Energy 258 (2022) 124820

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Optimal sizing of an integrated CHP and desalination system as a

polygeneration plant for supplying rural demands
Ardavan Shahsavari, Mohammad Amin Vaziri Rad, Fathollah Pourfayaz *, Alibakhsh Kasaeian
Department of Renewable Energies and Environment, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Simultaneous production of electricity, heat, and water is a global challenge for rural residential areas. In the
Hybrid energy system present study, techno-economic optimization of a system including PV, wind turbine, generator, battery, and
Polygeneration CHP system alongside brackish water reverse osmosis desalination system is investigated. The proposed poly­
Techno-economic
generation hybrid system provides the required loads of a village and health clinic in a rural area with a warm
Combined heat and power
climate. This study aims to find the optimum energy cost of essential rural needs, including required electricity,
heat, and water demands to improve remote areas’ life quality. While previous studies often considered only one
or two of these needs. Several sensitivity analyses based on the different economic and climate conditions are
carried out. The grid breakeven distance, environmental aspects, and the developed hybrid energy system’s
technical performance are analyzed. The results demonstrate that the optimum system, including PV/WT/DG/
CHP/Bat and reverse osmosis desalination unit has COE and NPC equal to 0.236 $/kWh and 428,246 $,
respectively. Also, the CHP unit decreased the annual fuel consumption by about 224 m3/yr. Furthermore, the
proposed hybrid system has a 58.4% lower CO2 emission than conventional natural gas-fired plants and less than
27 km of grid breakeven distance.

1. Introduction
Electrification to rural and sparsely populated communities with low
approachability to the national electricity grid is one of the most critical
issues in the world, such that according to the report of the International
Energy Agency (IEA), in 2019, 15% of the worldwide rural population
has significant difficulties in accessing to electricity [1]. For unraveling
this issue, two main strategies are ongoing, including depending on
fossil fuels or moving to a combination of renewable energies. However,
due to several negative aspects of fossil fuels employment, such as
environmental demolition and finitude of these resources, hybridizing
various renewable energy resources seems more attractive for some
countries. In general, a hybrid renewable energy system is an arrange­
ment of renewable energy resources, conventional energy resources, and
energy storage devices. Nevertheless, due to the intermittent nature of
renewable energy resources, using conventional energy systems along­
side the storage devices as a supporter ensues in raising reliability and
reducing the surplus electricity of hybrid renewable energy systems.
Access to freshwater for drinking and other purposes is one of the
most primary human demands. However, this need faces immense
difficulties due to rapid population growth around the world [2]. On the
other hand, only 1% of the world’s total water resources can be used as
freshwater, while the rest is in the form of saline water (97%) and frozen
water (2%) [3]. In this regard, using desalination can be an excellent
solution. Water desalination is a process in which salt is separated from
the incoming saline water using special methods so that freshwater can
be consumed for numerous requirements such as drinking, agriculture,
etc. There are various processes for salt separation from water, but just
two groups are more acceptable, thermal and membrane processes.
Although, between different technologies related to these two classes,
Reverse Osmosis (RO) with 65% installed capacity is widely used [4].
The combined heat and power (CHP) system is an advantageous
structure for the simultaneous production of heat and power from a
single fuel source in which the generated waste heat is recovered to
create another form of energy. Among the features of the CHP system,
higher efficiency, lower fuel consumption, and less greenhouse gas
emissions can be pointed out [5].
HOMER is a technical and financial optimization tool for on/off-grid
power systems developed by the US National Renewable Energy Labo­
ratory (NREL). The main usage of this software is the optimization of the
hybrid of multiple energy resources on an hourly basis, based on the Cost

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: pourfayaz@ut.ac.ir (F. Pourfayaz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.124820
Received 3 January 2021; Received in revised form 11 March 2022; Accepted 11 July 2022
Available online 15 July 2022
0360-5442/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Nomenclature Greek symbols

α1 Constant
A Swept area (m2) αP Temperature coefficient of power (%/◦ C)
C Cost ($) γ Specific labour cost ($/m3)
Cann,tot Total annualized cost ($/y) α0 Constant
CBat Battery charge capacity (kW) σ Hourly self-discharge rate (%)
Celect Energy cost of hybrid energy system ($/kWh) ρ Air density (kg/m3)
Edefferable Deferrable load served (kWh/y) ηBat Battery efficiency (%)
Efromhs Electricity generated by the hybrid system (kWh) ηinv Inverter efficiency (%)
Enon− ren Electrical production by non-renewable energy resources
(kWh/y) Abbreviations
Eprimary Primary load served (kWh/y) Bat Battery
f Inflation rate (%) BWRO Brackish water reverse osmosis
FDG Generator fuel consumption (L/h) CHP Combined heat and power
f PV Derating ratio (%) COE Cost of energy ($/kWh)
GT Incident solar radiation (W/m2) CRF Capital recovery factor
GT, ​ STC Radiation incident in standard test condition (W/m2) DG Diesel generator
IRO Specific capital cost ($/(m3/day)) EDR Electrodialysis reversal
i Real interest rate (%) FC Fuel cell
í Nominal interest rate (%) GA Genetic algorithm
H Produced thermal load (kWh/y) HOMER Hybrid optimization of multiple energy resource
k Cost of the chemicals used in treatment ($/m3) HT Hydrogen tank
n Number of years IC Initial capital
NPV Number of PV panels IEA International energy agency
NWT Number of wind turbines LCOW Levelized cost of water ($/m3)
P Power (kW) MED Multi effect distillation
PDG Power output of diesel generator (kW) MSF Multi stage flash
PDGR Rated capacity of the generator (kW) MVC Mechanical vapor compression
Q Thermal load (kW) NPC Net present cost
Qannual Annual water production (m3/y) PSO Particle swarm optimization
QP Hourly water production (m3/h) PV Photovoltaic
RR Annual replacement rate for the component (%) RF Renewable fraction
T Temperature (◦ C) RO Reverse osmosis
t Time (s) STC Standard test condition
YPV PV rated capacity (%) SWRO Seawater reverse osmosis
V Speed (m/s) TVC Thermal vapor compression
VC Vapor compression
WT Wind turbine

Of Energy (COE) and Net Present Cost (NPC) objectives [6]. In recent
years, some studies have compared HOMER algorithm output to the
other well-known optimization algorithms. The HOMER software has
indicated comparative optimization speed, sensitivity performance, and
reliability compared to other common algorithms such as Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO) [7] and Genetic Algorithm (GA) [8]. More­
over, Sinha and Chandel [6], in a review of software tools for renewable
energy systems optimization, concluded that HOMER is highly accurate
at determining the techno-economic characteristics of an energy system.
So far, various studies have been done for the supply of electricity,
water, heat, and combination of them by several hybrid energy config­
urations and HOMER optimization tool, which in the following some of
these researches are introduced. Also, a summary of these studies
alongside other studies based on the country, initial hybrid system, type
of supply (electricity, heat, water, or combination of them), load, COE,
and Renewable Fraction (RF) of optimum configuration as well as op­
timum hybrid energy arrangement are presented in Table 1.
In some studies, a combination of hybrid energy systems is consid­
ered to supply only water as the primary load. For instance, Ibrahim
et al. [9], in a numerical study, investigated the two-hybrid systems
including PV/Wind Turbine (WT)/Diesel Generator (DG)/Battery (Bat)
and PV/DG/Hydrokinetic Turbine (HKT)/Bat to provide electricity for a
desalination seawater RO unit with the capacity of 1 m3/h and power
demand equal to 4.38 kW in a city of Egypt. Based on the optimization
results by HOMER software for the first configuration, the optimum
scenario was 8.3 kW of PV, 1 wind turbine, 4.9 kW of diesel generator,
15 units of battery, and 5.29 kW of the converter. Also, the RF, COE, and
water cost were 52.5%, 0.2252 $/kWh, and 1.10 $/m3, respectively. On
the other hand, the second optimized configuration included 2.82 kW of
PV, 3 hydrokinetic turbines, 4.9 kW of diesel generator, 15 units of
battery, and 0.984 kW of the converter with 98.2% RF, 0.1216 $/kWh
COE and water cost equal to 0.56 $/m3.
Atallah et al. [10] performed a simulation by HOMER software to
provide the needed electricity of a RO unit (557.22 kWh/day) with a size
of 100 m3/day by a combination of PV/WT/DG/Bat at Nakhl, North
Sinai, Egypt. They reviewed 11 different hybrid systems to find opti­
mized configuration, which based on that the optimal system including
160 kW of PV, 50 kW of DG, 39.3 kW of the converter, and 190 units of
lead-acid batteries with RF equal to 93.1%, had a COE and NPC pro­
portional to 0.107 $/kWh and 502,662 $, respectively. Also, the carbon
dioxide emission related to the optimized case was 122,897 kg/year.
Padrón et al. [11] worked on electricity supply of RO autonomous
desalination systems (with a capacity of more than 50 m3/day and en­
ergy consumption equal to 5 kWh/m3) in two islands of the Canary
Archipelago. The results illustrated that for providing of 250 kWh/day
electric load, the PV (5 kW), 1 unit of 30 kW wind turbine, 160 and 200
units of battery, 10 kW and 15 kW of diesel generator, and 15 kW of
converter were the optimal structure for Lanzarote and Fuerteventura

2
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Table 1
Summary of numerical studies on the supply of primary energy needs using the HOMER optimization tool.
Country Studied hybrid system Supply Load (kWh/ COE RF Optimum hybrid system Ref
day) ($/kWh) (%)

Egypt PV/WT/DG/Bat Water 105.12/ 0.2252 52.5 PV/WT/DG/Bat/RO [9]

Electrical
Egypt PV/HKT/DG/Bat Water 105.12/ 0.1216 98.2 PV/HKT/DG/Bat/RO [9]
Electrical
Egypt PV/WT/DG/Bat Water 557.22/ 0.107 93.1 PV/DG/Bat/RO [10]
Electrical
Canary Archipelago/ PV/WT/DG/Bat Water 250/Electrical 0.404 96 PV/WT/DG/Bat/RO [11]
Lanzarote
Canary Archipelago/ PV/WT/DG/Bat Water 250/Electrical 0.478 92 PV/WT/DG/Bat/RO [11]
Fuerteventura
USA PV/WT/DG/Bat Water 1.8/Electrical 0.174 100 PV/Bat/EDR (Well 1 water at 25 ◦ C and a [12]
2.8/Electrical product flow rate of 26.5 L/min)
USA PV/WT/DG/Bat Water 8.6/Electrical 0.161 100 PV/DG/Bat/RO (Well 1 water at 25 ◦ C and a [12]
product flow rate of 26.5 L/min)
South Africa FC/TLC/Boiler Electricity + 14/Electrical 7.32 R/kWh _ FC/TLC/Boiler [19]
Heat
Spain PV/FC/Electrolyzer/HT/ Electricity + 200/Electrical 0.8399 55.8 PV/FC/Electrolyzer/HT/Boiler [20]
Boiler Heat 250/Thermal
Australia PV/WT/MGT/Bat/TLC/Boiler Electricity + 1,338.75/ 0.178 63 PV/WT/MGT/Bat/TLC/Boiler [21]
Heat Electrical
1,033.65/
Thermal
China PV/Wood gas generator/Bat/ Electricity + 2.18/Electrical 0.351 _ PV/Wood gas generator/Bat/Boiler [16]
Boiler Heat 39.5/Thermal
Serbia PV/WT/Biogas CHP/Natural Electricity + 12,000/ <0.04 _ PV/WT/Biogas CHP/Natural gas CHP/ [22]
gas CHP/Boiler/Grid Heat Electrical €/kWh Boiler/Grid
1,000/
Deferrable
Iran PV/Bat Water _ 0.455 for 100 PV/Bat/RO [23]
Bushehr
Malaysia PV/Bat Water 66/Electrical 0.438 100 PV/Bat/RO [24]
Qatar PV/WT/DG/Bat/Boiler ater 100,000/ 0.145 88 PV/WT/DG/Bat/RO [14]
Electrical
6,600/
Electrical
Maldives PV/WT/DG/Bat Electricity + 298/Electrical 0.437 _ WT/DG/RO [13]
Water 20/Deferrable
Egypt PV/WT/Bat Water 403/Electrical 0.327 100 PV/WT/Bat/RO [25]
Greek island PV/Bat/ORC Water _ _ 100 PV/Bat/ORC/RO [26]
Pakistan PV/DG/Bat/CHP/Grid Electricity + 13,331.07/ 0.049 for _ 2PV/2DG/Grid (with waste heat recovery [15]
Heat Electrical Gilgit unit) for Gilgit
10,911.02/
Electrical
2,419.8/
Thermal
India PV/WT/DG/Bat Electricity 51.54/ 0.179 95.7 PV/WT/DG/Bat [27]
Electrical
India PV/DG/BG/Bat Electricity 880.74/ 0.222 94.4 PV/DG/BG/Bat [28]
Electrical

islands. Moreover, the COE, and NPC of optimum cases for Lanzarote
and Fuerteventura were equal to 0.404 $/kWh and 0.478 $/kWh, 473,
013 $ and 560,247 $.
As can be seen, based on the reviewed literature, only RO desalina­
tion unit was used in optimization by HOMER software; however, the
following literature also used RO as well as Electro-Dialysis Reversal
(EDR) desalination technology. Karimi et al. [12], in a modeling and
experimental work in Alamogordo, New Mexico, analyzed the energy
consumption of EDR and RO under the effect of various temperatures,
flow rates, and water salinities. In addition, WATSYS software and
WinFlows software modeled the EDR and RO. They applied
PV/WT/DG/Bat hybrid energy system for the electricity supply of EDR
and RO desalination units by HOMER based on the results of the
experiment. Simulation of the optimized case for each desalination
technology was carried out, however for Well 1 water at 25 ◦ C and a
product flow rate of 26.5 L/min, the optimum case for RO was 0.5 kW of
DG, 2.75 kW of PV, 12 battery units, and 1.5 kW of the converter with
0.161 $/kWh as COE, and 7,337 $ as total NPC. On the other hand, at the
same condition, the outputs of optimization for EDR were as follows,
1.375 kW of PV, 9 battery units, and 0.6 kW of the converter with 0.174
$/kWh as COE, and 3,636 $ as total NPC.
HOMER software is also used to introduce an optimum hybrid energy
system for concurrently water and electricity supply. For instance,
Setiawan et al. [13], in an empirical and simulation inquiry, surveyed
the system including PV/WT/DG/Bat for supplying a primary (298
kWh/day) and a deferrable (20 kWh/day) load for RO desalination
system (with 5 m3/day water production) in the Maldives based on the
two scenarios; after and before the Tsunami of 2004. The simulation
outcomes revealed that after Tsunami, the optimum system for the
concurrent supply of electricity and water was WT/DG with the COE,
Initial Capital (IC), and NPC equal to 0.437 $/kWh, 185,900 $, and 632,
159 $, respectively.
In [14], HOMER was used to cover the required electric load and
water (4800 m3/day) with three different desalination technologies,
including RO, Multi-Stage Flash (MSF), and Multi-Effect Distillation
(MED). The studied hybrid system for RO was PV/WT/DG/Bat, and for
the other two desalination devices was PV/WT/DG/Bat/Boiler. The
electric energy for each introduced desalination device was 3 kWh/m3,

3
A. Shahsavari et al.
3 kWh/m3, and 1.5 kWh/m3. Also, the thermal energy for the second
and third technologies was 14 kWh/m3 and 10 kWh/m3, which were
completely supplied by the boiler. They reported that based on
comparing the output results between the mentioned three devices, the
NPC of the RO device was approximately 69 M$, which was lower than
the other two devices because it did not require thermal energy.
On the other hand, some studies investigated the optimization of a
hybrid energy structure for concurrently supplying electricity and heat
by the HOMER tool. Some of them are introduced in the following.
Waqar et al. [15] investigated a CHP set consisting of
PV/DG/Bat/Boiler (on/off-grid) to provide heat and electricity for six
cities of Pakistan. The objectives of this study were maximization of the
thermal unit’s annual waste heat recovery and annual grid sales
alongside minimization of the NPC, COE, and annual greenhouse gas
emissions. They reported that between different scenarios, for depreci­
ation of the NPC, and COE, Gilgit city with on-grid configuration
including 2 photovoltaic systems, 2 diesel generators, alongside waste
heat recovery unit was the optimal case with values equal to 5.79 M$
and 0.049 $/kWh, respectively. On the other hand, Lahore was the op­
timum option (PV/DG/Bat with waste heat recovery) in terms of mini­
mization of annual greenhouse gas emissions (1,000.214 ton/year).
Finally, Quetta was the optimum case (2 photovoltaic systems, grid, 2
diesel generators, 240 kWh of battery alongside waste heat recovery
unit) in terms of maximization of thermal unit’s annual waste heat re­
covery (2,040,282 kWh) and yearly grid sales (8,322,268 kWh).
Yuan et al. [16] used an off-grid hybrid system comprising of PV/Bat
alongside a wood-syngas CHP (combination of a generator and boiler) to
supply an average electric and thermal loads equal to 2.18 kWh/day and
39.5 kWh/day and to reduce greenhouse gas in a rural household of
China. They reported that between 3 feasible cases, the optimum system
with 0.5 kW of PV, 0.65 kW of a wood gas generator, 3 battery units, and
0.5 kW of a converter had a COE, NPC, and CO2 emission equal to 0.351
$/kWh, 3,572 $, and 6,490 kg/year, respectively.
Reviewing the mentioned studies, it is clear that the techno-
economic optimization of a hybrid energy system for the concurrent
supply of electricity, heat, and freshwater has not been studied by
HOMER Pro software. Also, in Ref. [17], various benefits such as lower
environmental issues, increasing system performance, and lower ex­
penses were expressed for multi-energy systems. On the other hand, due
to the low contribution of renewable energy in urban thermal power
supply, applying CHP co-generation units along with hybrid renewable
energy systems can help reach a more environmental-friendly and better
sustainable energy planning procedure [18].
Accordingly, in the current study, the arrangement of photovoltaic
module, wind turbine, diesel generator, battery, converter, and CHP
package system, alongside brackish water reverse osmosis desalination
system for the supply of electricity, heat, and water to a remote area and
health clinic in Iran is proposed. After optimization of the hybrid
renewable energy system, the CHP performance in the best scenario is
investigated. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses on the several effective
parameters such as component capital cost, local economic condition,
and available resources are made to generalize the results to other rural
communities. Finally, the grid breakeven distance is analyzed, and the
CO2 emissions by different power plants and the proposed system are
compared.
2. System description
In this section, details of the hybrid energy system, the study’s
location, natural resources, component equations, and power grid
characteristics are discussed. Also, all needed explanations related to the
used parameters in equations are available in the Nomenclature table. It
should be noted that for the upcoming explanations, the main difference
between kW and kWh is that a kW reflects the rate of power generation/
usage in each moment, whereas a kWh refers to the total amount of
energy generated/used in a time period.
4
Energy 258 (2022) 124820
2.1. Location of the study
In the current research, the village of Tang-e Sanan with the
geographical coordinates of 32◦ 20′ N and 49◦ 34′ E in Khuzestan prov­
ince, Iran is selected. According to the latest census by the statistical
center of Iran in 2016 [29], this village has around 136 residents, equal
to 25 families. Fig. 1 shows the location of the selected place.
2.2. Resources
Fig. 2 shows the variations of the different climatic parameters,
including average solar radiation, ambient temperature, wind speed,
and clearness index during an entire year in the Tang-e Sanan village,
arranged based on NASA’s data center [30]. Fig. 2 (a) demonstrates the
solar radiation, which based on that the highest value is in June equal to
7.74 kWh/m2/day. Furthermore, the annual average of this parameter is
equal to 5.2 kWh/m2/day. Fig. 2 (b) indicates the ambient temperature
of the village, which based on that the highest value, is in July equal to
30 ◦ C and the annual average is 16.66 ◦ C. On the other hand, based on
Fig. 2 (c), the yearly average wind speed related to this village is 5.1 m/s,
and the highest speed occurs in June (equal to 5.95 m/s).
2.3. Load profile
The Tang-e Sanan village has a low population; therefore, its power
consumption is not very high. The average electric power consumption
and loads’ peak of this village are 200 kWh/day and 35.87 kW. Due to
the high need for health facilities in rural areas, a health clinic is
considered to improve residents’ quality of life. Table 2 presents the
power consumption of various devices in a typical rural health center.
On the other hand, by assuming average annual thermal demand based
on the heating, reheating, and possible steam piping losses (41% of total
energy consumption of the health clinic [31]), HOMER software simu­
lates the power consumption profile based on a typical health clinic
load. Also, a deferrable electrical load for supplying a water desalination
unit is considered [32]. Due to the hot and dry climate of the Khuzestan
province, on average, 0.3 m3/day water consumption is assumed for
each person, which, based on the population, is converted to 40.8
m3/day for all residents of the village. The different electrical and
thermal power consumption profiles are shown in Fig. 3.
Due to the high potential of burning wood and other local sources,
the Iranian residential rural areas have not faced serious thermal energy
accessibility problems. The main challenge of these rural areas is the
lack of proper access to electricity. However, wood-burning cannot
provide the thermal energy needed by the health clinic because, ac­
cording to the World Health Organization (WHO) [33], it will cause
health problems. So the thermal load is just considered for a health clinic
to increase the power supply quality to the medical sector and reduce the
overall energy wastes of the stand-alone hybrid unit.
2.4. Components specification
In this section, related equations and financial information for the
hybrid energy system, including photovoltaic module, wind turbine,
battery, and converter, are introduced. Table 3 presents the technical
and economic data of components. Table 4 demonstrates the applied
equations for different components in the hybrid system.
2.5. Water desalination technology
Many technologies have been advanced to desalinate saline water
and turn it into fresh and clean water. Generally, desalination technol­
ogies are classified into two groups: membrane and thermal technolo­
gies; membrane technologies only need electrical energy for working,
and thermal technologies need thermal and electrical energy. Table 5
presents the conventional water desalination technologies based on
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Fig. 1. Location of the Tang-e Sanan village.

Fig. 2. Potential of natural resources in the location of study. a) Solar radiation (kWh/m2/day) b) Ambient temperature (◦ C) c) Wind speed (m/s) d) Clearness index.

their various characteristics. As can be seen, among different technolo­
gies, reverse osmosis or RO water desalination technology with 65%
worldwide installed capacity is more common than other devices.
In general, reverse osmosis is a kind of pressurized filtration, which
applies to desalinate water [43]. In this method, the semipermeable
membrane is utilized to pass a solution from a hypertonic medium to a
hypotonic medium, resulting in the separation of salt and freshwater
[44]. Fig. 4 shows a typical reverse osmosis water desalination system.
By comparing brackish water desalination devices based on Table 5, it
can be concluded that brackish water reverse osmosis or BWRO device
has a better condition for utilization. Accordingly, a BWRO device with a
maximum of 2.5 kWh/m3 total electricity consumption and 900

5
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Table 2 $/(m3/day) specific capital cost is considered for the current

Power consumption of different devices in a health clinic [34]. investigation.
Devices Quantity Power Operation Power Table 6 presents used equations to calculate the related costs of
(W) hours (Wh/ consumption brackish water desalination device as well as Levelized Cost of Water
day) (kWh/day) (LCOW) by the introduced hybrid energy system. Also, Fig. 5 specifies
Vaccine Refrigerator 2 60 6–12 0.72–1.44
Small Refrigerator 1 300 5 1.5
Centrifuge 1 575 2 1.15 Table 4
Hematology Mixer 1 28 2 0.056 Equations of utilized components for the hybrid energy system.
Lighting 2–3 15 10 0.3–0.45
Sterilizer Oven 1 1,564 1 1.564 Parameter Equation Ref
(Laboratory ( G )[
The output power of the T [39]
Autoclave) PPV = YPV .fPV 1 + αP (TCell −
PV panel GT, STC
Microscope 2 15 5 0.15
TCell,STC )]
Incubator 2 400 2–12 1.6–9.6
The output power of the 1 [40]
Water Bath 1 1,000 2 2 PWT = ρAV3 Ce
wind turbine 2
Communication via 1 _ _ _
Diesel generator fuel FDG = α1 PDG + α0 PDGR [41]
VHF Radio
consumption
Stand-by _ 2 12 0.024
Total CHP efficiency P+Q [42]
Transmitting _ 30 2–3 0.06–0.09 ηCHP =
FDG
Computer 1–3 _ _ _ [
Power of the battery in CBat (t) = CBat (t − 1) × (1 − σ) + (NPV × [40]
Power Save Mode _ 50 7 0.35–1.05
the charge state ]
In Use _ 150 5 0.75–2.25 Pload (t)
PPV (t) + NWT × PWT (t)) − × ηBat
Printer 1 65 3 0.195 ηinv
Other _ _ _ 1 Power of the battery in [P (t)
load [40]
CBat (t) = CBat (t − 1) × (1 − σ) − −
Total _ _ _ 11.6–22.5 the discharge state ηinv
]/
(NPV × PPV (t) + NWT × PWT (t)) ηBat
The output power of the PInv− out = PInv− in .ηinv [41]
inverter

Fig. 3. Different average load profiles of the current study. a) Electric power consumption of the village b) Electric power consumption of the health clinic c)
Thermal power consumption of the health clinic d) Electric power consumption of water desalination system.

Table 3
Details of components prices.
Component Type Rated capacity Capital cost ($) Replacement cost ($) O & M cost ($) Lifetime Ref

PV module Generic flat plate 250 W 1300/kW 1300/kW 20/kW/year 20 years [35]
Wind turbine AWS HC 1.5 kW 3450/unit 2250/unit 60/unit/year 20 years [36]
Battery Lead Acid 1 kWh 300/unit 300/unit 10/unit/year 10 years [37]
Converter Generic 1 kW 300/kW 300/kW 3/kW/year 15 years [38]

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A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

the share of different items in the capital cost of reverse osmosis water
desalination.

capacity (%)
Worldwide
installed 2.6. Combined heat and power system
[46]

<4a
65

21
CHP system is an appropriate option for using diesel engine waste

3
heat to supply thermal load alongside electricity production. Accord­
ingly, in this paper, a CHP package system is used in the hybrid energy
Usual capacities

10,000–30,000

10,000–35,000
(m3/day) [43]

system which its capital and maintenance costs are considered to be

0.1–395,000

600-30,000
100-3,000

2-145,000
1,000 $/kW and 0.13 $/h, respectively [49]. The heat recovery ratio of
diesel engine, which is the heat percentage that can be recovered to
serve the thermal load, is considered equal to 30% [50]. On the other
hand, a boiler is used to burn natural gas to supply remained thermal
demand, which the efficiency of boiler and price of natural gas are 85%
Specific capital or

1,200–2,500 [47]
investment cost

900-2,500 [47]

900-2,000 [47]

608-3,464 [46]
[51] and 0.04 $/m3 [52], respectively. Also, it should be noted that in
700-900 [44]
($/(m3/d))

this study, the price of diesel fuel is considered to be 0.1 $/L [53].
Table 7 demonstrates the characteristics of natural gas and diesel fuels.
_

2.7. Economic parameters

Water cost ($/m3)

capacities [43]

Various optimization objectives are involved in the study of an

0.26–12.99
in different

hybrid energy system. The details of each parameter are presented in

0.45–1.72

0.56–1.75
0.87–2.6

0.6–1.05

Table 8. In this study, the discount rate, the inflation rate, and project
0.52–8

lifetime are considered 15%, 12%, and 20 years, respectively [55].

2.8. Grid optimization

Total electricity

(kWh/m3) [43]
consumption

14.45–21.35

19.58–27.25

In this study, the national grid’s specifications are used due to the
2.64–5.5

need to assess the optimal distance of the stand-alone hybrid energy

1.5–2.5

16.26
7–12

system from the electricity power grid. Table 9 illustrates the price of
4–6

electricity for three levels of consumption. Fig. 6 depicts the grid rate
schedule for 24 hours-12 months. Table 10 presents the amount of CO2
consumption (MJ/

emission.
Thermal energy

3. Modeled system
m3) [43]

145–230

190–282
227

In the current study, using HOMER software, a stand-alone hybrid

0

0
0

energy system including photovoltaic module, wind turbine, battery,

consumption (kWh/

converter, and CHP system (including diesel generator and boiler) for
Electrical energy

simultaneous electricity, heat, and water supply for a rural community

in Iran, is proposed based on the COE objective. In the CHP system
m3) [43]

2.64–5.5

performance section, the effect of CHP operation on output power is

1.5–2.5

1.6–1.8

The share of all other technologies plus VCs (MVC and TVC) is equal to 4%.
2–2.5

2.5–5
7–12

investigated. Also, the most appropriate range for heat recovery ratio is
4–6

introduced in this section. The sensitivity analysis section examines the

effect of variation in different parameters such as capital cost and
water quality
(ppm) [43]

electricity consumption of brackish water reverse osmosis desalination

200–500

400–500

150–500
Product

unit on the COE. In the grid breakeven distance optimization section, the
≈10

≈10

≈10

≈10

effect of grid extension distance changes against variation in other pa­

rameters such as diesel fuel price and electric load is examined. In the
final part, the CO2 emission by the proposed hybrid system and con­
Comparison of various water desalination technologies.

Ambient [45]

Ambient [45]
Maximum 74

ventional power plants is discussed and compared. Fig. 7 displays the

temperature

90-110 [45]
63-70 [45]
Operating

proposed configuration of the hybrid energy system, which will be

70 [45]

optimized by the HOMER optimization algorithm.

[43]
(◦ C)

4. Results and discussion

Technology

Membrane

Membrane
Thermal

Thermal

Thermal

Thermal

In this part, the overall optimization results, the CHP unit perfor­
[45]

mance, sensitivity analysis on various parameters, the grid breakeven

distance, and CO2 emission are discussed.
water [45]

Seawater

Seawater

Seawater

Seawater

Seawater

4.1. Overall results

Brackish

Brackish

Brackish

Brackish

Brackish

Brackish
Type of

water/

water/

water/

water/
water

water

Table 11 presents the overall HOMER software simulation results for

concurrent electricity, heat, and water production by a hybrid energy
Table 5

Device

BWRO

EDR
SWRO
MVC

system alongside brackish water reverse osmosis desalination technol­

MED

MSF
TVC

ED/

ogy. As can be seen, the optimum scenario consists of all the proposed
a

7
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Fig. 4. Reverse osmosis water desalination technology [43] [Reprinted with permission from Elsevier].

Table 6
Equations related to reverse osmosis water desalination technology [48].
Parameter Equation Constants

Total capital cost ($) CRO = 24IRO QP _

Total annual operation and maintenance cost ($) CRO, O & M = CRO, chemicals + CRO, labour + CRO, replacement _
Annual labour cost ($) CRO, labour = 8760γQP γ = 0.05 $/m3
Annual chemicals cost ($) CRO, chemicals = 8760kQP k = 0.03 $/m3
Annual replacement cost ($) CRO, replacement = Cmembrane RRmembrane + Cpump RRpump + Cmotor RRmotor Cmembrane = 40% ​ of ​ RO ​ components ​ cost
Cpump = 15% ​ of ​ RO ​ components ​ cost
Cmotor = 15% ​ of ​ RO ​ components ​ cost
RRmembrane = 20%
RRpump = 10%
RRmotor = 10%
Levelized cost of water ($/m3) CRO CRF + CRO, O & M + Celect Efromhs _
LCOW =
Qannual

Fig. 5. Share of different costs in total capital cost of RO [48].

renewable and non-renewable systems. In this case, due to the using a

Table 7 10 kW diesel generator, the heat recovery ratio is applied to supply
Characteristics of utilized fuels [54].
considered thermal load of the rural zone by CHP unit; accordingly,
Fuel Price LHV Density Carbon Sulfur 12,222 L and 456 m3 of diesel and natural gas fuels are consumed to
name (MJ/ (kg/m3) content (%) content (%)
provide electrical and thermal loads. In this regard, COE and NPC of
kg)
optimal configuration are obtained 0.236 $/kWh and 428,246 $,
Natural 0.04 45 0.79 67 0 respectively. In the second and fourth optimum scenarios, energy costs
gas ($/m3)
[52]
are increased due to using a single type of renewable technology
Diesel 0.1 ($/L) 43.2 820 88 0.3 alongside a diesel generator. This suggests that the simultaneous use of
[53] PV and WT is necessary to reduce system costs due to their resources’
intermittent nature.

8
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Table 8 installation of more power equipment. This commonly occurs in the

Details of economic parameters. night hours and in the absence of solar resource, when the impact of the
Economic Definition Equation Ref intermittent nature of renewables becomes more pronounced.
parameter

Net present The present value of all Cann,tot [56]

NPC =
cost ($) expenses and revenues CRF(i, n)
over the lifetime of a
hybrid energy system.
Capital A ratio to compute the i(1 + i)n [56]
CRF(i, n) =
recovery present value of an (1 + i)n − 1
factor annuity.
Real discount The real interest rate is iˊ − f [56]
i =
rate (%) applied to compute 1+f
discount factors and
convert between
annualized and one-time
costs.
Cost of The average expense per COE = [56]
energy kWh for generated energy Cann,tot
($/kWh) by the hybrid energy Eprimary + Edefferable + EOthers
configuration.
Renewable The share of the generated ( [57]
RF = 1 −
fraction power by renewable
)
(%) energy technologies. Enon− ren + Hnon− ren Fig. 6. Grid rate schedule for 24 hours-12 months.
× 100%
Eserved + Hserved

Table 10
On the other hand, in the rest of the scenarios, the diesel generator is
CO2 emission by different sectors.
not considered in the hybrid system; then, electricity is supplied only by
Fuel CO2
renewable systems, which causes the renewable fraction to be in the
highest amount equal to 95.4%. Also, the thermal load is supplied only Diesel generator [59] 801.07 g/kWh
by natural gas fuel, which causes 680 m3 consumption in all related Iran natural gas-fired power plant (grid) [60] 660.65 g/kWh
Standard new and reconstructed natural gas power plants [61] 453.6 g/kWh
cases. While by applying a CHP unit in the hybrid system, the natural gas Standard new coal-fired power plants [61] 635.04 g/kWh
consumption decreases to 456 m3. These results show that due to the Standard reconstructed coal-fired power plants [61] 816.48 g/kWh
reasonable price of energy generation by diesel fuel, the CHP system’s Natural gas boiler [59] 2 g/L
existence reduces costs and plays an essential role in reducing the sys­
tem’s dependence on natural gas for supplying thermal demand.
Due to the high inflation rate in Iran and the limitation of the gov­
ernment budget in the energy infrastructure development, the most
effective decision criterion for the optimization of energy systems to
supply rural areas demands is their affordability. At present, the gov­
ernment’s priority is to use only fossil fuels to supply energy to these
areas. While these results are shown that hybrid energy systems, part of
which consists of renewable sources, can be cost-effective and reliable
for providing demands to rural areas. In fact, these results provide an
applicable proposal from a government perspective.
Fig. 8 shows the demand-supply process by the optimum configu­
ration in a typical week of the project lifetime. The main reason for
introducing this typical week in the autumn is that the weather varies in
the fall, leading to different modes of operation for generator and bat­
teries. Accordingly, the priority of power supply is by renewable com­
ponents such as wind turbines and PV panels. When the generated power
by these resources is not enough to meet the electrical load, the diesel
generator operates to supply the remaining demand. Also, in the sudden
load peaks or when the installed capacities of energy systems are unable
to supply the entire load, the batteries are put into operation to avoid
incurring more costs that can be imposed on the hybrid system by
Fig. 7. Hybrid system configuration.

Table 9
Grid prices based on the level of consumption [58].

9
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Table 11
Results of the simulation of proposed hybrid energy systems.
Scenario System PV WT DG Bat Converter COE NPC ($) RF Diesel consumption Natural gas
(kW) (unit) (kW) (unit) (kW) ($/kWh) (%) (L) consumption (m3)

1 PV/WT/ 39.4 20 10 96 20.1 0.236 428,246 45.4 12,222 456

CHP/Bat
2 PV/CHP/Bat 68 _ 10 142 27.8 0.261 473,559 27.6 16,546 381
3 PV/WT/Bat 106 41 _ 322 39.7 0.362 658,074 95.4 _ 680
4 WT/CHP/ _ 94 10 378 24.6 0.453 822,728 68.8 6,564 519
Bat
5 PV/Bat 223 _ _ 569 36 0.463 839,915 95.4 _ 680
6 WT/Bat _ 122 _ 1,261 117 0.835 1.52 M 95.4 _ 680

Fig. 8. Power supply process by the optimum hybrid energy system in a typical week of the project lifetime.

The simultaneous use of the battery bank and diesel generator pre­
pares more flexibility for the power supply process. In fact, because of
the need to supply two kinds of electrical load for residential, clinic, and
water treatment units (deferrable load), this flexibility decreases energy
system costs and leads to more reliable performance. During the diesel
generator operation, if there is a need for thermal load, the CHP system
enters the demand-supply process. On the other hand, the natural gas
boiler will supply the thermal demand if the DG is out of operation. This
reduces the overall fuel consumption, prevents energy wasting in the
generator by exhaust heat, and saves costs.
Quantifying a parameter such as overall hybrid energy system flex­
ibility cannot be done by a simple equation and maybe need a
comprehensive study. But for a better understanding of its role in the
hybrid system, four main parameters that can be affected by the overall
system flexibility are selected, and they are compared by re-simulating
the optimum scenario without deferrable load. To this end, the defer­
rable load is eliminated from the hybrid configuration, and the needed
load for the RO unit is added to the primary electrical load. The first two
parameters are diesel generator annual operation hours and battery
bank annual throughput because traditionally, in off-grid hybrid sys­
tems, these equipment with their flexible operations increase the overall
flexibility of the power supply process. The next two parameters include
the cost of energy and the excess electricity because the main effect of
decreasing system flexibility will be visible in increasing these
parameters.
The results showed that without applying the deferrable load, the
optimized diesel generator operation hours increased from 4,036 h/year
to 4,352 h/year. Furthermore, the battery bank throughput significantly
increased from 7,621 kWh/year to 19,537 kWh/year. These increases
are due to the efforts of other equipment to improve the flexibility of the
system in the absence of the deferrable load. Because the total needed
electricity in the two simulations was constant, and the only difference
was the applying of deferrable load. Without applying the deferrable
load, the hybrid system cost of energy and excess electricity increased
about 26% and 7%, respectively, emphasizing the importance of
considering the electricity required by the RO unit as a deferrable load.
A good sample of difference in mode operation of the hybrid energy
system can be observed on Sep 27 and 28. On Sep 27, the average
renewable power production is much higher than on Sep 28. In both
cases, the diesel generator will be switched off at sunny hours because
the amount of generated renewable energy is sufficient to supply the
load. But on Sep 27, due to higher total renewable energy generation

10
A. Shahsavari et al.
than demand, the deferrable load is activated at the peak of solar radi­
ation to use excess electricity, which has not happened on Sep 28. If
during these hours of the day, the total produced renewable energy will
be less than the demand (such as Sep 29), the deferrable load is deac­
tivated, and the batteries are activated. On the other hand, if the acti­
vation of the batteries cannot provide the demand, such as hours of the
day when there is no solar radiation, the activation of the diesel
generator will be a priority due to the lower cost than the batteries. In
fact, the main reason for the difference in the participation of the CHP
system in the supply of thermal load between September 27 to 30 and
October 1 to 4 was the same operation mode difference in the supply of
energy from renewable sources.
Fig. 9 illustrates the Levelized Cost of Water (LCOW) for each
introduced configuration in Table 11, calculated based on the last
equation in Table 6. As can be seen, scenario 1, which has the most
economical cost of energy and total net present cost, also has the lowest
Levelized cost of water ($ 0.89 per cubic meter). It can be concluded
that, according to the LCOW equation in Table 6, due to the constant
value of all parameters except the COE, the cost of energy has a direct
effect on the water cost so that it increases with increasing of COE and
decreases with decreasing of COE.
4.2. CHP system performance
This section presents the CHP system performance based on its
output power profile. As can be seen in Fig. 10, the diesel generator is an
essential component throughout the year. Based on part (a) of this
figure, diesel generator produced power increases in the warm months
of the year, which the load peak power consumption is increased due to
the use of cooling devices. On average, PV, WT, and DG generate about
41.2%, 31.7%, and 27.1% of the total power in the optimum scenario.
The share of diesel generator participation in the hot months of the year
is about 6% more than in the cold months of the year.
It should be noted that all of the generated electricity by the diesel
generator is used to supply demand, but the solar panel and wind turbine
generate some extra electricity (about 10% in the proposed hybrid en­
ergy system) due to their dependence on wind and solar sources. Part of
this surplus power is stored in batteries, and a part of it is considered as
excess electricity.
The PV, WT, and DG units generate 60,720 kWh/year, 46,783 kWh/
year, and 39,889 kWh/year, respectively. On the other hand, the battery
unit provides 6,817 kWh/year for the hybrid system as a backup
component. Besides, the boiler supplies 3,831 kWh/year of the thermal
load, while the CHP unit provides 1,878 kWh annually. This means that
the CHP unit can provide about 33% of the thermal load. In this regard,
the boiler uses just 456 m3/year, while without a CHP unit, this value
Fig. 9. Levelized cost of water for each scenario of hybrid energy configuration.
11
Energy 258 (2022) 124820
reaches more than 680 m3/year. The diesel generator operates about
4,036 h/year, and the boiler operates about 4,724 h/year, which in­
dicates the proper interaction of the CHP system in the supply of thermal
load. Accordingly, part (b) shows the diesel generator power production
profile; it is evident that this component works more when the solar
resource is weak or unable to provide the demand (refer to Fig. 10 (b)
and Fig. 8). In this case, the CHP unit can supply the thermal load. Part
(c) illustrates the boiler fuel consumption profile; as can be seen, the
boiler often operates in the outage hours of the DG unit to supply
thermal demand.
Fig. 11 shows the profit in fuel consumption compared to the CHP
system’s different heat recovery ratios. The estimated values can be seen
in Table 12. Accordingly, the heat recovery ratio of 20% can provide
more than 33% of the thermal load. This shows that less than a 20% heat
recovery ratio will not be suitable for the proposed hybrid energy sys­
tem. More than a 30% heat recovery ratio leads to much more power
production, which can be applicable for larger thermal loads. In fact, a
heat recovery ratio between 20% and 30% can provide proper reliability
for the CHP system against sudden increases in clinical thermal load,
such as conditions caused by epidemic diseases. In fact, considering the
thermal consumption profile of the health clinic and also the annual
operation times of the generator, about a 20% heat recovery ratio can
lead to useful thermal energy generation equal to one-third of total
demand.
Furthermore, the supplied power by the CHP unit is equivalent to the
usage of about 2,893 m3/year natural gas. This profit can be essential for
rural areas with limited fuel access and countries with high natural gas
costs. Due to the importance of this profit, the circles’ area (in Fig. 11)
compares the fuel profit in each possible heat recovery ratio.
4.3. Sensitivity analysis
Sensitivity analysis is one of the essential methods to investigate the
effect of variation in input data on the main simulation outputs and
generalize the results for use in other parts of the world. The most
important parameters affecting the main objective of optimization
(COE) are economic parameters such as the capital cost of power gen­
eration units, inflation and discount rates, and the potential of local
renewable resources. Changing any of these parameters can change the
cost-effectiveness of the optimal scenario. For the capital price of
renewable power generation equipment, a 30% change is considered
because this is the largest change recorded by observing the local mar­
ket. For the inflation rate and discount rate, according to the announced
values by the Central Bank of Iran in recent years, a change of about 3%
is considered. According to data from NASA meteorological data, the
range of changes in solar radiation and wind speed does not exceed 3
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

Fig. 10. Profile of the annual contribution of the CHP system to the power supply of the hybrid system. a) Monthly average electrical production by each component
b) Diesel generator power production profile c) Boiler’s natural gas fuel consumption profile.

Fig. 11. The effect of variations in heat recovery ratio on the annual fuel consumption profit.

kWh/m2/day to 7 kWh/m2/day and 3 m/s to 7 m/s, respectively.

Table 12
Therefore, in order to perform the sensitivity analysis, these numerical
Estimated values from Fig. 11.
ranges, with steps equal to 0.01 by HOMER default, are analyzed.
Heat recovery Generated thermal power Equal natural gas consumption Fig. 12 shows different cases of sensitivity analysis. Part (a) dem­
ratio (%) (kWh/year) (m3/year)
onstrates the effect of variations of reverse osmosis capital cost (in range
0 0 0 of 700 $/(m3/day) to 1,100 $/(m3/day)) and electricity consumption (in
5 4,019 486.8 range of 1.5 kWh/m3 to 3.5 kWh/m3) on the cost of energy. As obvious,
10 8,038 973.2
15 12,058 1,447
these variations change the COE between 0.252 $/kWh and 0.268
20 16,288 1,928.9 $/kWh. Increasing both parameters has an increasing effect on the
25 20,360 2,411.2 amount of energy cost. However, the impact of rising RO capital costs on
30 24,432 2,893.3 changing COE is more severe than electricity consumption.
35 28,504 3,375.6
Part (b) of Fig. 12 illustrates the impact of inflation and discount
40 32,576 3,857.9
rates changes on the NPC of the hybrid energy system. Due to unstable
economic conditions, changes in discount and inflation rates can be an
effective challenge on the amount of NPC; therefore, based on the local
economic conditions, the rate of change for inflation is considered

12
A. Shahsavari et al.
Fig. 12. Sensitivity analysis of different parameters. a) Capital cost and electricity consumption of RO b) Inflation and discount rates c) Renewable resources d) Wind
turbine and PV module capital costs.
between 10% and 15%, and for the discount rate is considered between
12% and 18%. According to this figure, an increase in the discount rate
reduces the amount of NPC, and an increase in the rate of inflation
causes NPC to rise. These results show the negative effects of rising
inflation on the economic efficiency of hybrid systems. For example,
assuming a discount rate of about 15%, an increase in the inflation rate
from 12% to 15% will increase NPC by approximately 11%. These re­
sults display that this hybrid system can be more affordable in countries
with low changes in the ratio of inflation to the discount rate.
Part (c) of Fig. 12 depicts the heat map of the influence of renewable
resources (solar radiation and wind speed) variations on the optimum
cost of energy. As can be seen, these variations cause a change in the cost
of energy in the range of 0.2 $/kWh to 0.3 $/kWh. Increasing both pa­
rameters results in a lower COE, but wind speed has a higher impact on
this decrement. Based on the more considerable expense on each kW of
wind turbines than each kW of solar panels, changing wind speed has a
more severe effect on system costs than changing solar radiation po­
tential. It can be observed that with considering ±10% possible varia­
tions in the current wind speed and solar radiation potential, the cost of
energy differs almost between 0.23 $/kWh and 0.26 $/kWh, which in­
dicates these results can be applied to other parts of the world with
similar climate conditions. Furthermore, by decreasing the wind po­
tential, the PV installation reaches higher affordability. Besides, higher
capacity of PV leads to higher converter installation, which leads to
higher expense for the hybrid system. It is worth mentioning that due to
the lower lifetime of the converter than the PV module (15 years against
20 years), a replacement cost also will be imposed on the system.
Part (d) of Fig. 12 displays the heat map of the wind turbine and PV
13
Energy 258 (2022) 124820
module capital cost variations effect on the optimal hybrid energy
configuration cost. The PV and WT capital cost multipliers are the
multipliers that refer to the increase or decrease of primary capital cost
(the primary component cost in Table 3). As can be seen, these variations
cause a change in the cost of energy in the range of 0.210 $/kWh to
0.260 $/kWh, so the increase of both parameters results in a greater
COE. It can be considered that with approximately a 10% increment or
decrement of the current capital costs, the cost of energy differs roughly
between 0.225 $/kWh and 0.245 $/kWh. This issue demonstrates that
the obtained energy cost in this study has a reasonable range in ex­
change for possible changes in renewable equipment price.
4.4. Grid breakeven distance optimization
In this study, the point where the grid is removed from the hybrid
system is considered breakeven distance, indicating the distance that the
stand-alone system is economically optimized. In this study, the HOMER
grid optimization tool is used to calculate the grid extension distance. To
this end, the possible distance of rural areas from urban areas in Iran
(maximum 60 km) is imported to the software, and other variables such
as grid capital cost, diesel fuel price, primary electrical load, and annual
grid blackouts are simulated for each possible distance. The new color
specifies the distance that the grid is eliminated from the optimum
scenario in the HOMER grid sensitivity diagram as Fig. 13. It should be
noted that to estimate the worst-case scenario for optimizing a hybrid
renewable energy system compared to using the power grid, possible
network outages are not considered in this simulation. However, the
effect of blackouts is analyzed according to Fig. 13 (d).
A. Shahsavari et al.
Fig. 13. The impact of grid extension distance variation on different parameters for breakeven distance. a) Grid capital cost b) Diesel fuel price c) Primary electric
load d) Annual grid blackouts.
Fig. 13 part (a) illustrates the grid breakeven distance boundary
based on variation in grid capital cost and grid extension distance from
the energy system area. According to this figure, for a capital cost equal
to 8,000 $/km, the maximum appropriate breakeven distance between
the specified location and grid transmission lines is approximately 27
km, and for more far distances, utilization of the grid is not cost-
effective. While, the stand-alone hybrid energy system, including PV/
WT/DG/Bat, can be applied for electricity supply. On the other hand,
with an upsurge in the capital cost, the maximum appropriate breakeven
distance reduces, so that for a capital cost equal to 22,000 $/km, the
optimum distance for utilizing the grid reaches about 10 km, and for
longer distances, it is not an affordable solution. Given the geographical
and economic conditions, the capital cost for the development of grid
transmission lines is estimated at an average of 15,000 $/km, which will
be used for further analysis.
Part (b) of Fig. 13 indicates the effect of changes in diesel fuel price in
the range of 0.1 $/L to 1 $/L on breakeven distance. Based on this figure,
when the fuel price is low, the breakeven distance occurs in less than
14.5 km; while increasing the fuel price to international tariff (1 $/L),
the breakeven distance reaches about 24 km. Also, between 14.5 km and
24 km, breakeven distance is highly dependent on diesel fuel price. This
issue shows the importance of considering fuel price in developing
stand-alone hybrid energy systems.
Part (c) of Fig. 13 shows the impact of alterations of the average
electrical load in the range of 50 kWh/day to 350 kWh/day on break­
even distance. As can be seen, the amount of load has a significant effect
on the cost-effectiveness of the power grid extension, so for small loads
such as 50 kWh/day, at distances greater than 6.5 km, it is not affordable
to develop grid transmission lines, and it is better to apply the stand-
alone hybrid system. However, by the load increment (about 350
14
Energy 258 (2022) 124820
kWh/day), the maximum suitable distance for using the grid reaches
about 28.30 km. Then for longer distances, the stand-alone hybrid en­
ergy system becomes economical.
Part (d) of Fig. 13 demonstrates the influence of alterations of the
grid power blackouts hours (failure frequency) on breakeven distance.
According to this figure, when the power outages are low (the grid
reliability is high), the breakeven distance is about 14.50 km. On the
other hand, by increasing the power outages, this distance decreases to
approximately 12.50 km. It is also evident that in stand-alone cases, in
high power outages, it is better to apply more flexible power generation
devices such as diesel generator rather than a renewable device such as
wind turbine.
4.5. CO2 emissions
The proposed hybrid renewable energy system, including PV/WT/
DG/CHP/Battery/Boiler, annually emits about 33,065 kg of carbon di­
oxide. Fig. 14 indicates the heat map of diesel fuel consumption and
diesel fuel price alteration impact on CO2 emission. According to this
figure, the effect of diesel fuel price and diesel fuel consumption varia­
tions on the CO2 emission is opposite to each other. Increasing the diesel
fuel price to about 1 $/L causes CO2 emission to decrease to the lowest
values because the economic benefits of renewable energies are more
significant than the economic benefits of fossil fuels. On the other hand,
increasing fuel consumption from 6,000 L to 17,000 L increases carbon
dioxide emission to about 33,000 kg per year.
Fig. 15 shows the comparison of produced CO2 in the current study
with other conventional power plants for a constant load. Accordingly,
the proposed CHP based hybrid renewable system has a 58.4% lower
emission than natural gas-fired plants in Iran. Also, from the
A. Shahsavari et al.
Fig. 14. Sensitivity analysis of the hybrid energy system CO2 emissions based
on diesel fuel price and its availability.
international point of view, this system decreases CO2 emission by about
39.9%. The results exhibit that the combination of a diesel generator
based CHP unit with a hybrid renewable energy system can also be
applicable for the countries with coal-fired power plants. Accordingly,
the proposed system can reduce the emitted CO2 in the range of 56.7%–
66.2%.
5. Conclusion
Secure access to electricity, heat, and water in remote areas with a
small population is one of the significant challenges facing the people of
these areas. Therefore, if an optimal energy system can meet all of these
needs simultaneously, it can be considered a desirable option for use in
such areas. Accordingly, in this paper, a hybrid energy system including
photovoltaic panel, wind turbine, battery, converter, and CHP unit (set
of diesel generator and boiler) along with reverse osmosis desalination
plant was introduced to simultaneously supply electricity, heat, and
water of a village and health clinic. Simulation and identification of the
optimal hybrid energy system among different feasible combinations
were done by HOMER software and based on the lowest COE as the main
objective. The results of optimization with the outcomes from other
sections of this paper, including CHP system performance, sensitivity
analysis, grid breakeven distance optimization, and carbon dioxide
emissions, are presented in the following:
• The optimum hybrid energy configuration between feasible options
was the combination of 39.4 kW of PV, 20 wind turbines, 10 kW of
diesel generator, 96 battery units, a boiler, and 20.1 kW of the
Fig. 15. Comparison of emitted CO2 by different power plants and optimum scenario of the current study.
15
Energy 258 (2022) 124820
converter with 45.4% renewable fraction, 0.236 $/kWh cost of en­
ergy, 428,246 $ net present cost, 12,222 L diesel fuel consumption,
and 456 m3 natural gas consumption.
• Based on the water cost evaluation, the Levelized cost of water for
different scenarios varied between 0.89 $/m3 to 2.39 $/m3, which
the lowest one was related to the optimum configuration.
• On average, about 41.2%, 31.7%, and 27.1% of the total power
production in the optimum scenario were related to PV, WT, and DG
generation.
• Applying a set of diesel generator and boiler as CHP unit played an
important role in saving fuel consumption and preventing energy
losses such that due to the reasonable energy generation price by
diesel fuel, applying integrated CHP unit reduced energy cost by
about 34.8%.
• Based on the results of the CHP system performance section, a heat
recovery ratio between 20% and 30% could provide adequate power
with good reliability. In addition, the generated thermal power and
equal natural gas consumption related to 20% and 30% as heat re­
covery ratio were ranged from 16,288 kWh/year to 24,432 kWh/
year, and 1,928.9 m3/year to 2,893.3 m3/year, respectively.
• Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the influence of RO capital
cost growing on COE increment was more noticeable than the in­
fluence of increment in the desalination device electricity
consumption.
• An increment in the inflation rate had negative effects on the eco­
nomic efficiency of hybrid systems, such that an increase in the rate
of inflation caused NPC to rise. On the other hand, an increase in the
discount rate reduced the amount of NPC.
• The maximum achieved grid breakeven distance was about 27 km,
which showed the proposed system’s high potential for stand-alone
development. In fact, in the range of 14.5 km–24 km, the break­
even distance was highly dependent on diesel fuel price. Further­
more, the proposed system indicated higher cost-effectiveness in off-
grid areas with low fuel prices.
• The CO2 emission analysis of the optimum system showed that the
developed system could effectively reduce the annual emission by
about 39.9% and 66.2% compared to natural gas-fired and coal-fired
power plants, respectively.
For further studies, it is suggested that the combination of other
power generators such as biogas generators and fuel cells with a CHP
unit be investigated. This can be a helpful step to apply a cost-effective
CHP based hybrid renewable energy system for rural electrification.
Credit author statement
Ardavan Shahsavari: Data curation, Writing-Original draft
A. Shahsavari et al. Energy 258 (2022) 124820

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