CHAPTER 16

COMPOSITES

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Large-Particle Composites

16.1 The mechanical properties of cobalt may be improved by incorporating fine particles of tungsten
carbide (WC). Given that the moduli of elasticity of these materials are, respectively, 200 GPa and 700 GPa, plot
the modulus of elasticity versus the volume percent of WC in Co from 0 to 100 vol%, using both upper- and lower-
bound expressions.

Solution

The elastic modulus versus volume percent of WC is shown below; both upper- and lower-bound curves
are included. These curves were generated using Equations 16.1 and 16.2, respectively, as well as the moduli of
elasticity for cobalt and WC given in the problem statement.

 16.2 A large-particle composite consisting of tungsten particles within a copper matrix is to be prepared.
If the volume fractions of tungsten and copper are 0.70 and 0.30, respectively, estimate the upper limit for the
specific stiffness of this composite, given the data that follow.

Specific Gravity Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Copper 8.9 110
Tungsten 19.3 407

Solution

There are two approaches that may be applied to solve this problem. The first is to estimate the upper
limits for both the elastic modulus [Ec(u)] and specific gravity (rc) for the composite, using expressions of the form
of Equation 16.1, and then take their ratio. Using this approach

Ec (u) = ECuVCu + EW VW

= (110 GPa)(0.30) + (407 GPa)(0.70)

= 318 GPa

And for the specific gravity

ρc = ρCuVCu + ρ W VW

= (8.9)(0.30) + (19.3)(0.70) = 16.18

Therefore, we compute the specific stiffness as follows:

Ec (u) 318 GPa

Specific Stiffness = = = 19.65 GPa
ρc 16.18

With the alternate approach, the specific stiffness is calculated, again employing a modification of Equation
16.1, but using the specific stiffness-volume fraction product for both metals, as follows:

ECu E
Specific Stiffness = VCu + W VW
ρCu ρW

110 GPa 407 GPa

= (0.30) + (0.70) = 18.47 GPa
8.9 19.3

 16.3 (a) What is the distinction between cement and concrete?
(b) Cite three important limitations that restrict the use of concrete as a structural material.
(c) Briefly explain three techniques that are used to strengthen concrete by reinforcement.

Answer

(a) Concrete consists of an aggregate of particles that are bonded together by a cement.
(b) Three limitations of concrete are: (1) it is a relatively weak and brittle material; (2) it experiences
relatively large thermal expansions (contractions) with changes in temperature; and (3) it may crack when exposed
to freeze-thaw cycles.
(c) Three reinforcement strengthening techniques are: (1) reinforcement with steel wires, rods, etc.; (2)
reinforcement with fine fibers of a high modulus material; and (3) introduction of residual compressive stresses by
prestressing or posttensioning.

Influence of Fiber Length

16.4 (a) For a fiber-reinforced composite, the efficiency of reinforcement η depends on fiber length l
according to
l − 2x
η=
l

where x represents the length of the fiber at each end that does not contribute to the load transfer. Make a plot of η
versus l to l =50 mm, assuming that x =1.25 mm.
(b) What length is required for a 0.90 efficiency of reinforcement?

Solution

(a) The plot of reinforcement efficiency versus fiber length is given below.

(b) This portion of the problem asks for the length required for a 0.90 efficiency of reinforcement. Solving
for l from the given expression
2x
l=
1−η

Or, when x = 1.25 mm and h = 0.90, then

(2)(1.25 mm)
l= = 25 mm (1.0 in.)
1 − 0.90

Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration

16.5 A continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composite is to be produced consisting of 45 vol% aramid
fibers and 55 vol% polycarbonate matrix; the mechanical characteristics of these two materials are as follows:

Modulus of Elasticity Tensile Strength (MPa)

(GPa)
Aramid fiber 131 3600
Polycarbonate 2.4 65

The stress on the polycarbonate matrix when the aramid fibers fail is 35 MPa.
For this composite, compute the following:
(a) The longitudinal tensile strength
(b) The longitudinal modulus of elasticity

Solution

This problem calls for us to compute the longitudinal tensile strength and elastic modulus of an aramid
fiber-reinforced polycarbonate composite.
(a) The longitudinal tensile strength is determined using Equation 16.17 as follows:

′ (1 − Vf ) + σ f∗ Vf
σ cl∗ = σ m

= (35 MPa)(1 − 0.45) + (3600)(0.45)

= 1640 MPa

(b) The longitudinal elastic modulus is computed using Equation 16.10a as

Ecl = EmVm + Ef Vf

= (2.4 GPa)(0.55) + (131 GPa)(0.45)

= 60.3 GPa

 16.6 For a continuous and oriented fiber-reinforced composite, the moduli of elasticity in the longitudinal
and transverse directions are 33.1 and 3.66 GPa, respectively. If the volume fraction of fibers is 0.30, determine the
moduli of elasticity of fiber and matrix phases.

Solution

This problem asks for us to compute the elastic moduli of fiber and matrix phases for a continuous and
oriented fiber-reinforced composite. We can write expressions for the longitudinal and transverse elastic moduli
using Equations 16.10b and 16.16, as follows:
For the longitudinal modulus:
Ecl = Em (1 − Vf ) + Ef Vf

33.1 GPa = Em (1 − 0.30) + Ef (0.30)

While transverse modulus expression is as follows:

Em Ef
Ect =
(1 − Vf ) Ef + Vf Em

Em Ef
3.66 GPa =
(1 − 0.30)Ef + 0.30Em

Solving these two expressions simultaneously for Em and Ef leads to the following values:

Em = 2.6 GPa

Ef = 104 GPa

 16.7 In an aligned and continuous carbon fiber-reinforced nylon 6,6 composite, the fibers are to carry
97% of a load applied in the longitudinal direction.
(a) Using the data provided, determine the volume fraction of fibers required.
(b) What will be the tensile strength of this composite? Assume that the matrix stress at fiber failure is 50
MPa.

Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) Tensile Strength (MPa)

Carbon fiber 260 4000
Nylon 6,6 2.8 76

Solution

(a) Given some data for an aligned and continuous carbon-fiber-reinforced nylon 6,6 composite, we are
asked to compute the volume fraction of fibers that are required such that the fibers carry 97% of a load applied in
the longitudinal direction. From Equation 16.11

Ff Ef Vf Ef V f
= =
Fm EmVm Em (1 − Vf )

Now, using values for Ff and Fm from the problem statement

Ff 0.97
= = 32.3
Fm 1 − 0.97

And substitution of the values for Ef and Em given in the problem statement into the first equation above leads to

Ff (260 GPa)Vf
= 32.3 =
Fm (2.8 GPa)(1 − Vf )

And, solving for Vf yields, Vf = 0.258.

(b) We are now asked for the tensile strength of this composite. The computation requires the use of
Equation 16.17—viz.,

′ (1 − Vf ) + σ f∗ Vf
σ cl∗ = σ m

We now substitute into this expression the following values:

σm
′ = 50 MPa (given in the problem statement)
 Vf = 0.258 (computed above)

σ f* = 4000 MPa (given in the problem statement)

Finally, we determine the composite tensile strength as follows:

′ (1 − Vf ) + σ f∗ Vf
σ cl∗ = σ m

= (50 MPa)(1 − 0.258) + (4000 MPa)(0.258)

= 1070 MPa

 16.8 Assume that the composite described in Problem 16.5 has a cross-sectional area of 480 mm2 and is
subjected to a longitudinal load of 53,400 N.
(a) Calculate the fiber–matrix load ratio.
(b) Calculate the actual loads carried by both fiber and matrix phases.
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress on each of the fiber and matrix phases.
(d) What strain is experienced by the composite?

Solution

The problem stipulates that the cross-sectional area of a composite, Ac, is 480 mm2, and the longitudinal
load, Fc, is 53,400 N for the composite described in Problem 16.5.
(a) First, we are asked to calculate the Ff/Fm ratio, which requires the use of Equation 16.11—viz.,

Ff Ef Vf
=
Fm EmVm

The following data are found in Problem 16.5:

Vf = 0.45
Vm = 0.55
Ef = 131 GPa
Em = 2.4 GPa
The Ff/Fm ratio may be determined by inserting these values into Equation 16.11 as follows:

Ff Ef Vf (131 GPa)(0.45)
= = = 44.7
Fm EmVm (2.4 GPa)(0.55)

Which means that Ff = 44.7Fm.

(b) Now, the actual loads carried by both phases are called for. From Equation 16.4

Ff + Fm = Fc = 53,400 N

But, since Ff = 44.7Fm we may write

44.7Fm + Fm = 53,400 N

Or that
Fm = 1168 N
And using a rearranged form of Equation 16.4 allows for us to solve for the value of Ff as follows:

Ff = Fc − Fm

= 53,400  N − 1168  N  =  52,232  N

(c) To compute the stress on each of the phases, it is first necessary to know the cross-sectional areas of
both fiber and matrix. These are determined assuming that areas (of fiber and matrix phases) are equal to the
product of phase volume fraction and composite cross-sectional area—that is

Af = Vf Ac = (0.45)(480 mm2 ) = 216 mm2

Am = Vm Ac = (0.55)(480 mm2 ) = 264 mm2

Now, the stresses of each of the fiber and matrix phases are determined using Equation 6.1 as follows:

Ff 52,232 N
σf = =
Af (216 mm2 )(1 m/1000 mm)2

= 242 × 106 N/m2 = 242 MPa

Fm 1168 N
σm = =
Am (264 mm2 )(1 m/1000 mm)2

= 4.4 × 106 N/m2 = 4.4 MPa

(d) Applying Equation 6.5 to both matrix and fiber phases leads to the following:

σm 4.4 MPa
εm = = = 1.83 × 10−3
Em 2.4 × 103 MPa

σf 242 MPa
εf = = = 1.84 × 10−3
Ef 131 × 103 MPa

Therefore, the strains on matrix and fiber phases (as well as the composite itself) are the same (or nearly the same),
which they should be according to Equation 16.8.

 16.9 Compute the longitudinal strength of an aligned carbon fiber–epoxy matrix composite having a 0.20
volume fraction of fibers, assuming the following: (1) an average fiber diameter of 6 × 10–3 mm, (2) an average
fiber length of 8.0 mm, (3) a fiber fracture strength of 4.5 GPa, (4) a fiber–matrix bond strength of 75 MPa, (5) a
matrix stress at composite failure of 6.0 MPa, and (6) a matrix tensile strength of 60 MPa.

Solution

In this problem, for an aligned carbon fiber-epoxy matrix composite, we are given the volume fraction of
fibers (0.20), the average fiber diameter (6 ´ 10-3 mm), the average fiber length (8.0 mm), the fiber fracture strength
(4.5 GPa), the fiber-matrix bond strength (75 MPa), the matrix stress at composite failure (6.0 MPa), and the matrix
tensile strength (60 MPa); and we are asked to compute the longitudinal strength. It is first necessary to compute the
value of the critical fiber length using Equation 16.3. If the fiber length is much greater than lc, then we may
determine the longitudinal strength using Equation 16.17; otherwise, use of either Equation 16.18 or Equation 16.19
is necessary. Thus, from Equation 16.3 the value of lc is

σ f∗ d (4.5 × 103 MPa)(6 × 10−3 mm)

lc = = = 0.18 mm
2τ c 2(75 MPa)

Inasmuch as l >> lc (that is, 8.0 mm >> 0.18 mm), then use of Equation 16.17 is appropriate. Therefore,

′ (1 − Vf ) + σ f∗ Vf
σ cl∗ = σ m

= (6 MPa)(1 – 0.20) + (4.5 ´ 103 MPa)(0.20)

= 905 MPa

 16.10 It is desired to produce an aligned carbon fiber–epoxy matrix composite having a longitudinal
tensile strength of 500 MPa. Calculate the volume fraction of fibers necessary if (1) the average fiber diameter and
length are 0.01 mm and 0.5 mm, respectively; (2) the fiber fracture strength is 4.0 GPa; (3) the fiber–matrix bond
strength is 25 MPa; and (4) the matrix stress at composite failure is 7.0 MPa.

Solution

In this problem, for an aligned carbon fiber-epoxy matrix composite, we are given the desired longitudinal
tensile strength (500 MPa), the average fiber diameter (1.0 ´ 10-2 mm), the average fiber length (0.5 mm), the fiber
fracture strength (4 GPa), the fiber-matrix bond strength (25 MPa), and the matrix stress at composite failure (7.0
MPa); and we are asked to compute the volume fraction of fibers that is required. It is first necessary to compute the
value of the critical fiber length using Equation 16.3. If the fiber length is much greater than lc, then we may
determine Vf using Equation 16.17; otherwise, use of either Equation 16.18 or Equation 16.19 is necessary. Thus,

the value of the critical fiber length is

σ f∗ d (4 × 103 MPa)(1.0 × 10−2 mm)

lc = = = 0.80 mm
2τ c 2(25 MPa)

Inasmuch as l < lc (0.50 mm < 0.80 mm), then use of Equation 16.19 is required. Therefore,

lτ c
σ c∗d ′ = ′ (1 − Vf )
V + σm
d f

(0.5 × 10−3 m) (25 MPa)

500 MPa = (Vf ) + (7 MPa)(1 − Vf )
0.01 × 10−3 m

Solving this expression for Vf leads to Vf = 0.397.

The Fiber Phase
The Matrix Phase

16.11 For a polymer-matrix fiber-reinforced composite:

(a) List three functions of the matrix phase.
(b) Compare the desired mechanical characteristics of matrix and fiber phases.
(c) Cite two reasons why there must be a strong bond between fiber and matrix at their interface.

Answer

(a) For polymer-matrix fiber-reinforced composites, three functions of the polymer-matrix phase are: (1) to
bind the fibers together so that the applied stress is distributed among the fibers; (2) to protect the surface of the
fibers from being damaged; and (3) to separate the fibers and inhibit crack propagation.
(b) The matrix phase must be ductile and is usually relatively soft, whereas the fiber phase must be stiff
and strong.
(c) There must be a strong interfacial bond between fiber and matrix in order to: (1) maximize the stress
transmittance between matrix and fiber phases; and (2) minimize fiber pull-out, and the probability of failure.

Polymer-Matrix Composites

16.12 (a) Calculate the specific longitudinal strengths of the glass-fiber, carbon-fiber, and aramid-fiber
reinforced epoxy composites in Table 16.5 and compare them with those of the following alloys: cold-rolled 17-7PH
stainless steel, normalized 1040 plain-carbon steel, 7075-T6 aluminum alloy, cold-worked (H04 temper) C26000
cartridge brass, extruded AZ31B magnesium alloy, and annealed Ti-5Al–2.5Sn titanium alloy.
(b) Compare the specific moduli of the same three fiber-reinforced epoxy composites with the same metal
alloys. Densities (i.e., specific gravities), tensile strengths, and moduli of elasticity for these metals are given in
Tables B.1, B.4, and B.2, respectively, in Appendix B.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem calls for us to calculate the specific longitudinal strengths of glass-fiber,
carbon-fiber, and aramid-fiber reinforced epoxy composites, and then to compare these values with the specific
strengths of several metal alloys.
The longitudinal specific strength of the glass-reinforced epoxy material (Vf = 0.60) in Table 16.5 is just the
ratio of the longitudinal tensile strength and specific gravity as

1020 MPa
= 486 MPa
2.1

For the carbon-fiber reinforced epoxy

1240 MPa
= 775 MPa
1.6

And, for the aramid-fiber reinforced epoxy

1380 MPa
= 986 MPa
1.4

Now, for the metal alloys we use data found in Tables B.1 and B.4 in Appendix B (using the density values
from Table B.1 for the specific gravities). For the cold-rolled 17-7PH stainless steel

1380 MPa
= 180 MPa
7.65

For the normalized 1040 plain carbon steel, the ratio is

 590 MPa
= 75 MPa
7.85

For the 7075-T6 aluminum alloy

572 MPa
= 204 MPa
2.80

For the C26000 brass (cold worked)

525 MPa
= 62 MPa
8.53

For the AZ31B (extruded) magnesium alloy

262 MPa
= 148 MPa
1.77

For the annealed Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy

790 MPa
= 176 MPa
4.48

(b) The longitudinal specific modulus is just the longitudinal tensile modulus-specific gravity ratio. For
the glass-fiber reinforced epoxy, this ratio is

45 GPa
= 21.4 GPa
2.1

For the carbon-fiber reinforced epoxy

145 GPa
= 90.6 GPa
1.6

And, for the aramid-fiber reinforced epoxy

76 GPa
= 54.3 GPa
1.4

The specific moduli for the metal alloys (Tables B.1 and B.2) are as follows:
For the cold rolled 17-7PH stainless steel
 204 GPa
= 26.7 GPa
7.65

For the normalized 1040 plain-carbon steel

207 GPa
= 26.4 GPa
7.85

For the 7075-T6 aluminum alloy

71 GPa
= 25.4 GPa
2.80

For the cold worked C26000 brass

110 GPa
= 12.9 GPa
8.53

For the extruded AZ31B magnesium alloy

45 GPa
= 25.4 GPa
1.77

For the Ti-5Al-2.5Sn titanium alloy

110 GPa
= 24.6 GPa
4.48

 16.13 Cite the distinction between carbon and graphite.

Answer

"Graphite" is crystalline carbon having the structure shown in Figure 12.16, whereas "carbon" will consist
of some noncrystalline material as well as areas of crystal misalignment, per the schematic diagram shown in Figure
13.7.

Hybrid Composites

16.14 (a) Write an expression for the modulus of elasticity for a hybrid composite in which all fibers of
both types are oriented in the same direction.
(b) Using this expression, compute the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of a hybrid composite consisting
of aramid and glass fibers in volume fractions of 0.25 and 0.35, respectively, within a polyester resin matrix (Em =
4.0 GPa).

Solution

(a) For a hybrid composite having all fibers aligned in the same direction

Ecl = EmVm + Ef 1Vf 1 + Ef 2Vf 2

in which the subscripts f1 and f2 refer to the two types of fibers.

(b) Now we are asked to compute the longitudinal elastic modulus for a glass- and aramid-fiber hybrid
composite. From Table 16.4, the elastic moduli of aramid and glass fibers are, respectively, 131 GPa and 72.5 GPa.
Thus, from the previous expression

Ecl = (4 GPa)(1.0 − 0.25 − 0.35) + (131 GPa)(0.25) + (72.5 GPa)(0.35)

= 59.7 GPa

Laminar Composites
Sandwich Panels

16.15 (a) Briefly describe sandwich panels.

(b) What is the prime reason for fabricating these structural composites?
(c) What are the functions of the faces and the core?

Answer

(a) Sandwich panels consist of two outer face sheets of a high-strength material that are separated by a
layer of a less-dense and lower-strength core material.
(b) The prime reason for fabricating these composites is to produce structures having high in-plane
strengths, high shear rigidities, and low densities.
(c) The faces function so as to bear the majority of in-plane tensile and compressive stresses. On the other
hand, the core separates and provides continuous support for the faces, and also resists shear deformations
perpendicular to the faces.

 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration

16.D1 It is desired to produce an aligned and continuous fiber-reinforced epoxy composite having a
maximum of 40 vol% fibers. In addition, a minimum longitudinal modulus of elasticity of 55 GPa is required, as is a
minimum tensile strength of 1200 MPa. Of E-glass, carbon (PAN standard modulus), and aramid fiber materials,
which are possible candidates and why? The epoxy has a modulus of elasticity of 3.1 GPa and a tensile strength of
69 MPa. In addition, assume the following stress levels on the epoxy matrix at fiber failure: E-glass, 70 MPa;
carbon (PAN standard modulus), 30 MPa; and aramid, 50 MPa. Other fiber data are given in Tables B.2 and B.4
in Appendix B. For aramid fibers, use the minimum of the range of strength values provided in Table B.4.

Solution

In order to solve this problem, we want to make longitudinal elastic modulus and tensile strength
computations assuming 40 vol% fibers for the three fiber materials, in order to see which ones meet the stipulated
criteria (i.e., a minimum elastic modulus of 55 GPa (8 ´ 106 psi), and a minimum tensile strength of 1200 MPa).
Thus, it becomes necessary to use Equations 16.10b and 16.17 with Vm = 0.60 and Vf = 0.40, Em = 3.1 GPa, and σ m∗

= 69 MPa.
For glass, Ef = 72.5 GPa (Table B.2) and σ f∗ = 3450 MPa (Table 16.4). Therefore,

Ecl = Em (1 − Vf ) + Ef Vf

= (3.1 GPa)(1 − 0.40) + (72.5 GPa)(0.40) = 30.9 GPa

Because this value is less than the specified minimum (i.e., 55 GPa), glass is not an acceptable candidate.

For carbon (PAN standard-modulus), Ef = 230 GPa (Table B.2) and σ f∗ = 4000 MPa (the average of the

range of values in Table B.4); thus, from Equation 16.10b

Ecl = (3.1 GPa)(1.00 − 0.40) + (230 GPa)(0.40) = 93.9 GPa

which is greater than the specified minimum. In addition, from Equation 16.17

′ (1 − Vf ) + σ f∗ Vf
σ cl∗ = σ m
 = (30 MPa)(1 − 0.40) + (4000 MPa)(0.40) = 1620 MPa

This value is greater than the minimum required tensile strength (1200 MPa). Thus, carbon (PAN standard-
modulus) is a candidate.

For aramid, Ef = 131 GPa (Table B.2) and σ f∗ = 3850 MPa (the average of the range of values in Table

B.4). Thus, the modulus using aramid fibers (Equation 16.10b) is computed as follows:

Ecl = (3.1 GPa)(1 − 0.40) + (131 GPa)(0.40) = 54.3 GPa

This value is less than the minimum, which means that the aramid fiber-reinforced composite does not meet the
required modulus of elasticity and is not a candidate.
Thus, only the carbon (PAN standard-modulus) fiber-reinforced epoxy composite satisfies both criteria
and, therefore, is a candidate for this application.

 16.D2 It is desired to fabricate a continuous and aligned glass fiber-reinforced polyester having a tensile
strength of at least 1250 MPa in the longitudinal direction. The maximum possible specific gravity is 1.80. Using the
following data, determine whether such a composite is possible. Justify your decision. Assume a value of 20 MPa for
the stress on the matrix at fiber failure.

Specific Gravity Tensile Strength (MPa)

Glass fiber 2.50 3500
Polyester 1.35 50

Solution

This problem asks us to determine whether or not it is possible to produce a continuous and oriented glass
fiber-reinforced polyester having a tensile strength of at least 1250 MPa in the longitudinal direction, and a
maximum specific gravity of 1.80. We will first calculate the minimum volume fraction of fibers to give the
stipulated tensile strength, and then the maximum volume fraction of fibers possible to yield the maximum
permissible specific gravity; if there is an overlap of these two fiber volume fractions then such a composite is
possible.
We first use Equation 16.17 to compute the volume fraction of fibers to give a tensile strength of 1250 MPa
as follows:

′ (1 − Vf ) + σ f∗ Vf
σ cl∗ = σ m

1250 MPa = (20 MPa)(1 − Vf ) + (3500 MPa)(Vf )

Solving for Vf yields Vf = 0.353. Therefore, Vf > 0.353 to give the minimum desired tensile strength.

Now, upon consideration of the specific gravity (or density), r, we employ the following modified form of
Equation 16.10b as follows:
ρc = ρm (1 − Vf ) + ρf Vf

1.80 = 1.35 (1 − Vf ) + 2.50(Vf )

And, solving for Vf from this expression gives Vf = 0.391. Therefore, it is necessary for Vf < 0.391
in order to have a composite specific gravity less than 1.80.
Hence, such a composite is possible if 0.353 < Vf < 0.391.

 16.D3 A tubular shaft similar to that shown in Figure 16.11 is to be designed that has an outside diameter
of 100 mm and a length of 1.25 m. The mechanical characteristic of prime importance is bending stiffness in terms
of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity. Stiffness is to be specified as maximum allowable deflection in bending;
when subjected to three-point bending as in Figure 12.30, a load of 1700 N is to produce an elastic deflection of no
more than 0.20 mm at the midpoint position.
Continuous fibers that are oriented parallel to the tube axis will be used; possible fiber materials are glass,
and carbon in standard-, intermediate-, and high-modulus grades. The matrix material is to be an epoxy resin, and
fiber volume fraction is 0.40.
(a) Decide which of the four fiber materials are possible candidates for this application, and for each
candidate determine the required inside diameter consistent with the preceding criteria.
(b) For each candidate, determine the required cost, and, on this basis, specify the fiber that would be the
least expensive to use.
Elastic modulus, density, and cost data for the fiber and matrix materials are given in Table 16.6.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem calls for a determination of which of the four fiber types is (are) suitable
for a tubular shaft, given that the fibers are to be continuous and oriented with a volume fraction of 0.40. Using
Equation 16.10 it is possible to solve for the elastic modulus of the shaft for each of the fiber types. For example,
for glass (using moduli data in Table 16.6)

Ecs = Em (1 − Vf ) + Ef Vf

= (2.4 GPa)(1.00 − 0.40) + (72.5 GPa)(0.40) = 30.4 GPa

This value for Ecs as well as those computed in a like manner for the three carbon fibers are listed in Table 16.D1.

Table 16.D1 Composite Elastic Modulus for Each of Glass and Three Carbon Fiber Types for Vf = 0.40

Fiber Type Ecs (GPa)

Glass 30.4
Carbon—standard modulus 93.4
Carbon—intermediate modulus 115
Carbon—high modulus 161
 It now becomes necessary to determine, for each fiber type, the inside diameter di. Rearrangement of
Equation 16.23 such that di is the dependent variable leads to the following expression:

1/4
⎡ 4FL3 ⎤
di = ⎢ d04 − ⎥
⎢⎣ 3π EΔy ⎥⎦

The di values may be computed by substitution into this expression for E the Ecs data in Table 16.D1 and also the

following data:

F = 1700 N
L = 1.25 m
Dy = 0.20 mm (0.20 ´ 10-3 m)
d0 = 100 mm (0.1 m)

These di data are tabulated in the second column of Table 16.D2. No entry is included for glass. The elastic
modulus for glass fibers is so low that it is not possible to use them for a tube that meets the stipulated criteria;
mathematically, the term within brackets in the above equation for di is negative, and no real root exists. Thus, only
the three carbon types are candidate fiber materials.

Table 16.D2 Inside Tube Diameter, Total Volume, and Fiber, Matrix, and Total Costs for Three Carbon-Fiber
Epoxy-Matrix Composites

Inside Total Fiber Matrix Total

Diameter Volume Cost Cost Cost
Fiber Type (mm) (cm3) ($) ($) ($)

Glass – – – – –
Carbon--standard
modulus 70.4 4950 213.80 20.30 234.10
Carbon--intermediate
modulus 78.9 3700 253.10 15.20 268.30
Carbon--high modulus 86.6 2450 441.00 10.10 451.10
 (b) Also included in Table 16.D2 is the total volume of material required for the tubular shaft for each
carbon fiber type; Equation 16.24 was utilized for these computations. Since Vf = 0.40, 40% this volume is fiber

and the other 60% is epoxy matrix. In the manner of Design Example 16.1, the masses and costs of fiber and matrix
materials were determined, as well as the total composite cost. These data are also included in Table 16.D2. Here it
may be noted that the carbon standard-modulus fiber yields the least expensive composite, followed by the
intermediate- and high-modulus materials.