SPE 2322 Geophysics

BY S.W. NAMASWA
The Role of the Geophysicist
 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

• A system is a set of interactng or interdependent

components forming an integrated whole” (Wikipedia)

 The sun (a star) and all the celestial bodies that orbit the Sun
including Earth and other seven planets
 all their various moons
 smaller bodies such as Asteroids, Comets, meteoroids, Kuiper Belt
Objects and dust (zodiacal light)

• Interactons: Gravity causes planets to orbit around the sun

Heat created via fusion in the sun heats the planets
Occasionally, objects in the solar system can collide
 THE SOLAR SYSTEM

• Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,

Uranus, Neptune, (Pluto).
(My Very Easy Method Just Seems No Use)
 THE SUN

• The Sun is 71% hydrogen; 27% helium and 2% other elements like
carbon, nitrogen and iron.
• Core – nuclear reactions (hydrogen nuclei smashing together to
form helium) produce heat and light.
• Radiation zone – energy from core transported outwards.
• Convection zone – energy
carried to surface by convection.
• Photosphere – visible surface
of Sun where e.g. sunspots are
observed.
• Chromosphere – irregular
lower atmosphere.
• Corona – outermost layer of
atmosphere extending millions of km
into space. Can be seen during a solar eclipse.
Planets

• According to their orbits,

• planets fall into two classes:
• the inner planets (Mercury,
• Venus, Earth, and Mars) are
• Earthlike, and the outer
• planets (Jupiter, Saturn,
• Uranus, and Neptune) are
• Jupiter like.
Terrestrial and Jovian Planets
Terrestrial and Jovian Planets

• Terrestrial
planets: Mercury,
Venus, Earth,
Mars
• Jovian planets:
Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune
 Differences among the terrestrial planets:
• All have atmospheres, but they are very different; surface conditions
vary as well. Only Venus and Earth have thick atmospheres.
• Temperatures decrease with increasing distance from Sun, as
expected, but Venus and Earth have very different temperatures!
• Only Earth has liquid water on its surface. Water is a unique liquid and
is believed necessary for life
• Only Earth has oxygen in its atmosphere: a “biosignature” produced
by early cyanobacteria, and a possible way to detect extraterrestrial life.
• Earth and Mars spin at about the same rate; Mercury is much slower,
Venus is slow and retrograde (backwards).
• Only Earth and Mars have moons; only Earth has a huge moon that is
a significant fraction of it’s planet’s size.
• Only Earth and Mercury have magnetic fields. This is a sign of a
rotating core of conducting material (mostly iron).
 ASTEROIDS

• minor planets, most ( but

not all ) of which are located
in the Asteroid Belt
between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter
• The Asteroid Belt is 2.1 – 3.3
AU from the Sun.
• There are millions of
asteroids here, but their
• combined mass is only
1/20th the mass of the
Moon.
 ASTEROIDS

• Ceres was by far the largest asteroid – bigger than Pluto and
containing approx 25% of the combined mass of all the other
asteroids in the belt. It has now been re-classified as a ‘dwarf
planet’ – the only one in the Asteroid Belt.
• Some asteroids have tiny moons e.g. Ida (above) has a moon
called Dactyl.
• Others comprise two similar-sized asteroids orbiting a
common centre of mass. These are called double asteroids.
The Kuiper Belt
• The Kuiper Belt is a region beyond
the orbit of Neptune, from 30-55
AU from the Sun, which contains
many small icy bodies left over
from the formation of the Solar
System.
• There are an estimated 10 million –
1 billion deep-frozen Kuiper Belt
Objects (KBOs) of which >1000 are
known.
• • The belt is named after Gerrard
Kuiper, who had such good eyesight
he was able to see stars four times
fainter than those
• visible to normal eyes.
 The Kuiper Belt

• The dwarf planet Pluto is the largest known object

in the Kuiper Belt. Another dwarf planet, Eris, is
found beyond the belt. Neptune’s moon Triton is
thought to be a captured KBO.
• KBO’s are sometimes disturbed by the gravitational
influence of the outer planets. They enter the inner
solar system in highly elliptical orbits and become
short-period comets (orbit <200yrs) e.g. Halley’s
Comet which orbits every 75-76 years.
 comets

• A comet is a body of ice,

rock and dust (a ‘dirty
snowball’).
• When it enters the inner
solar system its nucleus
becomes surrounded by a
bright cloud of gas called a
coma.
• Large comets also produce a
long glowing tail of gas and
dust as they come close to
the Sun.
 What’s the difference between planets,
satellites, asteroids, and comets?

• Satellites orbit around planets, planets orbit the Sun.

• Asteroids and comets also orbit the Sun, but they are not
large enough to become planets.
• Asteroids locate in the asteroid belt between Mars and
Jupiter. Comets are in Kuiper belt beyond Neptune.
• Comets are likely extra-solar system objects!
 MILKY WAY
• A galaxy is a giant rotating
island of stars. The Milky Way
Galaxy is a spiral galaxy with a
central bar of stars - a ‘barred
spiral’ galaxy. It is the second
biggest galaxy in our local group
of around 30 galaxies, after the
Andromeda galaxy.
• The Milky Way contains about
200 billion stars. The stars at
the centre of the galaxy are the
oldest and coolest stars and
appear yellow/orange in colour.
• The stars in the outer arms of
the galaxy are the younger,
hotter stars and appear
blue/white in colour.
 MILKY WAY

• The galaxy is about

100,000 light years in
diameter. Our Solar
System is found about
26,000 LY from the
centre in the Orion
Arm. It takes the Sun
225 million years to
complete one circuit of
the galaxy.
MILKY WAY

• The Milky Way is named

after the faint ‘milky’
band of light which can
be seen stretching
across a dark sky. Dark
rifts on the band appear
to contain no stars, but
the starlight here is
simply blocked out by
interstellar dust.
 Orbits of Planets - Kepler’s laws
• Most planets orbit the
Sun in the same direction
and in almost the same
plane: ecliptic is the plane
of the Earth’s orbit.
• Most planets have nearly
circular orbits - the
eccentricity of the orbit is
very small.
• The farther away from
the Sun, the longer the
orbital period:
• Kepler’s third law: P2 = a3
(P = sideral period, in
year, a = semimajor axis
of orbit, in AU)
 Earth's orbit and rotation
• The earth rotates around its own axis, known as the Polar
Axis. The
• points at which this axis intercepts the earth are the north
(Np) and the south (Sp)
• poles. The great circle EΙWΙ' normal to this axis is called
equator and the plane containing the equator is the
equatorial plane that divides the earth in northern and
southern hemisphere.
• The position of the sun in the sky varies throughout the day
and season due to the rotation of the earth around its axis
once per day. Similarly, it changes its elliptical orbit around
the sun, once per year, with the sun at one focus of the
ellipse.
Earth's orbit and rotation
 Shape of the earth

Is the earth flat like a pancake or spherical like a globe?

• From ancient times each concept has had its supporters:
• Earliest civilizations- turtle like
 The Sumerians, Babylonians, ancient Egyptians, early Hebrews,
and most Greeks believed in a flat earth.
 Some ancient Greek scientists, as well as many Church Fathers
for example, Origen, the Venerable Bede, Albertus Magus, and
St. Thomas-Aquinas supported the round earth.
 In late medieval and early modern times, Roger Bacon,
Copernicus, Galileo, Columbus, and Magellan held that the
earth is round.
Shape of the earth
Shape of the earth
• The flat earth concept asserts
that the earth is like a
phonograph record. The
North Pole is at the center.
Around the rim is a 150-foot-
high wall of ice which nobody
has ever crossed. This ice
wall is "south." There is no
South Pole.
• The equator is a circle half
way between the North Pole
and the South Ice Wall.
• The Flat Earth Society still
alive and well
http://theflatearthsociety.org
 Some evidence for the flat earth concept
• Many passages in the Bible are consistent with a flat earth.
• The land looks flat, even when measured by surveyors'
instruments.
• The surface of every body of water is flat.
• In nature there is an "up" and a "down." If the earth were round,
people in Australia would hang by their heels.
• There is no gravitation.
• The circumference of the earth at 45° south latitude is double what
it is at 45° north latitude, because in the south the meridians of
longitude spread out as they approach the South Ice Wall.
• The space program is a fraud. The space shuttle is a joke. The
Apollo moon project was a Hollywood scenario written and
directed by Arthur C. Clarke, well-known science fiction writer.
• In certain eclipses of the moon, both the moon and the sun are
seen above the horizon. Thus the earth cannot be a round body
positioned between the sun and the moon.
 Some evidence for the flat earth concept
• Many passages in the Bible are consistent with a flat earth ( eccl 1:5, ps
19:6, ps 104:2-3, Deut 26:15, neh 9:6).
• The land looks flat, even when measured by surveyors' instruments.
• The surface of every body of water is flat.
• In nature there is an "up" and a "down." If the earth were round, people
in Australia would hang by their heels.
• There is no gravitation.
• The circumference of the earth at 45° south latitude is double what it is
at 45° north latitude, because in the south the meridians of longitude
spread out as they approach the South Ice Wall.
• The space program is a fraud. The space shuttle is a joke. The Apollo
moon project was a Hollywood scenario written and directed by Arthur
C. Clarke, well-known science fiction writer.
• In certain eclipses of the moon, both the moon and the sun are seen
above the horizon. Thus the earth cannot be a round body positioned
between the sun and the moon.
 Spherical earth

• Early Greek view was that the world was

surrounded by Oceanus, origin of all rivers
• Anaximander (600 B.C.) – cylindrical earth
surrounded by celestial sphere
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) described
observations that supported the theory that
the Earth was a sphere.
Some evidence for the round earth concept

• Aristotle (4th century

BC) was the first to
demonstrate the Earth
is spherical.
• Eratosthenes (ca. 200
BC) was the first to
determine the size of
the Earth.
• 16th century, battle
between English (oblate
sphere) and the French
(prolate sphere)
Some evidence for the round earth concept
• On a flat earth, bodies in the sky should be visible at the same
time from all parts of the surface. This is not so. For example,
stars around the Pole Star are never visible at low latitudes in
the southern hemisphere
 Some evidence for the round earth concept

• Mountain peaks lit by the Sun after sunset.

• Ships disappear below the horizon as they sail across ocean
• The Earth casts a circular shadow during lunar eclipses.
• The curvature of the earth's surface is clearly shown in
photographs made from space. Modern times- satellites
confirm the shape of the earth
 Non-spherical Earth (ellipsoid)
• Jean Richer (1620-1682) was a French astronomer who made
observations in 1671 from the island of Cayenne in French
Guyana. In addition to measuring the distance of planet Mars
from Earth, he also noted that a pendulum swung slower on
Cayenne Island than in Paris.
• He deduced that this was because gravity was weaker on
Cayenne, which implied that Cayenne was further from the
centre of the Earth than Paris.
• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) suggested that the Earth was an
oblate spheroid because it rotates – some what flattened at
the poles. Based on theory of gravity.
 Geodesy

• That branch of applied mathematics which determines by

observation and measurement the exact positions of points
and areas of large portions of the earth's surface, the shape
and size of the earth, and the variations of terrestrial gravity.“
-Based on the fact that the earth is flattened into an ellipse
and is not a true sphere.
 History of Geodesy
• To settle the controversy, the French Academy of Sciences
sent a geodetic expedition to measure the length of a
meridian degree close to the Equator and another to make a
similar measurement near the Arctic Circle.
• The measurements conclusively proved the earth to be
flattened, as Newton had forecast
 The Reference Ellipsoid (Oblate Spheroid)
Ellipsoid is the theoretical mathematical (smooth) surface.
Based on ellipse, the shape of which is defined by two radii- semimajor
(a) and semi minor (b) formed by rotation around the minor axis
Defined by semi major axis (a) and the flattening f

• Where f is flattening, RE is the equatorial (longest) radius, and RP is

the polar (shortest) radius
• Different calculations of (a) and (b) are obtained between surveys
measured from different locations
• One ellipsoid does not fit all
• This lead to the development of different ellipsoid surfaces from one
national geodetic survey to another.
• The Reference Ellipsoid (Oblate Spheroid)
Used to represent different regions of the world
earth is not perfect- use of wrong ellipsoid can lead to inaccuracies
Development of ballistic missile program prompted the US DoD to
develop a global ellipsoidal surface
 GEIOD
• The earth is not a perfect ellipsoid–mountains, valleys,– these are
all departures from the perfect ellipsoid
• We still need a ‘reference surface’ or zero elevation to use as a
starting point –traditionally we’ve used the mean or average
sea‐level, which should be a perfect equipotential surface because
it the water surface can flow and adjust to gravity
• We can simplify the shape of the earth down to perfect or
reference ellipsoid
• On the surface of that ellipsoid – or any imaginary concentric
ellipsoid we choose – the force of gravity should be equal
everywhere, and should be directed straight down (perpendicular
to the surface) everywhere
• That makes the surface of a perfect ellipsoid an ‘equipotential
surface’ because gravity (gravitational potential) is the same
everywhere
 GEIOD

On the ocean (far from land, no tides, wind etc), the sea level is an
equipotential surface. In geodetic surveying, we assume that the
ellipsoid defined by sea level continues beneath the land, and we
describe the elevation of the land with reference to the assumed
surface.
However, sea level is not parallel to a perfect ellipsoidal surface. The
sea level is also lumpy just like the land surface because the mass
distribution within the earth is not uniform.
The geoid is that lumpsy equipotential sea surface extended through
the land. It is an equipotential surface of earth and is not a perfect
ellipsoid
Difference between the geoid and the ellipsoid is called the geoid
height or geoid separation
GEIOD
Observed geoid (EGM96)
GRAVITY
 Geophysical investigations

• Geophysics= X-Raying the Earth

INVOLVES

•Sending signal into the earth

•Monitoring natural signals from the earth

 Gravity

• Definition
• Gravity Survey - Measurements of the
gravitational field at a series of different
locations over an area of interest.
• The objective in exploration work is to
associate variations with differences in the
distribution of densities and hence rock types
 Discovering Gravity
• From the earliest times, gravity meant the tendency of most bodies
to fall to earth
• Things that leaped upwards, like flames of fire, were said to have
“levity”.
• Aristotle was the first writer to attempt a quantitative description of
falling motion: he wrote that an object fell at a constant speed,
attained shortly after being released, and heavier things fell faster in
proportion to their mass.
• Galileo was the first to get it right:
He realized that a falling body picked up speed at a constant
rate—in other words, it had constant acceleration
• Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
 Discovering Gravity…..

• The mutual attractive force between two

point masses, m1 and m2, is proportional to
one over the square of the distance between
them. The constant of proportionality is
usually specified as G, the gravitational
constant,
 Gravity Measurements
• Measurements of gravity are usually expressed in a mass
independent term, such as acceleration.
• The range of gravitational acceleration at the Earth’s surface ranges
from approximately 9.83 meters per second squared (ms-2) at the
poles to 9.77 ms-2 at the Equator.
• Gravity variations within countries and particularly within mineral
prospects are much smaller and more appropriate units are used.
These units are:
 How can gravity help us?
• Gravity anomalies only occur when there are density contrasts in
the Earth, so gravity surveying is only useful if the structure we are
investigating involves bodies of different density.
• The density contrast between the bodies must be high enough to
give an anomaly that rises above the background noise recorded in
the survey.
• The structures we are looking for must vary in density in the
direction of the measurements; a series of flat lying strata of
constant thickness will not give any change in the anomaly at the
Earth’s surface.
• The only deduction we can make is that the mean density of the
whole suite is more or less than the crustal average based on the
sign of the anomaly.
Instrumentation

Common gravimeters
Worden
Scintrex and
La Coste Romberg
 Gravimeter

Important for mapping

–Dense bodies
•Heat sources
•Dikes
–Buried faults zones
–Ground subsidence
•Mass withdrawal
•Equipment cost upwards of
US$ 150,000
 Data Acquisition

• Gravity data acquisition can be performed by one person.

• But Two people are better
• Readings at each site involves:
– Instrument readings (Gravity)
– Coordinates (Eastings and Northings)
– Elevation

• Speed and amount of data collected depends on:

Station separation
Operator experience
Terrain conditions
 Gravity stations spacing

• In regional surveys, station spacing is often calculated from

the:
– area to be covered divided by the number of stations that
can be afforded within the budget

– When planning the station spacing consideration should

be given to the existing anomaly pattern (which areas
show high frequency effects and which seem to be
smoothly varying) in conjunction with the known geology
(where are the dense bodies and where are the
sedimentary rocks or granites).
 Simple model

• Consider a simple geologic example of an ore

body buried in soil. We would expect the
density of the ore body, d2, to be greater than
the density of the surrounding soil, d1.
 Simple model …

• The density of the material can be thought of

as a number that quantifies the number of
point masses needed to represent the
material per unit volume of the material.
 Simple model …
• describe the gravitational acceleration experienced by a ball
as it is dropped from a ladder. Acceleration can be calculated
by measuring the time rate of change of the speed of the ball
as it falls. The size of the acceleration the ball undergoes will
be proportional to the number of close point masses that are
directly below it.
 Simple model …

• Drop the ball from a

number of different
locations
• The number of point
masses below the ball
varies with the location at
which it is dropped
• Map out differences in
the size of the
gravitational acceleration
caused by variations in
the underlying geology.
 Physical parameter

• The measured parameter is rather density contrast rather

than density itself. This will give similar results in
measurements:
Density variations
 Simple example…

• The gravity anomaly

produced by a buried
sphere is symmetric
about the center of the
sphere.
• The magnitude of the
gravity anomaly
approaches zero at small
horizontal distances away
from the centre of the
sphere.
 Simple example…

• The gravity anomaly produced by this reasonably-

sized ore body is small.
• When compared to the gravitational acceleration
produced by the earth as a whole, 980,000 mgals,
the anomaly produced by the ore body
represents a change in the gravitational field of
only 1 part in 40 million.
• Therefore, measurement in variation from place
to place, rather than absolute variations.
• Otherwise, Measurement range becomes to wide
-loss of resolution!!
 Factors affecting gravity

• Spatial variations in gravitational acceleration expected

from geologic structures can be quite small.
• Because these variations are so small, we must now
consider other factors that can give rise to variations in
gravitational acceleration that are as large, if not larger,
than the expected geologic signal.
• These complicating factors can be subdivided into two
catagories: those that give rise to temporal variations
and those that give rise to spatial variations in the
gravitational acceleration.
 Temporal based variations
• These are changes in the observed acceleration that are time
dependent. In other words, these factors cause variations in
acceleration that would be observed even if we didn't move our
gravimeter.
• Instrument Drift – Gravity measurement at a specific location varies
over time for reasons including: changes in the instrument itself:
– For example, thermal expansion of the beam as a result of
change in temperature might change the tension on the
“zero-length” spring
• Tidal Affects -Changes in the observed acceleration caused by the
gravitational attraction of the sun and moon.
 Instrument Drift
• Instrumental drift correction is
based on periodically repeated
readings at a base station
throughout the day.
• The readings from the meter are
then plotted against time.
• The drift correction at time t is
then subtracted from the observed
value.

A gravimeter drift curve constructed from

repeated readings at a fixed location
 Spatial based variations

• Changes in the observed acceleration that are

space dependent. That is, these change the
gravitational acceleration from place to place,
just like the geologic affects, but they are not
related to geology (of interest).
-Latitude
-Elevation
-Slab \increased mass
-Topographic
 Latitude correction
 The earth's poles are closer to
the centre of the earth than is the
equator by 22km difference in earth
radii
 This value that represents a change in
earth radius of 0.3%.
 In conjunction with the earth's
rotation, this can produce a measurable
change in the gravitational acceleration
with latitude.
 The net effect is that gravity is greater
at the poles than the equator.
-gravity increases as you move north or
south from the equator
 Latitude correction

Correction varies with latitude:

The mathematical formula is called the Geodetic Reference

Formula of 1967.
The predicted gravity is called the normal gravity.
 Free-air correction
Imagine two gravity readings taken at the same
location and at the same time with two perfect (no
instrument drift and the readings contain no errors)
gravimeters; one placed on the ground, the other
place on top of a step ladder. Would the two
instruments record the same gravitational
acceleration?

No, the instrument placed on top of the step ladder

would record a smaller gravitational acceleration
than the one placed on the ground.

Remember that the size of the gravitational

acceleration changes as the gravimeter changes
distance from the centre of the earth?
 Free-air correction ….

• Therefore, when interpreting data from our gravity survey, we

need to make sure that we don't interpret spatial variations in
gravitational acceleration that are related to elevation
differences in our observation points as being due to
subsurface geology.
• Clearly, to be able to separate these two effects, we are going
to need to know the elevations at which our gravity
observations are taken.
 Free-air correction ….

• To account for variations in the observed

gravitational acceleration that are related to
elevation variations, we incorporate another
correction to our data known as the Free-Air
Correction.
• In applying this correction, we mathematically
convert our observed gravity values to ones that
look like they were all recorded at the same
elevation, thus further isolating the geological
component of the gravitational field.
 Free-air correction ….

• Approximately, the gravitational acceleration

observed on the surface of the earth varies at
about -0.3086 mgal per meter in elevation
difference.
• The minus sign indicates that as the elevation
increases, the observed gravitational acceleration
decreases. The magnitude of the number says
that if two gravity readings are made at the same
location, but one is done a meter above the
other, the reading taken at the higher elevation
will be 0.3086 mgal less than the lower.
 Free-air correction ….

• To apply an elevation correction to our observed

gravity, we need to know the elevation of every
gravity station.
• If this is known, we can correct all of the
observed gravity readings to a common elevation
(usually chosen to be sea level) by adding -0.3086
times the elevation of the station in meters to
each reading (= datum elevation).
• Given the relatively large size of the expected
corrections, how accurately do we actually need
to know the station elevations?
 Free-air correction ….

• If we require a precision of 0.01 mgals, then

relative station elevations need to be known to
about 3 cm.
• To get such a precision requires very careful
location surveying to be done. In fact, one of the
primary costs of a high precision gravity survey is
in obtaining the relative elevations needed to
compute the Free-Air correction.
• Note: we actually only need elevation differences
between stations!
 Excess mass corrections -Bouguer

• The free-air correction accounts for elevation

differences between observation locations.
Although observation locations may have
differing elevations, these differences usually
result from topographic changes along the earth's
surface.
• Thus, unlike the motivation given for deriving the
elevation correction, the reason the elevations of
the observation points differ is because
additional mass has been placed underneath the
gravimeter in the form of topography.
 Bouguer correction …

Therefore, in addition to the gravity readings differing at

two stations because of elevation differences, the readings
will also contain a difference because there is more mass
below the reading taken at a higher elevation than there is
of one taken at a lower elevation.
 Bouguer correction …

As a first-order correction for this additional mass, we will

assume that the excess mass underneath the observation
point at higher elevation, point B in the figure below, can be
approximated by a slab of uniform density and thickness.
 Bouguer correction …

• Bouguer corrections might have obvious shortcomings, it

has two distinct advantages over more complex (realistic)
models:
• Because the model is so simple, it is rather easy to make an
initial, first-order correction to gravity observations for
elevation and excess mass.

• Because gravitational acceleration varies as 1/d2 and we

only measure the vertical component of gravity, most of
the contributions to the gravity anomalies we observe are
directly under the meter and rather close to the meter
-the flat slab assumption can adequately describe
much of the gravity anomalies.
 Bouguer correction …

• vertical gravitational acceleration associated with

a flat slab can be written simply as -0.04193rh.
• Where the correction is given in mgals, r is the
density of the slab in g/cm-3, and h is the
elevation difference in meters between the
observation point and elevation datum.
• h is positive for observation points above the
datum level and negative for observation points
below the datum level.
 Bouguer correction …

• Notice that the sign of the Bouguer correction makes

sense.
• If an observation point is at a higher elevation than the
datum, there is excess mass below the observation
point that wouldn't be there if we were able to make
all of our observations at the datum elevation. Thus,
our gravity reading is larger due to the excess mass,
and we would therefore have to subtract a factor to
move the observation point back down to the datum.
• Notice that the sign of this correction is opposite to
that used for the elevation correction.
 Bouguer correction …

• To apply the Bouguer Slab correction we need

to know the elevations of all of the
observation points and the density of the slab
used to approximate the excess mass.
• In choosing a density, use an average density
for the rocks in the survey area.
• For a density of 2.67 gcm-3, the Bouguer Slab
Correction is about 0.11 mgals/m.
 Terrain correction

Although the slab correction described previously

adequately describes the gravitational variations caused by
gentle topographic variations (those that can be
approximated by a slab), it does not adequately address
the gravitational variations associated with extremes in
topography near an observation point.
 Terrain correction …..

• In applying the slab correction to observation point B, we

remove the effect of the mass surrounded by the blue
rectangle.
• In applying this correction in the presence of a valley to the
left of point B, we have accounted for too much mass because
the valley actually contains no material. Thus, a small
adjustment must be added back into our Bouguer corrected
gravity.
 Terrain correction …..

• The mass associated with the nearby mountain is

not included in our Bouguer correction. The
presence of the mountain acts as an upward
directed gravitational acceleration.
• Therefore, because the mountain is near our
observation point, we observe a smaller
gravitational acceleration directed downward
than we would if the mountain were not there.
Like the valley, we must add a small adjustment
to our Bouguer corrected gravity to account for
the mass of the mountain.
 Terrain correction …..

• Terrain Corrections are always positive in value.

• To compute these corrections, we are going to need to be
able to estimate the mass of the mountain and the excess
mass of the valley that was included in the Bouguer
Corrections.
• These masses, and the terrain correction, can be computed if
we know the volume of each of these features and their
average densities.
 Terrain correction …..

• Like Bouguer Slab Corrections, when

computing Terrain Corrections we need to
assume an average density for the rocks
exposed by the surrounding topography.
Usually, the same density is used for the
Bouguer and the Terrain Corrections.
• Unfortunately, applying Terrain Corrections is
much more difficult than applying the
Bouguer Slab Corrections
 Terrain correction …..

• To compute the gravitational attraction produced

by the topography, we need to estimate the mass
of the surrounding terrain and the distance of
this mass from the observation point (g ~ 1/d2).
• The specifics of this computation will vary for
each observation point in the survey because the
distances to the various topographic features
varies as the location of the gravity station
moves.
 Terrain correction …..

• If the topography close to the station is

irregular in nature, an accurate terrain
correction may require expensive and time
consuming topographic surveying.
• For example, elevation variations of as little as
0.5 meter located less than 20 meter from the
observing station can produce Terrain
Corrections as large as 0.04 mgals.
 Summary of gravity correction types

• Observed Gravity (gobs) -Gravity readings

observed at each gravity station after
corrections have been applied for instrument
drift and tides.
• Latitude Correction (gn) -Correction subtracted
from gobs that accounts for the earth's elliptical
shape and rotation. The gravity value that
would be observed if the earth were a perfect
(no geologic or topographic complexities),
rotating ellipsoid is referred to as the normal
gravity.
 Summary of gravity correction types …

• Free Air Corrected Gravity (gfa) -The Free-Air

correction accounts for gravity variations
caused by elevation differences in the
observation locations. The form of the Free-
Air gravity anomaly, gfa, is given by;
• gfa= gobs -gn+ 0.3086h (mgal)
• where h is the elevation at which the gravity
station is above the elevation datum chosen
for the survey (this is usually sea level).
 Summary of gravity correction types …

• Bouguer Corrected Gravity (gb) -The Bouguer correction

accounts for the excess mass underlying observation points
located at elevations higher than the elevation datum, and
vice versa. The form of the Bouguer gravity anomaly, gb, is
given by;
• gb= gobs -gn+ 0.3086h -0.04193rh (mgal)
• where r is the average density of the rocks underlying the
survey area.
 Summary of gravity correction types …

• Terrain Corrected BouguerGravity (gt) -accounts for variations

in the observed gravitational acceleration caused by
variations in topography near each observation point. The
terrain correction is positive regardless of whether the local
topography consists of a mountain or a valley. The form of the
Terrain corrected, Bouguergravity anomaly, gt, is given by;
gt= gobs -gn+ 0.3086h -0.04193rh + TC (mgal)
• where TC is the value of the computed Terrain correction.
 Summary of gravity correction types …

• Assuming these corrections have accurately

accounted for the variations in gravitational
acceleration they were intended to account for, any
remaining variations in the gravitational acceleration
associated with the Terrain Corrected
BouguerGravity, gt, can now be assumed to be
caused by geologic structure.
 Local vs. regional

• In addition to the types of gravity anomalies

defined on the amount of processing performed
to isolate geological contributions, there are also
specific gravity anomaly types defined on the
nature of the geological contribution.
• To define the various geologic contributions that
can influence our gravity observations, consider
collecting gravity observations to determine the
extent and location of a buried, spherical ore
body.
 Local vs. regional …
• Let's consider a spherical ore
body buried in sedimentary
rocks underlain by a denser
Granitic basement that dips to
the right. This geologic model
and the gravity profile that
would be observed over it are
shown in the figure.
 Local vs. regional …
• The observed gravity profile is dominated by a trend
indicating decreasing gravitational acceleration from
left to right. This trend is the result of the dipping
basement interface.
• Unfortunately, we're not interested in mapping the
basement interface in this problem; rather, we have
designed the gravity survey to identify the location of
the buried ore body.
• The gravitational anomaly caused
by the ore body is indicated by
the small hump at the center of the
• gravity profile.
 Local vs. regional …
• Upper figure shows the effect
of the granite basement, the
lower the effect of the ore body.
If effect of basement is known
we can subtract it from the
total gravity signal which will
give us the response due
to the ore body.
 Local vs. regional …
• From this simple example you can see that
there are two contributions to our observed
gravitational acceleration.
• The first is caused by large-scale geologic
structure that is not of interest.
• The gravitational acceleration produced by
these large-scale features is referred to as the
Regional Gravity Anomaly.
 Local vs. regional ….
• The second contribution is caused by smaller-
scale structure for which the survey was designed
to detect.
• That portion of the observed gravitational
acceleration associated with these structures is
referred to as the Local / Residual Gravity
Anomaly.
• Because the regional effect is often much larger
in size than the local remove effect before
attempting to interpret the gravity observations
for local geologic structure.
 Local vs. regional …
• Sources of gravity anomalies are large in spatial
extent (by large we mean large with respect to
the profile length, regional) always produce
gravity anomalies that change slowly with
position along the gravity profile.
• Local gravity anomalies are defined as those that
change value rapidly along the profile line. The
sources for these anomalies must be small in
spatial extent (like large, small is defined with
respect to the length of the gravity profile) and
close to the surface.