

Apart from the findings from literature, effective use of natural landscape was
highlighted by a majority of the interviewees as the most viable means of realising OE
savings with regard to external building morphology. Under that, the use of natural
canopies for low rise buildings and replacing hard paved areas with soft paving (e.g.
lawns) were identified. According to IP-9, ³Introducing a natural canopy for low rise
buildings reduces the heat gain, resulting in a decrease of the cooling demand of
buildings. As a thumb rule, it is said that the use of natural canopies reduces the
internal temperature of a building by about 2oC, and is a major saving in terms of air

50
conditioning. In addition, replacing external hard paved areas with vegetated areas
such as lawns will reduce the reflected heat. This will in turn reduce both internal heat
gains and the heat island effect´

With regard to the internal building morphology, optimum adjustment of the floor to
floor height was found to provide OE advantages. As stated by IP-10, for non-air-
conditioned buildings, it is beneficial to increase the floor to floor height since it
improves ventilation whereas for air-conditioned buildings, decrease of the floor to
floor height will decrease the volume of air to be conditioned resulting in a reduced
air-conditioning demand. Table 4.7 and 4.8 summarises the findings on the external
building morphology and internal building morphology related OE reduction
strategies, respectively

Table 4.7: External building morphology related strategies for OE reduction

External building morphology related strategies for OE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the
interviews
Alteration of the building orientation to minimize solar heat Design of natural canopies
gains, obstruction from adjacent buildings and to facilitate for low rise buildings
natural lighting and ventilation
Orientation and sizing of windows to regulate the amount Replacement of hard paved
of heat transfer and improve daylighting and natural areas with vegetated areas
ventilation (e.g. lawns)
Introduction of shadings/overhangs to minimize the solar
heat gains
Selection of double skinned curtain walls to regulate heat
infiltration
Design of green roofs and vegetated facades
Passive cooling (use of natural cool resources such as
ground water/design for night time cooling)
Design to minimize infiltration losses
Developing comfortable outside spaces that minimize the
demand on active systems that condition the internal spaces

51
Table 4.8: Internal building morphology related strategies for OE reduction

Internal building morphology related strategies for OE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the interviews
Design of thermal chimneys (stack effect) Optimized adjustment of floor to floor
for ventilation height
Location of functions within buildings to
enhance energy efficiency (e.g. bedrooms
and kitchens to be east facing to get
maximum sunlight during morning hours)
Design of internal walls to facilitate natural
ventilation

4.4.4 Building Services Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction

Building services is a very broad area which covers a range of service systems which
includes electrical, water distribution, lighting, heating ventilation and air conditioning
systems (HVAC), fire detection and protection systems etc. Therefore, the
determination EE and OE reduction strategies for each individual service system is not
viable through a research such as this which is highly time constrained. As such, this
research focused only on common EE and OE reduction strategies that could be
applied across different service systems.

4.4.4.1 Building Services Related EE Reduction Strategies

Building services was identified as a key avenue for reducing OE associated with
buildings in the literature review. However, information availability on EE associated
with building services was very scarce. This fact is further established through the
comments received from the interviewees during the detailed survey. ³2(GRPLQDWHV
when it comes to building services and therefore EE iVQRWJLYHQPXFKFRQ
,
IP-10 commented. ³((
associated with building services is not much discussed mainly
GXHWRWKHODFNRIGDWD´
, IP-4 further added.

Despite the limitation of information availability, the interviewees identified certain

design strategies to minimize the EE associated with building services. Design for dis-
tangled services systems was identified by IP-8 as a potential EE reduction strategy
for building services. As elaborated by IP-8, since the lifetime of the different
components of the service systems varies, dis-tangled service system design would
facilitate individual components to be replaced as and when needed rather than the

52
replacement of entire systems. The specification of service system components
designed adhering to eco design principles was also pointed out as suitable by IP-1,
IP-8 and IP-9. As explained by IP-8, “services components designed based on eco-
design principles are recyclable, minimize the use of adhesives and binders in
connections and are manufactured with minimum composite material which enhances
their recyclability.” Table 4.9 summarises the findings on building services related EE
reduction strategies. It should be noted that the researcher was unable to capture any
specific EE reduction strategies related to building services through the review of
literature.

Table 4.9: Building services related strategies for EE reduction

Building services related strategies for EE reduction

Identified through the interviews
Design for untangled service systems that facilitates easy replacement of components
Specification of service system components designed adhering to eco design principles

4.4.4.2 Building Services Related OE Reduction Strategies

The design of service systems to only cater the specified demand and the avoidance of
oversizing of service system equipment was the most frequently highlighted OE
reduction strategy related to building services, highlighted by the interviewees.
According to IP-8, due to factors such as unpredictable climatic conditions and
changing occupancy levels, there will always be some oversizing. However, it should
be done within an acceptable range and not at the expense of increased OE.
Furthermore, IP-9 stated that proper locations for the installation of system equipment
need to be identified especially with systems such as HVAC. IP-9 elaborated on this
with the following example, ³placement of the fresh air inlets of the HVAC system
closer to the outlets of the exhaust system through which heated air is emitted, could
result in an increase of the electrical energy required for cooling the fresh air. This
ZLOO WKHUHIRUH LQFUHDVH
These WKH
findings are summarized 2(´
in Table 4.10. It
should be emphasized that only those OE reduction strategies applicable across
different service systems were identified here.

53
Table 4.10: Building services related strategies for OE reduction

Building services related strategies for OE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the
interviews
Building zoning to ensure that each area can be Design of service systems to
regulated separately and avoid wasteful energy cater only specified requirements
consumption and avoid oversizing
Equipment/Appliance selection based on energy Proper selection of locations for
efficiency ratings the installation of system
equipment
Automatic control mechanisms (e.g.
temperature/occupancy sensors) to regulate
equipment usage
Implementation of integrated control systems such
as Building Management Systems (BMS)
Use of systems capable of recovering waste energy
(e.g. heat recovery systems from ventilation
air/waste water)

4.4.5 Procurement Process Related Strategies for EE and OE Reduction

The researcher through literature, found that the procurement process related strategies
are common for the reduction of both EE and OE Therefore, they are discussed under
the common heading of procurement process related strategies unlike in the previous
sections where strategies were identified separately for EE and OE reduction. The
procurement process related strategies identified are summarised in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11: Procurement process related strategies for EE and OE reduction

Procurement process related strategies for EE and OE reduction

Identified through literature Identified through the interviews
Novel procurement approaches such as BIM Adoption of procurement guidelines such as
integrated procurement to determine the Sustainable Public Procurement (SPP)
alternative designs with increased energy guidelines
efficiency
Collaborative contractual arrangements Encouraging green procurement in the
private sector
Shift procurement from the lowest initial
cost approach to a life cycle cost (LCC)
approach
Specification of energy efficiency
requirements to be met by the
contractors/suppliers in the procurement
documents

54
The use of collaborative contractual arrangements was the most highlighted
procurement strategy. This strategy which was identified through literature was
confirmed by the interviewees as vital for the development of energy efficient
buildings. As expressed by IP-5, collaboration and team work was a significant driving
factor for the successful design of the first LEED platinum certified garment factory
in Sri Lanka, where IP-5 was a member of the project design team. However,
according to IP-4 and IP-11, the current level of implementation of collaboration is not
at a satisfactory level when considering the Sri Lankan context. As further explained
by the interviewees, the application of latest technologies such as BIM which
facilitates collaboration is at a very primitive level due to the lack of technology and
the additional investment required for such initiatives.

The adoption of procurement guidelines such as the Sustainable Public Procurement

(SPP) guidelines which is practiced globally was the next most frequently expressed
strategy. ³6UL/DQND
is also in the process adapting these procurement guidelines to
the local context and it is identified as Green Public Procurement Guidelines. This
mainly targets the public sector procurement which accounts for about ten percent
(10%) of all procurement activities in the country. Criteria can be included in these
guidelines to go for products with low embodied energy and also promote reduced
RSHUDWLRQDOHQHUJ\´
, IP-9 commented. ³7KH6UL/DQND6XVWDLQDEO
(SLSEA) is in the process of developing baseline energy consumption levels for certain
industries which includes industries related to construction as well. Therefore,
professionals involved in building design stage will have to consider those baselines
during building design´, IP-10 added. While shifting public sector procurement
towards green concepts, the interviewees pressed on the importance of encouraging
green procurement in the private sector as well.

The need to shift procurement from the lowest initial cost approach to a life cycle cost
(LCC) approach was also reiterated by the interviewees, to achieve more energy
efficient buildings. IP-8 elaborated on this aspect through the example of selection of
a HVAC system where the option with the lowest initial cost might consume higher
OE, thereby resulting in increased whole life cycle costs. Reliance on the initial cost
alone therefore seems to provide an inaccurate assessment of the potential alternatives.

55
Finally, the need for specification of energy efficiency requirements to be met by the
contractors/suppliers in the procurement documents for contractor/supplier selection
was underlined specifically by IP-11 and IP-12.

4.4.6 Interrelationships between the EE and OE Reduction Strategies and the

Potential for Simultaneous EE and OE Reduction
This study focused on identifying strategies which can be implemented to reduce both
EE and OE simultaneously. In order to fulfil this requirement, the interviewees were
requested to comment on the impact of the identified EE reduction strategies on the
OE requirement and vice versa under each of the five categories of material selection,
design approach, external building morphology, internal building morphology and
building services. Since the procurement process related strategies were common to
both EE and OE reduction, the requirement to specifically identify interrelationships
did not arise.

4.4.6.1 Material Selection Related Strategies

The common opinion of the interviewees was that the identification of direct links
between material related EE and OE reduction strategies is difficult. ³((
mainly
depends on material used and therefore in most cases is an independent consideration
from OE, which depends on the level of comfort conditions required to be maintained
within a building. For example, the use of recycled aggregate will reduce EE but it is
difficult to establish a direct link of the use of recycled aggregates on OE´IP-4
commented, which gives an understanding of the disparity between the concepts of EE
and OE and the practical difficulties in aggregating them.

As explained by IP-1, most of the material selection related OE reduction strategies

such as the thermal massing, use of glazing with improved thermal performance and
increased insulation would require an increase of the material content which inevitably
results in an increase of EE. In fact as stated by IP-4, insulation material are known to
have very high levels of EE. However, in spite of the increase in EE, these strategies
are still widely used. This is due to the significant OE savings that can be achieved
during the building use phase by the implementation of these strategies, which
outweighs the increase of EE. This fact is further established from the findings of

56
Sartori and Hestnes (2007) and more recently by Stauffer (2016) as identified through
the literature review.

On the contrary, IP-6 pointed out that although a majority of the material related OE
reduction strategies results in an increase of EE, there are a few strategies that could
reduce both EE and OE. Accordingly, the use of natural material such as clay bricks
and rammed earth which has less process requirements and are sourced locally, was
also found to provide more comfortable internal environmental conditions within
buildings. Materials being locally sourced and having less process requirements
reduces the EE while the provision of better internal environmental conditions reduce
the OE demand of buildings constructed using these types of material. This results in
a simultaneous reduction of both EE and OE. However as explained by IP-6, there are
limitations since the potential OE reductions will depend upon the climatic conditions,
temperatures, humidity levels etc. of the area in which the building is located.
Therefore it is not universally applicable and due consideration need to be given to
such aspects prior to its implementation.

With the impact of the identified material selection strategies on both EE and OE, IP-
5 explained that the best way to optimally select material to minimize both EE and OE
is to resort to a life cycle energy analysis approach in material selection. This is in line
with the work of Treloar, Fay, Ilozar and Love (2001) where the authors have
highlighted LCA as the most suitable approach for material selection in the design of
low energy buildings. ³7KH XVH RI
gesVRIWZDUH SDFND
such as ENVI-met facilitates
PDWHULDOVHOHFWLRQEDVHGRQ/&$DSSURDFK´
IP-5 further added, which shows that tools
are available to select material based on both EE and OE.

4.4.6.2 Design Approach Related Strategies

Similar to material selection, a majority of the interviewees expressed that it is difficult
to explain in absolute terms, the relationship between the EE and OE reduction
strategies related to the design approach. However, certain design approach related
strategies with potential to reduce both EE and OE in parallel were identified.

The reuse of existing building structures was identified as an EE reduction strategy

since it conserves already expended EE. But according to the opinion of interviewees,

57
the reuse of existing building structures generally has a negative impact on the OE
since the structure is not optimized to meet the requirements of the intended new use.
IP-6 elaborated on this as follows, ³2OGHUEXLOG
ings consume more energy than new
buildings due to leakages, infiltration losses causing high cooling demand, poor
lighting and ventilation etc. But when we go for new buildings, we have greater
flexibility and therefore can go for better configurations that meets our specific
requirements while integrating novel energy efficiency measures that improves
operational energy HIILFLHQF\RIWKHEXLOGLQJ´
. Literature also supports this fact and
the findings of Akande, Odeleye and Coday (2014) highlighted that the need to balance
EE and OE in the reuse of existing buildings has become a key consideration in the
decision for the adaptive reuse of buildings. Alternatively IP-4 expressed that, “the
reuse of existing buildings coupled with energy retrofit measures could reduce both
EE and OE.´IP-4 further stated with current technology, existing buildings can be
brought to a good level of operational efficiency through energy retrofits. It is
important to note that retrofitting increases EE and as highlighted by IP-9, a balance
should be struck between additional EE expended in retrofitting and the EE conserved
through the use of existing building structures.

Development of flexible and adaptable designs with provisions for future extension
was also recognized as an avenue for the reduction of both EE and OE. As elaborated
by IP-9, ³buildings designed with flexibility and adaptability in mind can be changed
easily to meet changing requirements and the refurbishment can be accomplished with
minimum use of resources, thereby achieving EE savings.´Furthermore, since the
building is done with provisions for extension, the building can be expanded as and
when the operational capacity increases so that the need for the building to operate in
full swing from the initial stages, even when occupancy levels are low is avoided. This
facilitates the reduction of OE. This strategy was found to be especially applicable for
buildings such as universities or schools where occupancy levels increases over time.

4.4.6.3 Building Morphology Related Strategies

Literature showed that a majority of the OE reduction strategies associated with
building morphology was found to increase the EE. Strategies such as the introduction
of shading, use of double skinned curtain walls and integration of green roofs and

58
facades, all required additional resources and therefore resulted in increased EE.
However, these measures are used still due to the OE savings provided over the
additional EE expended, as in the case of the selection of high EE material for
insulation.

A direct link between OE demand and the building morphology related EE reduction
strategies of material and building layout optimization was not identified from the data
collected. However according to IP-7, “passive design measures such as the use of
open areas to promote natural lighting and ventilation, while reducing OE, reduces
the material requirement and the need for artificial service systems with high EE, thus
reducing the EE as well. But the level of congestion and level of pollution in the locality
around the building would act as limiting factors for the use of natural lighting and
ventilation.” When considering the internal morphology of the buildings, IP-9 and IP-
10 stated that the reduction of roof height was found to provide OE savings in air
conditioned buildings. Reduction of roof height reduces the resource consumption that
in-turn reflects on lower EE. Further, as elaborated by IP-4, change of building
orientation could be used to regulate OE without creating an impact on EE.

4.4.6.4 Building Services Related Strategies

OE was identified to be more significant in building services than EE. As per the
comments of IP-10, data regarding the EE of building services is very limited and
therefore is not given much consideration. IP-10 expressed that, when selecting service
equipment with improved OE efficiency levels, EE could be also calculated at the same
instance. However, as stated by IP-10, since the calculation is tedious and complex, it
is not practiced generally. It should be noted that no significant strategies were
identified that could reduce both EE and OE associated with building services
simultaneously.

4.4.6.5 Other Strategies

Apart from the strategies discussed under the areas mentioned above, common
strategies for EE and OE reduction that can be applied across all areas were also
identified. A majority of the interviewees identified the need for professionals involved
in building design to follow design guidelines on energy efficiency. As explained by

59
the interviewees, guidelines developed for international green rating systems such as
LEED, BREEAM, Green Mark etc. and local guidelines developed by institutes such
as the GBCSL can be followed since they provide valuable guidance in the design of
buildings with low EE and OE.

Further, as highlighted by IP-2, it is important for the ‘energy efficiency’ concept to

be adopted from the early design stages. Elaborating on this, IP-2 explained that in
most cases, energy efficiency is considered when designs are almost finalized. In such
a situation, there is less flexibility to integrate energy efficiency measures and the full
benefit of moving towards energy efficiency cannot be harnessed.

4.4.6.6 Potential for Simultaneous EE and OE reduction

The literature review highlighted that it is difficult to achieve simultaneous reductions
in both EE and OE (Sartori & Hestnes, 2007; Stauffer, 2016). However, the need for
achieving parallel EE and OE reductions was established by Birgisdottir et al. (2017)
and was recognized as an immediate challenge to be met by the construction industry
by Balouktsi and Lützkendorf, (2016). The need for addressing this challenge drove
the research to identify strategies to reduce both EE and OE in parallel. Therefore,
questions were included in the detailed survey to capture strategies that could be used
to achieve simultaneous EE and OE reductions. Findings in this regard was discussed
under Section 4.4.6.

Table 4.12 summarises the findings regarding the strategies common for both EE and
OE reduction. It should be noted that no common strategies were identified under the
“building services” category. Further, both external and internal building morphology
related strategies are expressed under the common heading of “building morphology”.
Since the procurement process related strategies identified under Section 4.4.5 are
common to both EE and OE reduction, those have also been identified here as avenues
for simultaneous EE and OE reductions.

The number of strategies common for both EE and OE reduction was limited when
compared with the number of strategies for reducing EE and OE individually.
However, the findings shows that the potential to achieve simultaneous reductions in
both EE and OE exists.

60
Table 4.12: Strategies common for both EE and OE reduction

Criteria Strategies Points to consider

Material Construction with the use of natural material such as clay bricks and Material should ideally be sourced locally and factors such
Selection rammed earth as the climatic condition, temperature and humidity levels
in the area where the building is located needs to be
considered
Follow a life cycle energy analysis approach in material selection Software packages providing life cycle energy analysis
capability can be used to improve efficiency of the process
Design Reuse of existing buildings coupled with energy retrofit measures EE expended in retrofitting should not outweigh the EE
Approach conserved through building reuse
Development of flexible and adaptable designs with provisions for Especially applicable for buildings such as universities or
future extension schools where occupancy levels increases over time
Building Passive design measures such as open areas to promote natural Consider the level of congestion and level of pollution in
Morphology lighting and ventilation the locality around the building
Reduction of roof height in air conditioned buildings
Procurement Collaborative contractual arrangements
Process Novel procurement approaches such as BIM integrated procurement Consider the availability of access to BIM technologies and
to determine alternative designs with increased energy efficiency the added costs
Adoption of procurement guidelines such as the Sustainable Public
Procurement (SPP) guidelines
Encouraging green procurement in the private sector
Shift procurement from the lowest initial cost approach to a life cycle
cost (LCC) approach
Specification of energy efficiency requirements to be met by the
contractors/suppliers in the procurement documents
Other Designers to follow design guidelines on energy efficiency
strategies Adoption of energy efficiency concept from early design stages

61
4.4.7 Role of Construction Professionals in the Design Stage of Developing
Energy Efficient Buildings with Low EE and OE
A successful construction project is the outcome of the contributions from different
professionals. The third objective of this study was to examine the role of construction
professionals in reducing EE and OE in buildings, during the design stage. Therefore,
under the third section of the interview guideline, the interviewees were requested to
comment on the measures that they could take to reduce EE and OE in buildings,
during the design stage, based upon their professional roles. The findings are analysed
under the key professional roles of architects, structural engineers, services engineers
and quantity surveyors.

4.4.7.1 The Role of Architects in Reducing EE and OE in Buildings, during the

Design Stage
The main avenue through which architects can contribute to energy efficient building
was identified as the use of passive building design principles. As expressed by IP-1,
“Designing buildings for passive means of lighting and ventilation can go a long way
in ensuring energy efficiency since it reduces the demand on active systems which
accounts for a major proportion of the total OE”. Allowing provisions for natural
lighting and ventilation and responsible selection of material to minimize the EE were
recognized under passive design measures. All the interviewees from the architecture
discipline stated that architects can follow energy efficient building design guidelines
such as those developed by the GBCSL, which offers guidance on energy efficient
building design.

The requirement for a collaborative design effort and the need for architects to be open
for collaboration was also noted. IP-3 commented on the role of an architect in
facilitating collaboration as follows; “As the leading role in most project design teams,
architects should facilitate an integrated design approach and educate the design team
on cost savings and other benefits of designing for energy efficiency, architects should
encourage a team effort for achieving energy efficiency”. This statement clearly
indicates that architects need to take the initiative for collaboration as the lead role in
most building project teams. Further, as stated by IP-1, IP-2 and IP-3, architects can

62
also encourage clients to adopt energy efficiency by proposing energy efficient design
alternatives to the clients.

A notable shortcoming in most architectural design, as highlighted by IP-1 was the

compromise of energy efficiency for aesthetics in building design. Therefore, the need
to strike a balance between aesthetics and energy efficiency was expressed.
Furthermore, the interviewees emphasized the importance of architects to be aware of
the latest developments in the field of energy efficient building design globally, and
adapt them to local practice.

4.4.7.2 The Role of Structural Engineers in Reducing EE and OE in Buildings,

during the Design Stage
As asserted by the interviewees from the discipline of structural engineering, structural
engineers can make a significant contribution towards the reduction of the EE through
the responsible selection of structural material. According to IP-7, structural material
such as concrete and steel accounts for a significant proportion of the material content
of buildings and are also high in EE due to their energy intensive manufacturing
processes. As such, the need for effective utilization of structural material was
emphasized. IP-4, IP-6 and IP-7 expressed the need to consider material and design
optimization in developing structural designs, to ensure that ineffective material
utilization and material wastages are minimized. IP-7 further stated that the general
tendency among structural engineers to overdesign structural components as a
contingency measure also needs to be reduced as much as possible since it reflects on
wasted resource allocations.

The interviewees also highlighted the need for a shift from the use of traditional
materials to alternative materials that are less energy intensive. IP-5, IP-6 and IP-7
proposed that structural engineers should consider the use of recycled material and
locally sourced material where possible and low EE material such as fly ash and slag
substituted cements in developing structural designs. Moreover, consideration on reuse
of existing building structures and development of flexible building designs was
elaborated by IP-7 as follows; “Where possible, the reuse of existing building
structures can be considered. There can be some resistance from the clients in doing

63
this, but they can be brought on board by explaining its benefits in terms of cost
reductions and environmental impacts. Designs can also be made for future
adaptations, however such future requirements should come from the client. This can
be used for example in school buildings where the number of students is expected to
LQFUHDVHZLWKWLPH´

Apart from ensuring EE reductions, IP-4, IP-5, IP-6 and IP-7 stated that structural
engineers can contribute towards OE reduction through the use of measures such as
thermal massing to regulate heat gains through the building envelop and thereby
improve thermal comfort within buildings.

Furthermore, IP-4 and IP-5 specifically highlighted the need for structural engineers
be aware about the latest developments related to energy efficient structural designs
and adopt such concepts to local practice. The necessity to follow energy efficient
building design guidelines and design criteria in green building rating systems related
to material use and energy efficiency was also noted by IP-4, IP-5 and IP-6.

4.4.7.3 The Role of Service Engineers in Reducing EE and OE in Buildings,

during the Design Stage
The general trend in the industry is to include the service engineers in the building
design process at the final stages of design, when most of the design aspects are
finalized. In contrary to this general practice, the interviewees expressed that service
engineers should to be involved early in the design process, when deciding on aspects
such as building shape, orientation and provisions for natural lighting and ventilation.
By involving service engineers in this decision, they would be able contribute their
expertise in managing space conditioning requirements as well as the knowhow on
energy modelling and simulation software.

The need for service engineers to focus on energy efficiency and energy ratings when
making equipment selections was highlighted by IP-08. Further the necessity of
considering the life cycle energy costs in the selection decision was expressed. As
expressed by IP-09, “service engineers should be encouraged to develop service
layouts with provisions for future expansions so that EE consumed in repairs and
replacements could be kept to a minimum”. Furthermore, the requirement for service

64
engineers to follow energy efficient building design guidelines alongside the adoption
of the latest developments in the field of energy efficiency was suggested by all the
interviewees from the service engineering discipline.

4.4.7.4 The Role of Quantity Surveyors (QSs) in Reducing EE and OE in

Buildings, During the Design Stage
Buildings need to be energy efficient and at the same time should meet tight deadlines
and limited budgets. As highlighted through literature, it is the responsibility of the
QSs to ensure that projects meet these budget and time constraints while integrating
appropriate energy efficiency measures.

The key role of a QS in promoting energy efficiency was identified as advising clients
about the time and cost savings that can be achieved through the integration of EE and
OE reduction measures, and thereby encourage clients to develop energy efficient
buildings. IP-12 elaborated on the QSs role as follows; “QSs through their knowledge
on alternative construction material, can propose cost effective alternative material
that can be used in achieving energy efficiency´
High initial costs associated with
energy efficiency measures was highlighted as a reason for their lack of
implementation in literature (Bodach et al., 2016). Through the provision of cost
effective alternatives, QSs can contribute to address this issue to a certain extent. As
further explained by IP-12, QSs through their knowledge on project costing can also
undertake life cycle cost studies to convince the clients about the potential life cycle
cost savings that can be achieved by using energy efficiency measures, despite the
slight increases in the initial costs and dissolve the notion that going for energy
efficiency is costly. Further, both IP-11 and IP-12 stated that QSs can also develop and
maintain cost databases of construction material and equipment which are less energy
intensive along with detailed of the respective suppliers/manufactures, so that such
material can be sourced easily as and when required.

IP-11 commented on how the traditional role itself of a QS can be adjusted to meet
energy efficiency requirements as follows; “Traditional tasks of a QS such as the
preparation of tender documents, prequalification of tenderers and tender evaluations
can be conducted from an energy efficiency perspective. Considering prior experience

65
of tenderers in energy efficient building construction during the prequalification
process and specification of energy efficiency requirements to be met by tenderers in
procurement doFXPHQWV DUH H[DPSOHV
Through literature, IRU WKLV´
it was revealed
that collaboration among professionals is important in the development of energy
efficient buildings. In parallel to this, IP-12 viewed that as the professionals
responsible for the selection of the most suitable procurement system for a project,
QSs can select procurement systems that facilitates collaboration so that professionals
from different field of expertise can effectively come together to design energy
efficient buildings. The need to provide due consideration for novel procurement
approaches such as BIM enabled project procurement was expressed here.

Moreover, IP-2 commented on the role of a QS specifically with regard to the

management of EE impacts of construction material as follows; “A Quantity Surveyor
will have a list of all the material used in a building project in the form of a BOQ. This
BOQ can be further extended to include the associated EE of the material and to
identify the aggregated EE of the final building. If accurate EE indices are available,
then a QS is placed in a position to calculate both the costs and EE so that means of
EDODQFLQJWKHVHWZRDVSHFWVFDQEHIRXQG´

4.4.8 Barriers towards Developing Energy Efficient Buildings in the Sri Lankan
Context
Information regarding the barriers towards developing energy efficient buildings were
compiled under two criteria. The first criteria was specific barriers for achieving
simultaneous EE and OE reductions in buildings and the second criteria was general
barriers towards achieving overall energy efficiency.

4.4.8.1 Barriers Specific for Achieving Simultaneous EE and OE Reductions

Figure 4.1 represents the coding structure developed using N-vivo for analysing the
barriers specific for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions.

66
Figure 4.1: Barriers specific for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions

Majority of the interviewees identified that the general tendency for the increase of EE
when attempting to decrease OE, as the main issue in achieving simultaneous EE and
OE reductions in buildings. This is supported by the findings of Sartori and Hestnes
(2007) where they established the fact that reduction of OE would, to a great extent be
counter balanced by an associated increase in EE. The interviewees also identified the
lack of accurate data specifically regarding the EE of construction material in the local
context as an equally significant barrier. Dixit (2007) has also recognized the lack of
accurate and comprehensive data on EE and the wide variations in the reported EE
data as deterrents for achieving EE reductions. As expressed by IP-5, although there
are certain EE databases such as the EE database developed by the Bath University in
UK, the EE values included there might not be suitable to the local context, since EE
depends on country specific variables such as the material extraction and
manufacturing processes used, modes of transport and transportation distances etc.

Benefits in the reduction of EE not being reflected in financial terms is another barrier
encountered in achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions. ³5HGXFWLRQ LQ
directly relates to financial aspects whereas reduction of EE does not, therefore more
prominence is on reducing OE. For example, if an energy efficient HVAC system is
used, then its benefit will be evident through the reduced energy bills. But in most cases
such direct financial benefits will not be evident if we use either locally sourced timber
RULPSRUWHGWLPEHU´
, IP-9 explained. However, IP-2 commented that, if material with
low EE which are less costly becomes sufficiently available in the market, then a
turnaround of the above situation could be expected.

67
Finally, the lack of knowledge on the use of energy modelling and simulation software
among most construction industry professionals was highlighted as an impediment for
the achievement of building designs with both low EE and OE. As elaborated by IP-8,
“alternative design comparison capabilities offered by simulation and modelling
software in terms of building energy intensities, makes the energy efficient design
development process more effective and it is almost impossible to perform such
comparisons manually”. This statement shows the importance of improving the
knowledge on the use of simulation and modelling software among construction
industry professionals.

4.4.8.2 General Barriers towards Achieving Overall Energy Efficiency

Figure 4.2 presents the coding structure developed using N-vivo for analysing the
general barriers in moving towards energy efficient buildings.

Figure 4.2: General barriers towards achieving overall energy efficiency

68
As identified by a majority of interviewees, lack of knowledge and awareness on the
concepts of energy efficiency among construction professionals and construction
clientele is a major barrier in moving towards energy efficiency in built environments.
IP-12 expressed his opinion on this issue as ³3
rofessionals need to focus on new
knowledge areas without being confined to their traditional roles. For example, a QS
should update his/her knowledge on novel material and construction technologies
used in sustainable buildings, rather than just focusing on cost reduction and
contractual matters´. As further expressed by IP-12, by familiarising themselves with
new knowledge areas such as sustainability and energy efficiency, professionals can
convince clients to take a step forward in the direction of sustainable construction.

Similarly, the lack of proactive government involvement in promoting the concepts of

energy efficiency was highlighted as an inhibitor for achieving energy efficiency. As
expressed by IP-9, there are certain government initiatives to promote energy
efficiency in built environments currently underway such as the development of green
public procurement guidelines. However, IP-2 commented that ³WKHORFDODXWK
responsible for regulating the building construction in the locality do not have any
major initiatives implemented to promote the design and development of greener
HQHUJ\HIILFLHQWEXLOGLQJV´
and emphasized the need for such local authoritarian bodies
to play a more proactive role in promoting greener, energy efficient buildings since
they are the ones who come in close contact with construction clients. On a similar
note, most interviewees pointed out that there is a dearth in standards and regulatory
frameworks for promoting energy efficiency locally and that there are many shortfalls
in the enforcement of even the meagre regulations available.

The inadequate awareness of construction clients regarding the life cycle cost benefits
of adopting energy efficiency measures and the higher initial costs associated with
integrating energy efficiency measures was also frequently highlighted by the
interviewees as a barrier in moving towards energy efficiency. Further, the hesitant
nature to adopt new technologies and being limited to the traditional methods of
construction was found to inhibit developments in the field of energy efficiency.
According to IP-5, ³FRQVWUXFWLRQ SURIHVVLRQDOV
-old VKRX
methods of design and embrace new design concepts that improves energy efficiency.´

69
It is important to note an emerging problem that was highlighted with regards to the
current rapid development of residential buildings; the developer-occupant issue. IP-8
elaborated on this issue in detail as follows, “It can be seen that township areas such
as Colombo and its suburbs are being flooded with apartment complexes. These
apartments are developed by real estate developers and sold to occupants. Since the
developers are not occupying the buildings, they are generally concerned about only
the initial costs and not the operational costs. Therefore, a tendency has been observed
among the real estate developers to use low priced energy in-efficient equipment and
appliances. As a result, such buildings were found to have very high energy demands
during the operational phases.” IP-2, IP-8, IP-9 and IP-12 specifically stressed on the
importance of addressing this issue with the current trend of developing apartment
buildings.

IP-5 emphasized the importance of establishing industries and markets for the
production of less energy intensive construction material such as recycled concrete.
³&RQFUHWH ZDVWH LV D JRRG VXEVWLWXWH IRU
recycling concrete waste in Sri Lanka. There are only one or two plants in western
and southern provinces that carryout the sorting and crushing of concrete waste. But
if the government can take some initiative to widespread the industry as a cottage or
small industry, then some employment can also be created in addition to minimizing
the environmental impacts of dumping concrete waste into landfills´, IP-5
commented. This view was supported by IP-4 and IP-6 as well.

Both IP-5 and IP-6 with experience in academia, pointed out that there is also a lack
of research and development focused on improving the energy efficiency in Sri-
Lankan built facilities. Although there are research establishments in Sri Lanka,
according to IP-5, “little is being done to support research on novel concepts such as
energy efficiency.” Aesthetics gaining prominence over energy efficiency, issues with
transference of international knowledge to the local construction industry and the lack
of incentives to encourage a shift towards energy efficiency were also expressed as
impediments for moving in the direction of energy efficiency.

70
When compared with the literature findings, it can be seen that most barriers identified
in the local context are similar to those encountered in the global context. However,
there are certain barriers that are specific to the local industry. The developer-occupant
issues which arises as a result of the party developing and party occupying buildings
being different was not identified through literature, but was identified as an emerging
issue in the local industry. Minimum research and development coupled with the lack
of industry university partnerships was another barrier affecting the adoption of energy
efficiency in the local context. Further, the lack of international knowledge transfer
was identified as barrier that specifically impacts the local industry.

4.4.9 Measures for Overcoming the Barriers in Moving towards Energy

Efficiency
The interviewees were requested to propose possible measures to overcome the
barriers identified in moving towards energy efficiency. Figure 4.3 presents the coding
structure developed using N-vivo in the process of analysing the related findings.

Figure 4.3: Measures for overcoming the barriers in moving towards energy efficiency

A majority of the interviewees identified the need to improve awareness on building

energy efficiency and the potential advantages of the adoption of energy efficiency
measures, among all stakeholders in the construction industry. Elaborating on the need

71
for improving awareness, IP-5 expressed that ³It has to be done centrally at first. It
needs to start with policy makers, the top management of the country and then
penetrate down to the lower tiers such as the government officials involved in the
planning and decision making related to the construction industry and further down
to the regional level such as toZQ FRXQFLOV´
. Further, the need for implementing
sustainability training and education was emphasized by IP-5.

Significant technological advancements have been made in the field of building energy
efficiency, when considering the global context. But as expressed by a majority of
interviewees, the adoption of such new technological developments is at a
considerably lower level locally and therefore, they highlighted the need for promoting
the use of novel technologies. Use of energy modelling and simulation software and
collaborative working platforms such as BIM were identified as new technologies to
be adopted which facilitates the development of energy efficient building designs.

As identified under the previous section, the lack of proactive government involvement
in terms of developing standards and regulatory frameworks aimed at achieving energy
efficiency in the construction sector is a hurdle in the transgression towards energy
efficiency. Therefore, most interviewees stressed on the importance of developing a
well thought-out regulatory framework for regulating building energy consumption.
According to IP-2, ³FRQVLGHULQJ
energy efficiency in design should be made
PDQGDWRU\WKURXJKUHJXODWLRQVVXFKUHJXOD

The provision of incentives such as tax reductions was also seen as having the potential
to overcome the identified barriers. As commented by IP-10, an example for this is the
net-metering initiative for solar power generation, spearheaded locally by the SLSEA.
The interviewees also specified the importance of setting up industries and markets for
less energy intensive construction material. IP-5 emphasized on the need for setting up
industries for recycling concrete waste and less energy intensive material such as
cement stabilized earth bricks. IP-5 further stated that while setting up such industries,
the public should also be encouraged to use such material, thereby creating a market
pull for these material. Proactive government involvement was identified as essential
to implement these measures.

72
Interviewees representing academia suggested to improve research and development
in the field of energy efficiency and also to develop stronger industry-university
partnerships. IP-4 elaborated on the significance of industry-university partnership as
follows; ³8QLYHUVLWLHV DORQH
carryout research andFDQQRW
development since they
may not have a very good idea about the issues in the industry nor do they have the
financial capacity to implement research outcomes in a large scale, while the industry
may also not be able to proceed alone since they may not have knowledge on the state-
of-art technologies. 7KH³6FLHQFH3DUN´LQ6LQJDSRUH
industry-university partnerships where both industries and universities come and set
up within this park and collaborate to undertake new product developmeQWV´
.
Similarly, IP-6 expressed the following opinion, ³6XFFHVVIXOUHVHDUFK
been undertaken by local universities to develop less energy intensive material such
as cement stabilized earth blocks. But the outcomes have been limited to research only
and they have not been adopted by the industry manufacturers. Avenues need to be
created to transfer the research knowledge from the universities to the industry, so that
the industry can adopt research findings to their industrial SURFHVVHV´
. These
statements represents the need to develop a common platform for collaboration
between the construction industry and universities.

IP-2 and IP-9 emphasized on the need for developing a rating system for building
material based on their energy intensities so that building designers as well as the
construction clientele can have a clear idea about what the low energy material are and
the manufacturers that manufacture them. As expressed by IP-2, this would help the
selection of low energy material during the building design stage itself.

Apart from the above measures, promoting of international knowledge transfer,

encouraging to follow energy efficient building design guidelines and mandating
environmental impact assessments and material approvals were also identified as
potential measures for overcoming the barriers towards achieving energy efficiency in
built environments.

73
4.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter presents a detailed analysis and discussion of the data collected through
the preliminary survey and the detailed survey. Manual and code based content
analysis were used to analyse the data. The data collected was compared with literature
findings and the similarities and differences were highlighted and discussed.

Design strategies for the reduction of EE and OE respectively were identified along
with strategies common for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reduction. The role of
architects, structural engineers, service engineers and quantity surveyors in the design
of energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE was elaborated. The barriers towards
the development of energy efficient buildings and the measures to overcome them
were expressed. Thus, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th objectives were achieved. Finally, based
on the outcomes of the analysis, a framework for the design of buildings with low EE
and OE was developed (Refer Appendix 05), thereby achieving the 5th objective. The
framework addresses four key aspects in the development of energy efficient building
designs with low EE and OE which are, strategies common for both EE and OE
reduction, role of professionals in the design of energy efficient buildings with low EE
and OE, barriers towards developing energy efficient buildings and the measures to
overcome such barriers.

The analysis outcomes reveal that the potential for the design of buildings with both
low EE and OE exists. In doing so, all the key professionals have a role to play.
However, there are barriers that impedes the achievement of energy efficiency, both
which are specific for the achievement of simultaneous EE and OE reductions and
those that impacts the achievement of overall energy efficiency. But these barriers can
be overcome through the implementation of the proposed measures.

74
 CHAPTER FIVE

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction to the Chapter

This chapter presents a summary of the research along with the key conclusions drawn
through research findings. A detailed explanation on how the research aim and
objectives were achieved is presented. The contribution of this research to existing
knowledge in the area of study and recommendations for industry practitioners and
academic researchers are provided. Further, recommendations for future research are
also highlighted.

5.2 Revisiting the Aim and Objectives of the Study

The background study undertaken revealed that with buildings becoming more
efficient in terms of OE consumption, the significance of EE has increased. Therefore,
the need for factoring EE in the energy efficiency decision has been emphasized. A
multitude of research has been carried out which addresses the concepts of embodied
and operational energy individually, but a lack of research that focuses on both EE and
OE in combination was evident. Moreover, lack of research regarding building for
energy efficiency in the Sri Lankan context was highlighted. Based on these facts, this
study aimed to “investigate the potential for the design of energy efficient buildings
with low EE and OE”. Accordingly, five objectives were developed to achieve the aim
and how the objectives were achieved is explained under the following sub-sections.

5.2.1 Objective One: Identify strategies to reduce EE and OE respectively, in

buildings during the design stage
Strategies which could be used to reduce EE and OE in buildings during the design
stage were identified through the review of literature. The identified strategies were
organized under the seven (07) categories of material selection, design approach,
internal building morphology and external building morphology, building services,
renewable energy and procurement process. However, based on the outcomes of the
preliminary survey, the renewable energy category was removed and the remaining

75
six (06) categories were used to conduct the detailed survey. Under the detailed survey,
the interviewees were presented with the EE and OE reduction strategies already
identified through literature and were asked to propose any further strategies, which
they are aware of, under each of the six (06) categories identified above. This led to
the development of a comprehensive list of strategies that could be used for reducing
EE and OE respectively, during the building design stage.

5.2.2 Objective Two: Determine common strategies that could be used during
the building design stage to reduce both EE and OE simultaneously
Literature suggests that achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions is a difficult
endeavour. The limited number of research that focuses on both EE and OE reduction
in parallel, bears testimony to this fact. However recent research conducted in the field
of building energy efficiency expressed the necessity for determining means of
reducing both EE and OE in parallel. Moreover, achieving such simultaneous EE and
OE reductions was recognized as a challenge, which the construction industry is
currently faced with. This drove the focus of this research on identifying common
strategies that could be used for both EE and OE reduction. During the detailed survey,
the interviewees were asked to comment on the impact of implementing the identified
EE reduction strategies on the OE requirement and vice versa. This enabled the
researcher to identify any inter-relationships between the EE and OE reduction
strategies.

The common view of the interviewees was that the identification of a direct link
between EE and OE reduction strategies is difficult. This is line with the findings from
literature. However, the interviewees identified certain strategies that can be
implemented during the design stage, having the potential to reduce both EE and OE
simultaneously. These strategies were classified under five categories as material
selection related, design approach related, building morphology related, procurement
process related and other strategies, with a majority of strategies falling under the
‘procurement process’ category.

76
5.2.3 Objective Three: Examine the role of construction professionals in the
design stage of developing energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE
The need for a collaborative design effort in developing energy efficient buildings was
highlighted through the literature review. The role of professionals representing the
disciplines of architecture, structural engineering, service engineering and quantity
surveying, were enquired under this research. Under the detailed survey, the
interviewees were requested to comment on their professional roles in the design of
energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE.

It was identified that each of these professionals can actively contribute towards
achieving EE and OE reductions based on their areas of expertise. The architects were
encouraged to follow passive design principles and balance aesthetics with energy
efficiency. Responsible selection of structural material and consideration of material
and design optimization techniques in structural designs were expressed as
responsibilities of the structural engineers. Equipment selection based on energy
efficiency ratings and life cycle energy consumption levels and contribution of
knowledge on energy modelling and simulations were identified as key aspects of the
service engineers’ role. Quantity surveyors were required to advise clients on the
potential cost reductions and time savings that could be achieved in the integration of
energy efficiency, propose cost effective energy efficient alternatives and select
procurement systems that facilitates collaboration.

5.2.4 Objective Four: Identify the barriers towards the development of energy
efficient buildings in the local context and measures to overcome such
barriers
Barriers that impedes the development of energy efficient buildings in the global
context was identified through the review of literature. However, since this research is
based on the local context, the necessity of identifying barriers towards achieving
energy efficiency in the local context arose. Interviewees were requested to comment
on the barriers faced by industry professionals in developing energy efficient buildings
in the local context. Barriers were classified under two categories as barriers specific
for achieving simultaneous EE and OE reductions and general barriers towards
achieving overall energy efficiency. Under the first category barriers such as the

77
general trend in the increase of EE in the attempt to reduce OE and the lack of EE
related data locally was highlighted. Lack of awareness on concepts of energy
efficiency among construction professionals and clients, higher initial cost of adopting
energy efficiency measures, minimum standards and regulatory frameworks to enforce
energy efficiency requirements and the lack of adoption of new technologies for
improving energy efficiency in buildings were the key barriers pointed out under the
category of general barriers. Most barriers identified in the local context were found
to be similar to those encountered in the global context. However, certain barriers such
as the developer-occupant issue which arises as a result of the party developing and
party occupying buildings being different and the lack of international knowledge
transfer were found to be unique to the local context.

In parallel to the barriers, means of overcoming such barriers were also identified.
Measures such as the development of better regulatory frameworks with mandatory
requirements and their enforcement, improvement of awareness on energy efficiency
concepts among construction professionals and clientele and the creation of industries
and markets for energy efficient materials and components were recognized as
potential avenues for addressing the barriers identified.

5.2.5 Objective Five: Develop a framework for the design of buildings with low
EE and OE
By reviewing literature, a conceptual framework was developed for the design of
energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE. This initial conceptual framework was
refined and further developed by collaborating the findings from the data analysis, to
generate the final framework (Refer Appendix 05). The final framework addresses four
key aspects in the development of energy efficient building designs with low EE and
OE, which are;

• Strategies common for both EE and OE reduction

• Role of professionals in the design of energy efficient buildings with low EE and
OE
• Barriers towards developing energy efficient buildings
• Measures to overcome the identified barriers

78
This framework can be used as a guidance by the construction professionals in the
design of energy efficient buildings with both low EE and OE.

5.3 Contribution to Knowledge

This research contributes to the knowledge on improvement of life cycle energy
performance of buildings in terms of reduction of EE and OE. The following key
contributions to knowledge are made through this research.

• A detailed up-to-date literature review on the concepts of EE and OE, based on

current studies in the area of building energy efficiency was compiled
• Avenues for reducing the EE and OE through building design and potential means
of simultaneous EE and OE reduction were identified
• Barriers to be managed in the development of energy efficient buildings were
identified and possible means of overcoming such barriers were proposed
• Ways through which construction industry professionals can contribute to the
development of energy efficient buildings were expressed

5.4 Recommendations for Industry Practitioners

The current level of knowledge on the design of energy efficient buildings among the
Sri Lankan construction industry professionals was found to be not at a satisfactory
level. The outcomes of this research will be helpful in addressing this concern. The
following recommendations can be made for the industry practitioners based on
research outcomes;

• It is recommended to follow the framework developed as guidance for the design

of energy efficient buildings with low EE and OE, since it identifies the key aspects
that needs to be considered in such a design process.
• Industry practitioners are encouraged to give more prominence for energy
efficiency in building design and integrate energy efficiency concepts from the
project outset. Moreover, they are required to encourage clients to move in the
direction of energy efficiency.
• The need for a collaborative design environment was identified in the energy
efficient building design process. Therefore, it is recommended that industry

79
 practitioners should be open for collaboration and should value the input of
different professionals equally in achieving energy efficiency.
• The study highlighted that professionals need to regularly update their knowledge
on energy efficient building design, since the field is very dynamic and has gained
attention globally with global issues such as climate change and resource depletion.

5.5 Recommendations for Academic Research

The area of energy efficient building design offers a broad spectrum of research
avenues. In fact, this study itself identified that there is a lack of research and
development in the field, in the local context. The following areas for further research
are recommended;

• This study was limited to buildings and therefore it can be further extended to
include civil project as well
• The life cycle cost of implementing the strategies identified can be derived and
compared against traditional buildings, to determine potential financial benefits
• Building energy efficiency is an evolving concept and new means of ensuring
energy efficiency are being developed constantly. Research can be conducted to
update the already developed framework to accommodate such innovations.

5.6 Chapter Summary

This chapter presents an overview of the entire research. The aim an objectives of the
study are revisited and the way in which each objective was achieved is explained in
detail. The key contributions of this research to the existing body of knowledge in the
field of energy efficient building design was highlighted. Ultimately,
recommendations are made for industry practitioners and further research.

80
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APPENDIX-01: INTERVIEW GUIDELINE FOR PRELIMINARY
SURVEY

…………………………………………
……./……./2018

Dear Sir/Madam,
Research Dissertation – B.Sc. (Hons) Degree in Quantity Surveying
I am a final year undergraduate of the Department of Building Economics, University
of Moratuwa, following the Bachelor of Science Degree in Quantity Surveying. I am
conducting a research with the aim of investigating the potential for the design of
energy efficient buildings with low embodied and operational energy. This research is
conducted under the supervision of xxxxxxxx
I am conducting a preliminary survey for validating the literature findings gathered
through the literature review and determining the future directions of the research.
I would be very grateful if you can provide me with an appointment, to conduct a
preliminary interview with you, amidst your busy work schedule. The information
gathered through the interview will only be used for the purposes of this research and
the confidentiality of the details shall be strictly maintained.
Thanking you,
Yours faithfully,
………………………………………
xxxxxxxxxxx,
Final Year Undergraduate
Department of Building Economics
University of Moratuwa
Tel: xxxxxxxxxx
E-mail: xxxxxxxxxx@gmail.com

95
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY - INTERVIEW GUIDELINE

SECTION 01 – RESPONDENT INFORMATION

Name (Optional):
Profession:
Experience (Years):
Organization (Optional):

SECTION 02 – OVERVIEW OF ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

1. Statistics from different countries have shown that the construction sector
consumes a major proportion of the energy produced. Is this situation applicable
for the Sri Lankan construction sector as well?

2. In your opinion, is it important to focus on energy efficiency during the building

design stage, to reduce the energy demand in built environments?

3. How would you describe the level of awareness on the concepts of energy
efficiency among the Sri Lankan construction industry professionals?

4. Different strategies for embodied and operational energy reduction were identified
through the review of literature. These strategies were classified under seven
criteria based on the literature findings (Refer Annexure for the categorization).
Do you agree with the proposed classification of the strategies?

5. Following this preliminary survey, a detailed questionnaire survey is to be

undertaken to rank the most suitable design strategies for embodied and
operational energy reduction in terms of the energy reduction potential and
implementation cost. Potential strategies for achieving simultaneous embodied and
operational energy reductions will then be examined. The role of different
professionals in the design of energy efficient buildings with low embodied and
operational energy, and the barriers towards developing buildings with low
embodied and operational energy along with measures to overcome such barriers
are also to be identified through the questionnaire. How would you perceive the
viability of this proposed approach?

96
ANNEXURE FOR PRELIMINARY SURVEY GUIDELINE – Classification of
EE and OE reduction strategies identified through literature

EE Reduction OE Reduction
Material Selection
Selection of natural material (e.g. timber) Selection of glazing with improved thermal
with low EE performance
Selection of recycled and reused material Insulation of walls and roofs to minimize heat transfer
and components and thermal bridging
Selection of material manufactured Thermal regulation of the buildings through the use of
through less energy intensive processes thermal mass (Exposed concrete, masonry walls)
Selection of locally sourced material
Selection of innovative material
Design Approach
Design for flexibility and future Adoption of a passive design approach (e.g. promote
adaptations natural lighting and ventilation)
Design with low maintenance and
service life extension in mind
Reuse of existing building structures
where possible
Design to facilitate disassembly at the
end of useful life
Morphology-External
Building form and layout to optimize Alteration of the building orientation
resource use
Orientation of building features (e.g.: windows to
regulate heat transfer and daylighting)
Introduction of shadings/overhangs to minimize heat
gains
Selection of double skinned curtain walls to regulate
heat infiltration
Design of green roofs and vegetated facades
Passive cooling mechanisms
Design to minimize infiltration losses
Developing comfortable outside spaces that minimize
the demand on active systems that condition the
internal spaces
Morphology-Internal
Building form and layout to optimize Design of thermal chimneys (stack effect) for
resource use ventilation
Location of functions within buildings to enhance
energy efficiency
Design of internal walls to facilitate natural ventilation

Building Services
Building zoning
Equipment/Appliance selection based on energy
efficiency ratings
Automatic control mechanisms

97
 EE Reduction OE Reduction
Implementation of integrated control systems such as
Building Management Systems (BMS)
Use of systems capable of recovering waste energy
Renewable Energy
Use of solar photovoltaic panels on roofs and facades
Use of building integrated windmills
Use of biomass plants that use waste products
Procurement Strategies
Novel design processes such as BIM integrated designing to determine alternative designs with
increased energy efficiency
Collaborative contractual arrangements

-Thank you for your contribution and kind corporation-

98
APPENDIX-02: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT OF THE
PRELIMINARY SURVEY

PRELIMINARY SURVEY - INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT

SECTION 01 – RESPONDENT INFORMATION

Name (Optional): Interviewee ID ±PE2
Profession: Chartered Architect
Experience (Years): 10 years
Organization (Optional): xxxxx

SECTION 02 – OVERVIEW OF ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

1. Statistics from different countries have shown that the construction sector
consumes a major proportion of the energy produced. Is this situation applicable
for the Sri Lankan construction sector as well?
Yes, a similar scenario is evident in Sri Lanka as well. The transport sector in Sri
Lanka also consumes a significant proportion of the energy produced. However,
with the increase in the development of high-rise buildings and other mega
development projects, the building sector would soon surpass the transport sector
by a greater margin.

2. In your opinion, is it important to focus on energy efficiency during the building

design stage, to reduce the energy demand in built environments?
Yes, design stage offers more flexibility to accommodate change. In most cases,
energy efficiency is considered at the last stages of design. Because of that,
ensuring energy efficiency in buildings has become difficult and also ineffective.
Therefore, it is important to focus on energy efficiency from early design.

3. How would you describe the level of awareness on the concepts of energy
efficiency among the Sri Lankan construction industry professionals?
Although the level of knowledge and consideration on energy efficiency is showing
an increasing trend, still it is not satisfactory. Professionals need to move with the
global developments in the building for energy efficiency and at the same time
encourage their clients to pursue energy efficiency

4. Different strategies for embodied and operational energy reduction were identified
through the review of literature. These strategies were classified under seven
criteria based on the literature findings (Refer Annexure for the categorization).
Do you agree with the proposed classification of the strategies?
The proposed classification seems appropriate. However, when it comes to
renewables, the use of renewables do not reduce the energy demand but rather

99
 meets the same energy demand through renewable sources of energy. Therefore,
considering the use of renewables as an energy reduction strategy seems not that
suitable according to my opinion. Renewables reduce the negative environmental
impact in producing energy through non-renewable sources such as fossil fuels
and as well as the energy bills but does reduce the overall energy demand.

5. Following this preliminary survey, a detailed questionnaire survey is to be

undertaken to rank the most suitable design strategies for embodied and
operational energy reduction in terms of the energy reduction potential and
implementation cost. Potential strategies for achieving simultaneous embodied and
operational energy reductions will then be examined. The role of different
professionals in the design of energy efficient buildings with low embodied and
operational energy, and the barriers towards developing buildings with low
embodied and operational energy along with measures to overcome such barriers
are also to be identified through the questionnaire. How would you perceive the
viability of this proposed approach?
My opinion is that it is not possible to rank embodied and operational energy
reduction strategies. Why I say that is because the impact of implementing these
strategies is highly situational and depends upon a number of factor. For example
there may be innovative material with low embodied energy but if we have to
import them from foreign countries over long distances, ultimately there may be
no embodied energy saving. Similarly, strategies such as changing building
orientations to regulate operational energy, will be limited based on the nature
and area of the site and the layout of neighbouring buildings. We cannot say that
one strategy is better than the other. Therefore trying to rank these strategies is
not successful.
But identifying the professional roles and the barriers and methods to overcome
them would be useful because as I said before, awareness on energy efficiency is
limited locally.
Rather than using the questionnaire approach, I think it is better to use interviews
because you can get well-reasoned information which you can use to explain your
findings better.

-Thank you for your contribution and kind corporation-

100
APPENDIX-03: INTERVIEW GUIDELINE FOR DETAILED
SURVEY

…………………………………………
……./……./2018

Dear Sir/Madam,

Research Dissertation – B.Sc. (Hons) Degree in Quantity Surveying

I am a final year undergraduate of the Department of Building Economics, University
of Moratuwa, following the Bachelor of Science Degree in Quantity Surveying. I am
conducting a research with the aim of investigating the potential for the design of
energy efficient buildings with low embodied and operational energy. This research is
conducted under the supervision of xxxxxxxx.
In order to collect the required data for the study, I am in the process of conducting
interviews with industry professionals who are aware about the concepts of embodied
and operational energy.
I would be very grateful if you can provide me with an appointment, to conduct an
interview with you, amidst your busy work schedule. The information gathered
through the interview will only be used for the purposes of this research and the
confidentiality of the details shall be strictly maintained.

Thanking you,

Yours faithfully,

………………………………………
xxxxxxxxxxx,
Final Year Undergraduate
Department of Building Economics
University of Moratuwa
Tel: xxxxxxxxxx
E-mail: xxxxxxxxxx@gmail.com

101
 INTERVIEW GUIDELINE
DEVELOPING A GUIDELINE FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
SECTION 01 – RESPONDENT INFORMATION
Name (Optional):
Profession:
Experience (Years):
Organization (Optional):
Prior experience in design of
energy efficient buildings:

Definitions of Embodied Energy (EE) and Operational Energy (OE)

Definition of Embodied Energy (EE): Energy utilized in manufacture and transport
of construction materials, construction of the building, repair and maintenance,
demolition and end of life management of demolished materials (Chastas, Theodosiou,
& Bikas, 2016)
Definition of Operational Energy (OE): Energy needed for preserving comfortable
conditions within the building and for regular maintenance (i.e. the energy for HVAC
systems, domestic hot water generation, lighting and for running electrical
appliances) (Ramesh, Prakash, & Shukla, 2010)

SECTION 02 – EE AND OE REDUCTION STRATEGIES

**Questions related to EE and OE reduction strategies have been classified under
six (06) sub-section as shown below. The annexure identifies EE and OE reduction
strategies identified through literature under each sub-section

Material Selection
1. Selection of natural material, recycled and reused material, locally sourced
material, innovative material with low EE and material manufactured though less
energy intensive processes were identified as ways of reducing EE associated with
material selection. Are you aware of any further strategies in terms of material
selection, which can be used to reduce EE?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

2. What impact will the above EE reduction strategies have on the OE requirement
of buildings?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
«««««««««««««««
«««««««««««««««««««««

102
3. Thermal massing, insulation and use of glazing with improved thermal
performance were identified as common strategies for reducing OE in terms of
material selection. Are you aware of any further strategies related to material
selection, which can be used to reduce OE?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

4. What impact will the above OE reduction strategies have on the EE?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

5. Who are the key professionals involved in material selection for a building?
«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Design Approach
6. Designing for flexibility and easy disassembly, reuse of existing building
structures and design of low maintenance buildings with extended service lives
were identified as design approach related strategies for EE reduction. Are you
aware of any further strategies related to the design approach which can be adopted
to reduce EE?
««««««««« «««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

7. How will the above EE reduction strategies impact the OE requirement of

buildings?
«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

8. Adoption of a passive design approaches such as designing for natural lighting and
ventilation was identified as design approach related strategies for OE reduction.
What other design approach related measures could be adopted to reduce the OE
of buildings and how will these OE reduction strategies impact EE?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

103
9. Who are the key professionals involved in determining the design approaches to
be followed?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

External Building Morphology

10. Altering the orientation of the building and building features to facilitate natural
lighting and ventilation, introduction of shadings, use of double skinned curtain
wall systems, design of green roofs and vegetated facades, designing for low
infiltration losses and developing comfortable outside spaces were identified as
strategies for reducing OE. Are you aware of any further strategies related to the
external building form and layout, which can be used to minimize the OE
requirement?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

11. What is the impact of the above OE reduction strategies on the EE?
«««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««« «««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

12. Alteration of the external building form and layout of the building to optimize
resource use was identified as an EE reduction strategy related to the external
building morphology. What other strategies are available for reducing EE
associated with the external building morphology and how will these strategies
impact the OE requirement?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

13. Who are the key professionals involved in deciding on the building form and
layout?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

104
 Internal Building Morphology
14. Determining the internal arrangement to facilitate stack effect and natural
ventilation and locating internal functions to minimize the energy demand were
identified as key strategies for reducing OE in terms of the internal building form
and layout. Are you aware of any further strategies related to the internal building
form and layout, which can be used to minimize the OE requirement?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

15. What is the impact of the above OE reduction strategies on the EE?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

16. Alteration of the internal building form and layout of the building to optimize
resource use was identified as an EE reduction strategy related to the internal
building morphology. What other strategies are available for reducing EE
associated with the internal building morphology and how will these strategies
impact the OE requirement?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

17. Who are the key professionals involved in determining the form and layout of a
building?
«««««««««««««««««««««««««« ««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

Building Services
18. Building zoning, equipment selection based on energy efficiency ratings, use of
automatic control mechanisms, use of waste energy recovery systems and use of
integrated control systems such as BMS were identified as common OE reduction
strategies associated with building services. Are you aware of any further strategies
for OE reduction associated with building services?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

105
 19. What is the impact of the above OE reduction strategies on the EE?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

20. What strategies are available to reduce the EE associated with building services
and how will such measures impact the OE requirement?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

21. Who are the key professionals involved in determining the required services and
the service arrangements of buildings?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««« «««««««««
«««««
«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
.
Procurement Strategy
22. Collaborative contractual arrangements and use of novel procurement process
were identified to facilitate design of energy efficient buildings with low EE and
OE. What other effective procurement strategies are available that would facilitate
the design of buildings with both low EE and OE?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

23. Who are the key professionals involved in deciding the most suitable procurement
strategies?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««

SECTION 03 – ROLE OF PROFESSIONALS IN DESIGN OF ENERGY

EFFICIENT BUILDINGS WITH LOW EE AND OE

24. As a professional involved in the building design stage, what is your role in the
design of energy efficient buildings?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................

106
SECTION 04 – BARRIERS TOWARDS DEVELOPING ENERGY
EFFICIENT BUILDINGS IN THE SRI LANKAN CONTEXT

25. Based on your opinion, what are the practical issues in developing buildings with
both low embodied and operational energies?
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««

26. In your opinion, what are the general barriers towards developing energy efficient
buildings in the Sri Lankan context?
««««««««« «««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
«««««««««««««««««««««««««««««
«««««««
«««««««««««««
«««««««««««
««««««««««««
27. What measures need to be taken in order to overcome the identified barriers?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….
.
-Thank you for your contribution and kind corporation –

107
ANNEXURE – EE and OE reduction strategies identified through literature
EE Reduction OE Reduction
Material Selection
Selection of natural material (e.g. timber) with Selection of glazing with improved thermal
low EE performance
Selection of recycled and reused material and Insulation of walls and roofs to minimize heat
components transfer and thermal bridging
Selection of material manufactured through less Thermal regulation of the buildings through the
energy intensive processes use of thermal mass
Selection of locally sourced material
Selection of innovative material
Design Approach
Design for flexibility and future adaptations Adoption of a passive design approach
Design with low maintenance and service life
extension in mind
Reuse of existing building structures where
possible
Design to facilitate disassembly at the end of
useful life
Morphology-External
Building form and layout to optimize resource Alteration of the building orientation
use
Orientation of building features (e.g.: windows
to regulate heat transfer and daylighting)
Introduction of shadings/overhangs to minimize
heat gains
Selection of double skinned curtain walls to
regulate heat infiltration
Design of green roofs and vegetated facades
Passive cooling mechanisms
Design to minimize infiltration losses
Developing comfortable outside spaces that
minimize the demand on active systems that
condition the internal spaces
Morphology-Internal
Building form and layout to optimize resource Design of thermal chimneys (stack effect) for
use ventilation
Location of functions within buildings to
enhance energy efficiency
Design of internal walls to facilitate natural
ventilation
Building Services
Building zoning
Equipment/Appliance selection based on energy
efficiency ratings
Automatic control mechanisms
Implementation of integrated control systems
such as Building Management Systems (BMS)
Use of systems capable of recovering waste
energy
Procurement Strategies
Novel design processes such as BIM integrated designing to determine alternative designs with
increased energy efficiency
Collaborative contractual arrangements

108
APPENDIX-04: INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT OF THE DETAILED
SURVEY
INTERVIEW GUIDELINE
DEVELOPING A GUIDELINE FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
SECTION 01 – RESPONDENT INFORMATION
Name (Optional): Interviewee ID: IP-9
Profession: Services Engineer
Experience (Years): 23 years
Organization (Optional): xxxxx
Prior experience in design of Yes
energy efficient buildings:

Definitions of Embodied Energy (EE) and Operational Energy (OE)

Definition of Embodied Energy (EE): Energy utilized in manufacture and transport
of construction materials, construction of the building, repair and maintenance,
demolition and end of life management of demolished materials (Chastas, Theodosiou,
& Bikas, 2016)
Definition of Operational Energy (OE): Energy needed for preserving comfortable
conditions within the building and for regular maintenance (i.e. the energy for HVAC
systems, domestic hot water generation, lighting and for running electrical
appliances) (Ramesh, Prakash, & Shukla, 2010)

SECTION 02 – EE AND OE REDUCTION STRATEGIES

**Questions related to EE and OE reduction strategies have been classified under
six (06) sub-section as shown below. The annexure identifies EE and OE reduction
strategies identified under each sub-section

Material Selection
1. Selection of natural material, recycled and reused material, locally sourced
material, innovative material with low EE and material manufactured though less
energy intensive processes were identified as ways of reducing EE associated with
material selection. Are you aware of any further strategies in terms of material
selection, which can be used to reduce EE?
• Use of material that requires less processing energy: Some material have lengthy
manufacturing processes that consumes more energy, and therefore the
manufacturing process can have a significant impact on the embodied energy of a
material. E.g.: Aluminium is available in abundance, but the process of
manufacturing aluminium is highly energy intensive. Therefore, compared with
aluminium, copper would be a much better alternative, when only considering the

109
 energy intensity of the production process. Using material with less energy
intensive upstream manufacturing processes and supply chains will therefore be a
strategy related to material selection, which can be used to reduce the embodied
energy.
• Life cycle assessment tools with energy as the focus can be used in material
selection: Undertaking life cycle assessment with embodied energy as the single
impact category. There are various impact categories in LCA such as CO2
emissions, operational energy etc. Since the focus here is strategies for reduction
of embodied energy, it should be selected as the impact category for the LCA
calculation.
• Specification of material manufactured by manufacturers who utilize energy
efficient manufacturing processes. Apart from the EE reductions realised through
the specification of such material, it also encourages other manufacturers to move
towards energy efficient manufacturing processes, thereby stimulating the growth
of an environmentally responsible and energy efficient supply chain.

2. What impact will the above EE reduction strategies have on the OE requirement
of buildings?
Operational energy will be impacted by factors such as the insulation properties
of the material used in the building envelop, surface reflection etc. Operational
energy therefore depends on the specific properties related to individual material,
rather than the factors identified above. For example, bricks and blocks are two
alternatives which can be used for the building envelop. Using bricks can provide
a more comfortable internal environment compared to blocks, due to its low heat
transfer characteristics. According to my opinion, selection of construction
material will not have a significant impact on the operational energy of buildings.

3. Thermal massing, insulation and use of glazing with improved thermal

performance were identified as common strategies for reducing OE in terms of
material selection. Are you aware of any further strategies related to material
selection, which can be used to reduce OE?
Transparent material such as glass is used to obtain natural light into the building.
However, a certain amount of heat will also be transferred into the building, as a
result of the use of transparent material. The amount of heat transferred will
depend on the Refractive Index of material, and this property will differ from one
material to another. Also, the surface reflectance of material will impact the
amount of heat transfer. Therefore, when using transparent material,
consideration has to be given to the surface properties of material, because the
amount of heat transferred will significantly impact the air conditioning
requirement (cooling demand) and thus the operational energy.

110
4. What impact will the above OE reduction strategies have on the EE?
It is difficult to state a direct relationship. The embodied energy of material
depends on the process history of material, the number of process steps involved
and the energy associated with each step of the process. Therefore it may vary
from one material to another and also the manufacturing process for the same
material. As a result, is not possible to conclusively say that for example, the use
of glass with improved thermal performance will result in increased embodied
energy. No clear direct link can be established.

5. Who are the key professionals involved in material selection for a building?
Architects, contractors and consultant team members will be involved. The final
decision lies with the client. Local authorities generally does not look at the
material used (unless some banned material is being used) but mainly focus on the
design.

Design Approach
6. Designing for flexibility and easy disassembly, reuse of existing building
structures and design of low maintenance buildings with extended service lives
were identified as design approach related strategies for EE reduction. Are you
aware of any further strategies related to the design approach which can be adopted
to reduce EE?
Adopting material optimization methods will help to reduce the embodied energy
of buildings. Material optimization refers to the development of building designs
which optimizes the use of material, avoiding any wasteful material allocations,
thereby reducing the quantum of material required, without compromising on the
expected functionality. E.g. (1) the use of temporary partitioning rather than going
for permanent walls based on the nature of the requirement. E.g. (2) there may be
two alterQDWLYHVIRUEULFNZDOOWKLFNQHVVDV
EULFNVRUQURI´WKLFNEULFNV7KHVW would not be impacted
WKDWPXFKE\VHOHFWLQJHLWKHURIWKHWZ
bricks can be selected thereby reducing the number of bricks required and at the
same time reducing the embodied energy.
Optimizing the design and layout e.g. corridors, access ways, unwanted walls etc.
can be minimized to reduce the amount of material required which will result in a
reduction of the associated embodied energy, following guidelines such as
³'HVLJQIRU6XVWDL QDELOLW\'6´

7. How will the above EE reduction strategies impact the OE requirement of

buildings?
Buildings designed with flexibility and adaptability in mind can be changed easily
to meet changing requirements and the refurbishment can be accomplished with

111
 minimum use of resources, thereby achieving EE savings. At the same time, flexible
and adaptable designs can help to reduce the operational energy such as the
energy associated with air conditioning e.g. in a hotel with a flexible and adaptable
design, when only a particular section is used, the air conditioning can be adjusted
to cater the requirements of that particular section that is operational, rather than
air conditioning the entire building, thereby achieving significant energy
reduction. This strategy can be applicable for buildings such as universities or
schools where occupancy levels increase over time.
Reuse of existing building structures may have a negative impact on the
operational energy since the structure is not optimized to meet the requirements of
our purpose. Energy retrofitting can be used to overcome this to a certain extent.
However, retrofitting increases EE and therefore the additional EE expended in
retrofitting and the EE conserved through the use of existing building structures
need to be balanced
Designs with lower maintenance will greatly help to reduce the operational energy
requirements since maintenance requires energy

8. Adoption of a passive design approaches such as designing for natural lighting and
ventilation was identified as design approach related strategies for OE reduction.
What other design approach related measures could be adopted to reduce the OE
of buildings and how will these OE reduction strategies impact EE?
Traditional Sri Lankan building layouts with courtyards and open verandas can
be used because they were known to create better internal environmental
conditions within buildings
Developing flexible building designs can reduce operational energy: For example,
in hotels designed according to flexible design approach, when only a particular
section of the hotel is being used that section is isolated and the air-conditioning
is adjusted to meet only the demand of the area in use, thereby achieving OE
reductions. Similar arrangements can be followed in university lecture rooms
when operating at reduced capacity and school buildings were occupancy levels
are expected to increase.

9. Who are the key professionals involved in determining the design approaches to
be followed?
&OLHQWDQGFOLHQW¶VWHDPIRUFRPSOH[SU ects, financial managers. Maintenance
engineers. For government buildings, ministry secretaries and other top executives
will also impact. (Client/Top executives will impact for any decision regarding a
building project)

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 External Building Morphology
10. Altering the orientation of the building and building features to facilitate natural
lighting and ventilation, introduction of shadings, use of double skinned curtain
wall systems, design of green roofs and vegetated facades, designing for low
infiltration losses and developing comfortable outside spaces were identified as
strategies for reducing OE. Are you aware of any further strategies related to the
external building form and layout, which can be used to minimize the OE
requirement?
Introducing a natural canopy for low rise buildings reduces the heat gain resulting
in a decrease of the cooling demand of buildings. As a thumb rule, it is said that
the use of natural canopies reduces the internal temperature of a building by about
2oC, and is a major saving in terms of air conditioning. In addition, replacing
external hard paved areas with vegetated areas such as lawns will reduce the
reflected heat. This will in turn reduce both internal heat gains and the heat island
effect

11. What is the impact of the above OE reduction strategies on the EE?
It may be positive or negative, a direct relationship cannot be stated. It all depends
on the given scenario

12. Alteration of the external building form and layout of the building to optimize
resource use was identified as an EE reduction strategy related to the external
building morphology. What other strategies are available for reducing EE
associated with the external building morphology and how will these strategies
impact the OE requirement?
Material selection and developing optimized designs is the way for reducing the
embodied energy. Here too, it is difficult to directly say anything about the impact
on operational energy

13. Who are the key professionals involved in deciding on the building form and
layout?
Architects will be mainly responsible. Engineers can also contribute in terms of
altering the structural forms and layouts. The impact of local authorities/planning
authorities such as the UDA should also be noted in this regard.

Internal Building Morphology

14. Determining the internal arrangement to facilitate stack effect and natural
ventilation and locating internal functions to minimize the energy demand were
identified as key strategies for reducing OE in terms of the internal building form
and layout. Are you aware of any further strategies related to the internal building
form and layout, which can be used to minimize the OE requirement?

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 Adjusting the floor-to-floor height: For a non-air-conditioned building, increasing
the floor-to-floor will improve ventilation. For an air-conditioned building,
reducing the roof height will decrease the volume to be conditioned, resulting in a
decrease of the air conditioning demand, thereby reducing the operational energy
requirement.

15. What is the impact of the above OE reduction strategies on the EE?
Here too similar to the previous section, a direct relationship cannot be identified

16. Alteration of the internal building form and layout of the building to optimize
resource use was identified as an EE reduction strategy related to the internal
building morphology. What other strategies are available for reducing EE
associated with the internal building morphology and how will these strategies
impact the OE requirement?
Material selection and developing optimized designs is the most feasible measure
here as well, however cannot state a direct relationship

17. Who are the key professionals involved in determining the form and layout of a
building?
Mainly the architects and structural engineers

Building Services
18. Building zoning, equipment selection based on energy efficiency ratings, use of
automatic control mechanisms, use of waste energy recovery systems and use of
integrated control systems such as BMS were identified as common OE reduction
strategies associated with building services. Are you aware of any further strategies
for OE reduction associated with building services?
Suitable locations for service equipment installation should be selected. E.g.
placement of the fresh air inlets of the HVAC system closer to the outlets of the
exhaust system through which heated air is emitted, could result in an increase of
the electrical energy required for cooling the fresh air. This will therefore increase
the operational energy

19. What is the impact of the above OE reduction strategies on the EE?
Operational energy is more significant than embodied energy in building services
mainly due to the high energy consumption associated with service equipment and
their relatively longer lifespan. Therefore priority is given for operational energy
reduction. Embodied energy is more critical for products with one time use.

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20. What strategies are available to reduce the EE associated with building services
and how will such measures impact the OE requirement?
Specify system components which are designed based on eco-design principles, so
that they are easy to dismantle and recycle at the end of the useful life. Also,
material embodied energies of service equipment can be found out. However, it
would be very complex to calculate and is not performed currently. The impact of
using these measures on the operational energy requirement cannot be identified
directly.

21. Who are the key professionals involved in determining the required services and
the service arrangements of buildings?
Service engineers are mainly responsible for decisions regarding building
services.

Procurement Strategy
22. Collaborative contractual arrangements and use of novel procurement process
were identified to facilitate design of energy efficient buildings with low EE and
OE. What other effective procurement strategies are available that would facilitate
the design of buildings with both low EE and OE?
Use of procurement guidelines such as Sustainable Public Procurement (SPP)
which is practiced globally. Sri Lanka is also in the process adapting these
procurement guidelines to the local context and it is identified as Green Public
Procurement Guidelines. This mainly targets the public sector procurement which
accounts for about ten percent (10%) of all procurement activities in the country.
Criteria can be included in these guidelines to go for products with low embodied
energy and also promote reduced operational energy.
At the same time, encouraging green procurement in the private sector is also
important.
Selection of green/eco labelled products can also be a strategy for developing
buildings with low operational and embodied energy. E.g. eco labelling initiative
in Sri Lanka with the collaboration of institutes such as the NCPC, SLSI and
GBCSL facilitates green product selection for consumers.

23. Who are the key professionals involved in deciding the most suitable procurement
strategies?
Quantity Surveyors will be leading in this aspect. However, the success depends
on input from all other professionals

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 SECTION 03 – ROLE OF PROFESSIONALS IN DESIGN OF ENERGY
EFFICIENT BUILDINGS WITH LOW EE AND OE

24. As a professional involved in the building design stage, what is your role in the
design of energy efficient buildings?
Considering energy efficiency ratings when selecting service equipment and follow
a life cycle cost approach in the selection
Service engineers should develop service layouts with provisions for future
expansions so that embodied energy consumed in repairs and maintenance could
be kept to a minimum
Service engineers also need to follow energy efficient building design guidelines
and make use of new technologies that reduce energy demands

SECTION 04 – BARRIERS TOWARDS DEVELOPING ENERGY

EFFICIENT BUILDINGS IN THE SRI LANKAN CONTEXT

25. Based on your opinion, what are the practical issues in developing buildings with
both low embodied and operational energies?
Reduction in operational energy directly relates to financial aspects whereas
embodied energy does not, therefore more prominence is on reducing operational
energy. For example, if an energy efficient HVAC system is used, then its benefits
will be evident through reduced energy bills. But in most cases such direct
financial benefits will not be evident if we use locally sourced timber or imported
timber. Also databases for embodied energy analysis are not available in Sri
Lanka.
In the general scenario, reducing operational energy will result in an increase of
embodied energy because of the increase in the material requirement. Embodied
energy data of construction material is also not readily available in Sri Lanka

26. In your opinion, what are the barriers towards developing energy efficient
buildings in the Sri Lankan context?
• Green building criteria are not considered by the approving authorities in their
selection criteria for construction projects
‡ Architects give more prominence to aesthetics over energy efficiency, therefore
such professionals need to be made aware of green concepts and green building
guidelines need to be promoted among them.
‡ Attention given by clients towards developing energy efficient buildings is also
less.
‡ In apartment buildings which are coming up rapidly at present, the party
developing the building and party occupying the building are different. Since the
energy costs are borne by the occupants, the developers tend to ignore energy

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 efficiency. Developers aim to reduce only the initial costs and therefore
installations with low initial costs are selected without selecting energy efficient
installations that have higher initial costs but lower life cycle costs. This has
resulted in the increase of energy demand of such buildings

27. What measures need to be taken in order to overcome the identified barriers?
• Professionals should be encouraged to acquire competencies in developing
energy efficient buildings
‡ Promoting green building certification schemes
‡ Developing eco labelling schemes for materials to give the consumers an idea
of the material embodied energies
‡ Inclusion of an energy engineer into the design and construction teams of
buildings
‡ Training and awareness programs for architects, engineers and other
construction professionals on operational energy, embodied energy and other
green concepts
‡ Regulatory framework for energy efficiency

-Thank you for your contribution and kind corporation –

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APPENDIX 05: FRAMEWORK FOR THE DESIGN
OF ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS WITH
LOW EMBODIED AND OPERATIONAL
ENERGY

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