Interview Geography

What are the economic and social benefits of forests?

8.1 What is the total value of harvested wood?

8.2 What is the value of other forests products harvested?

8.3 How many people are employed in forestry?

8.4 Who owns forests and wooded lands?

8.5 How much of the forest area has been set aside for recreation and other social functions?

The source document for this Digest states:

OVERVIEW

Forests provide a wide range of economic and social benefits to humankind. These include contributions
to the overall economy – for example through employment, processing and trade of forest products and
energy – and investments in the forest sector. They also include the hosting and protection of sites and
landscapes of high cultural, spiritual or recreational value. Maintaining and enhancing these functions is
an integral part of sustainable forest management.

Information on the status of and trends in socio-economic benefits is thus essential in evaluating
progress towards sustainable forest management, together with the more usual statistics on the
predominantly environmental values considered under the other themes.

Economic benefits are usually measured in monetary terms and may include: income from employment
in the sector; the value of the production of goods and services from forests; and the contribution of the
sector to the national economy, energy supplies and international trade. In addition, the economic
viability or sustainability of the sector can be assessed by measures such as the profitability of forest
enterprises or the level of investment.

The social functions of forests are often more difficult to measure and can vary considerably among
countries, depending on their level of development and traditions. For example, in developed, post-
industrial societies, the benefits of forests for recreation and amenity values or the maintenance of a
rural way of life may be most important, while in developing countries, the area of forests available for
subsistence activities or the number of people employed in the sector may be a better indication of their
social value. Given the difficulties of measuring the social benefits of forests, social functions are often
measured in terms of inputs rather than outputs (e.g. the area or proportion of forests used to provide
various social functions).

All the international processes on criteria and indicators include a section on the monitoring and
assessment of socio-economic functions or benefits of the forestry sector. A wide variety of variables
may be measured: production and consumption; recreation and tourism; funding and investment in the
forest sector; cultural, social and spiritual needs and values; forestry employment; health and safety;
and community needs.

In FRA 2005, countries provided information on four measures of socio-economic functions:

Value of wood and non-wood forest product removals. FRA 2005 examines the production of primary
products, excluding the benefits of downstream processing.

Employment in forestry. Figures refer to employment in forestry activities rather than employment in
the whole forestry sector (i.e. they exclude employment in processing of wood and non-wood forest
products) and they only include formal employment. Countries were asked to provide information for
1990 and 2000 only. No forecasting to 2005 was done.

Ownership of forest and other wooded land. Three classes of ownership were used: public, private and
other. Countries were asked to provide information for 1990 and 2000 only. No forecasting to 2005 was
done.

Areas of forest designated for social services. Two measures were included: area of forest for which the
provision of social services was designated as the primary function and total area of forest for which
recreation, education and other social services were designated as one of the functions.

In general, the measures presented in FRA 2005 are more restrictive than those proposed in some
international criteria and indicators processes because they refer to benefits from forests only (rather
than benefits from the whole forestry sector, which include downstream processing). No information
was requested from countries on socio-economic indicators related to health and safety, funding,
investment, recycling and contribution to energy supplies, owing to a lack of information on these
aspects in many countries.
In general, the availability of information was highest for the area of forest designated for different
functions and ownership of forests and lowest for the value of NWFP removals (Figure 7.1). In addition,
the quality of information reported on the value of outputs (removals of wood and non-wood forest
products) was quite weak in several respects (e.g. incompatible definitions and measurement units,
partial responses from some countries, and statistics that contradict other sources or seem otherwise
implausible).

What are tropical storms?

Tropical Storms are also known as Hurricanes (Atlantic), Tropical Cyclones (South East Asia), Willy Willies
(Australia) and Typhoons (Pacific).

A map to show the names of different types of tropical storm

Tropical storms

Tropical Storms are areas of extreme low pressure. This means air is rising, causing ‘low pressure’ on the
earth’s surface. The maximum sustained surface wind speed (using the U.S. 1-minute average) ranges
from 34 knots (39 mph or 63 kph) to 63 knots (73 mph or 118 kph).

Hurricanes are classified into five categories based on their wind speed, central pressure, and damage
potential. The video below demonstrates the five categories.

HOW DO TROPICAL STORMS FORM?

Tropical Storms start within 5º and 30º north and south of the equator where surface sea temperatures
reach at least 26.5ºC. The air above the warm sea is heated and rises. This causes low pressure. As the
air rises it cools then condenses, forming clouds. The air around the weather system rushes in to fill the
gap caused by the rising air. The air begins to spiral. This is caused by the spinning movement of the
earth.

The structure of a hurricane in the northern hemisphere

The structure of a hurricane in the northern hemisphere

The weather system generates heat which powers the storm, causing wind speeds to increase. This
causes the tropical storm to sustain itself. Tropical storms rely on plenty of warm, moist air from the sea
– this is why they die out over land.

What is the structure of a Tropical Storm?

The central part of the tropical storm is known as the eye. The eye is usually between 30-50km across. It
is an area of calm, with light winds and no rain. It contains descending air. Large cumulonimbus clouds
surround the eye. These are caused by moist air condensing as it rises. Wind speeds average 160km per
hour around the eye.

Case Studies

Below is a list of Tropical Storms, each with a link to a site containing information about it:

1. Hurricane Katrina – America’s costliest hurricane.

2. Hurricane Andrew – 1992 America’s second costliest hurricane

3. Hurricane Mitch – 1998

4. Indian ‘Super Cyclone’ 1999 Orissa cyclone – The strongest and deadliest cyclone in the region since
the Bangladesh cyclone of April 1991

5. Cyclone Eline – 2000 The cause of the major disaster in Mozambique

For more information on current hurricanes visit the US National Hurricane Centre website.

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

Meteorological hazards: Tropical storms, hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons

Definition and characteristics

Tropical storms, cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons, although named differently, describe the same
disaster type.

Essentially, these disaster types refer to a large scale closed circulation system in the atmosphere which
combines low pressure and strong winds that rotate counter clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

The system is referred to as a "cyclone" in the Indian Ocean and and South Pacific, "hurricane" in the
Western Atlantic and Eastern Pacific and "typhoon" in the Western Pacific.

Hurricanes and typhoons are the same storm types as "tropical cyclones" (the local name for storms
which originate in the Caribbean and China Sea region respectively).

A tropical cyclone is a non-frontal storm system that is characterised by a low pressure center, spiral rain
bands and strong winds. Usually it originates over tropical or subtropical waters and rotates clockwise in
the southern hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere. The system is fueled by
heat released when moist air rises and the water vapor it contains condenses ("warm core" storm
system). Therefore the water temperature must be >27 °C.

Cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons can be predicted several days in advance. The onset is extensive and
often very destructive. These disasters are usually more destructive than floods.

First, in a sudden, brief onslaught, high winds cause major damage to infrastructure and housing, in
particular fragile constructions. They are generally followed by heavy rains and floods and, in flat coastal
areas, by tidal waves.
In the case of cyclones, accurate landfall predictions can give only a few hours' notice to threatened
populations. In addition, people generally opt to wait until the very last minute before abandoning their
home and possessions. Deaths from drowning in the high tides and sudden flooding and material losses
are therefore often very high.

Structure of the Earth

How many tectonic plates are there and theory of tectonic plates?

Where is Iberian peninsula?

The Iberian Peninsula is a mountainous region that's most associated with the countries of
Spain and Portugal. Its history under Muslim and Christian rule is reflected in landmarks like the
Alhambra, an ornate Moorish palace in Granada, Spain, and the Sagrada Família, architect
Antoni Gaudí's fantastical church in Barcelona. The capital of Spain's Catalonia region,
Barcelona is also famous for imaginative food.