Carl Jung, Freud’s student, delved even deeper.

Jung believed there is another layer below the personal

unconscious, which he called the collective unconscious, “a collective, universal, and impersonal nature
which is identical in all individuals.”3 He likened this realm to a vast reservoir beneath the surface of
everyday experience, a pool of pre-existing “archetypes” that all human beings inherit. According to this
view, horror films derive much of their power by tapping into the pool. They connect us to our “shadow
side,” the dark, demonic forces that rage in everyone and which we project as archetypal monsters on
screen. If ghosts and demons represent the return of repressed psychic energies to Freudians, if they
symbolize the dark side of a mythic, universal underworld to Jungians, followers of Karl Marx and Fredric
Jameson see them as creatures from a kind of political unconscious. Repressed social problems that
threaten the status quo – class conflicts, racial tensions, gender inequities – return symbolically in horror
films to haunt us in the form of zombies, hillbilly stalkers, and vengeful female ghosts. Their power to
disturb us, these theories imply, comes from unresolved issues skulking deep within our psyche, our
culture, and shared myths.

Sigmund_Freud_and_Psychoanalysis

In the theory of psychoanalytical theory of personality, one of Sigmund Freud’s greatest works, Freud
described personality to be founded on three major elements that co-currently work together to create
various human behaviors. Freud termed these elements as the ID, Ego and the Super Ego. According to
Freud, the component of personality that humans were born with was the ID. It is as a result of the ID
that babies are able to communicate. It is factual that babies cry at the sign of any form of discomfort
from hunger, wetness, sleep, to even simply needing attention. This hence made the ID the primary
personality component.

A chance hearing of a lecture on nature during his final year of secondary school turned his attention
toward science, and led to his almost impulsive enrollment in the University of Vienna's medical school
in 1873. There, after a brief but intense involvement in the "act psychology" promoted by his philosophy
professor Franz Brentano (1838-1917), his imagination was captured by the new, "mechanistic
physiology" promoted by his physiology teacher, Ernst Brücke (1819-1892). According to this view, all
physiological processes, no matter how complex, had to be accounted for "mechanistically" in terms of
ordinary physical and chemical laws. Freud worked enthusiastically and productively in Brücke's
laboratory for six years, publishing several papers on neuroanatomy, and hoping eventually to pursue a
career as a research physiologist rather than as a practicing physician. In the early 1880s, however, he
reluctantly concluded that an academic research career would not be possible for an impecunious Jew in
anti-Semitic Vienna. He would have to practice medicine after all, and so he went to the General
Hospital for clinical training.

Now the psychoanalytic theory has undergone many refinements under the influence of modern
science. Sigmund Freud had developed his psychoanalysis method from his mentor and friend, Josef
Breuer. Breuer had a patient named, Anna O. She spent most of her time along with her ailing father by
nursing him at the age of twenty-one. A bad cough had developed in her, but there was no proof of any
physical basis for the cause of this cough. Later she had developed some speech difficulties and then she
became speechless immediately. After some period, she started to speak only in English instead of her
usual German. After the death of her father, she refused to take water in her life and showed a set of
problems in her life, such as lost her sensation in her feet and hands, developed some paralysis and
involuntary spasms in her body. She had undergone through the visual hallucinations and a tunnel
vision. With these new developments, special experts attended the case of Anna and found no physical
causes for her problems. Meanwhile, three things happened in her life, such as fairy-tale fantasies,
dramatic mood swings, and attempts of suicide. Breuer diagnosed that she was suffering from hysteria
in which physical symptoms had not appeared. During the spontaneous hypnosis state, Breuer found
that she could speak out about her experience and fantasies. She had a better feeling after vent out of
her experiences. She recalled some emotional event, which connected with a particular symptom in her.
She refused to drink water for a period. She recalled an event in her life. She had seen a woman drink
from a glass that a dog had just drunk from. She showed very strong feelings of disgust against water.
The symptom of disgust against water had disappeared from her after remembering the root event that
spoke out from her mind. Breuer named it as catharsis. Breuer and Freud wrote a book on Hysteria
based on their case studies like Anna. According to them, hysteria was the result of some traumatic
experience. The emotions related to the trauma were not expressed directly, but such emotions were
not evaporated in life. These emotions expressed themselves as behaviours weakly and vaguely. When
the person had allowed releasing these emotions, symptoms ceased in the patients. By adopting this
method, they removed every symptom of their patient, Anna. Anna had shown a new symptom that she
needed Breuer. Even in the hypnotic state also, she felt the presence of his hands. Later Breuer
recognized that she fell in love with him. She started to tell everyone that she was pregnant with
Breuer's child. Anna's mind told her body that it was true and she developed a hysterical pregnancy.
Breuer, an orthodox married Victorian, lost all his interest in the study of hysteria and immediately
abandoned his client, Anna. Later Sigmund Freud found that secret sexual desires lay at the bottom of
all these hysterical neuroses. Freud continued his work where his mentor, Breuer left. He recovered
Anna from her all problems after spending time in a sanatorium. She became a respected social worker
in Germany. Anna still remembers the cause of developing the psychoanalytic theory.

6_SIGMUND_FREUD_AND_PSYCHOANALYTIC_THEOR

According to Freud, the conscious mind is aware of the present perceptions, memories, thoughts, and
feelings. It exists as the tip of the iceberg. Under this conscious mind, a preconscious mind carries the
available memory. From this preconscious mind, a person can retrieve memories into the conscious
mind. There is no dispute about the two layers of the mind. Freud's perception suggested that these two
layers are only the smallest parts of the mind. The larger part is the unconscious of the mind. All the
things, which are not easily available at a conscious level, such as our drives or instincts, memories, and
emotions associated with trauma. Like an iceberg, the unconscious mind plays an important part of the
personality. It plays as the repository of primitive wishes and impulses. These are mediated by the
preconscious mind. Freud's psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the importance of the unconscious mind
and it governs the behaviour to the greatest degree in persons. According to Freud, three important
conceptualized parts of the human personality are the id, ego, and superego. Based on the pleasure
principle, id operates at the unconscious level. The id consists of two kinds of biological instincts: Eros
and Thanatos. The life instinct, Eros helps the person to survive in the world and directs life-sustaining
activities such as respiration, eating, and sex in individuals. Life instincts create energy, which is known
as libido. Death instincts, Thanatos are a set of destructive forces visible in all human beings. Sometimes,
this energy is directed towards others in the form of aggression or violence. Freud strongly believed that
Eros is stronger than Thanatos. It always helps people to survive. During infancy, the ego develops from
the id in individuals. The purpose of the ego is to satisfy the demands of the id in a very safe and socially
acceptable way. The ego operates both in conscious and unconscious mind; ego follows the reality
principle in contrast to the id. During childhood, the superego develops in individuals. Every child follows
the same-sex parent and tries to identify with them. The superego is responsible for ensuring moral
standards in individuals. It operates on moral principles and motivates them to behave in socially
acceptable ways. The fundamental dilemma of all human beings is that every part of the psychic
apparatus makes demands, which are incompatible with the other two. Therefore, every person is under
the inner conflict. Freud compares the relationship between the structure of personality and the levels
of consciousness to an iceberg floating on water. The unconscious mind controls the conscious mind of
the person. The primitive instincts of the id very rarely give direct expression to the outside world. The
ego always regulates and transforms the primitive instincts following the external world and superego.
The ego aims to synchronize the demands of the three tyrannical masters: id, superego, and the external
world. Therefore, the ego becomes the battleground between the conscious and unconscious minds.
Even the ego is an integral part of the id but it functions with modification to accommodate the needs of
the external world. The inability of the ego to satisfy the demands of the id indicates the weakness of
the ego and leads into the split of mind. Suppose the ego is to satisfy the demands of the id, it shows the
strength of the ego. For satisfying the id, the primitive instincts give indirect expression through various
dynamic processes. There are many defence mechanisms such as fantasy, identification, sublimation
and displacement, and dreams. Defence mechanisms are unconscious activities of the mind. The person
does not know it directly. They are different in different persons. This process is a normal one. When it
goes beyond the limit, then it leads to abnormality. The primary intension of all these processes is to
meet the demands of the id without any conflict with the outside world. Some of the processes are
denial, fantasy, compensation, projection, displacement, sublimation, reaction formation, regression,
and repression.

5205ms1

During the 1890s, Josef Breuer, a respected physician, began treating a complex patient, ‘Anna ’, who
suffered from hysteria. Perplexed by Anna’s bizarre symptoms (mental lapses, hallucinations about black
snakes, skulls and skeletons, partial paralysis and hydrophobia), Breuer asked Freud for help in exploring
their potential causes. After years of daily observations, both clinicians finally concluded that Anna’s
symptoms were “residues of sexual feelings and impulses she had felt obliged to suppress, and that
reconciliation of such feelings happened only when she spoke freely, uninhibited”. The opportunity to
verbalise released the hidden subconscious that was at the root of her mental disturbance. With the
publication of Studies on Hysteria, the ‘cathartic talking cure’ drew excited attention, and in 1896, Freud
coined the term ‘psychoanalysis’ for this treatment method. While working with Breuer, Freud began a
passionate period of self-analysis with an emphasis on his own childhood.. These self observations were
pivotal in the development of his famous Oedipus complex theory, and formed the basis of his profound
work, The Interpretation of Dreams, published in 1900. This work defined dreams in terms of emotions
that were critical as portals to the unconscious mind.

Sigismund Schlomo Freud was born in Austria in 1856 into a middleclass, non-religious Jewish family. His
father Jacob was considerably older than his mother and had adult children from a previous marriage.
Freud was the eldest of the eight children of this marriage and, with his intellectual brilliance and
stalwart confidence, became the focus of the family's hopes of success and recognition in the gentile
society in which they lived. He decided in adolescence that 'Sigmund' was preferable to his given names,
and this was the name he used in adulthood. Austria was embroiled in political and cultural turmoil, and
Vienna, where Freud grew up, was at its epicentre (Taylor 1948; Schorske 1961). Social unrest was
fuelled by economic disaster with a stock market crash in 1873. The Habsburgs, the longest-ruling royal
family in Europe, were in the throes of self-destruction: Europe was rocked by the double suicide of
Crown Prince Rudolf and his teenage mistress in 1889, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire disintegrated
at the end of the First World War. Schnitzler and Schoenberg, Klimt and Kokoschka, Wittgenstein and
Hitler all emerged from nineteenthcentury Vienna. It is in this cauldron of revolution and transformation
that we should locate Freud and his ideas. Freud studied medicine, and an early example of his reckless
creativity was his promotion of cocaine. He was dismayed by the addictive potential it proved to have
after he had exacerbated the suffering of a dying friend by prescribing him cocaine in an attempt to cure
his addiction to morphine. He moved away from research and into psychiatry so that he could support a
family, marrying Martha Bernays in 1886 after a prolonged engagement. He chose the names of all six of
their children after friends and historical figures he admired. He seems to have been an affectionate
father; he found the death of his favourite daughter Sophie in 1920 desperately hard to encompass. The
household included Martha's sister Minna, who with Martha and their daughter Anna encircled him to
the end of his life Anti-Semitism was an increasingly virulent force in Freud's life. He tells of his
childhood disappointment in his father's failure to stand up to a bullying Christian who threw his cap
into the gutter (Gay 1988: 11-12). He vowed that he would not become a 'humble Jew', and he never
went back on this decision. As an old man, suffering from cancer, his work banned and his books burned
under the Nazi regime, he and his immediate family were allowed to leave Austria after eminent French
and English friends had appealed on their behalf and paid a large sum of money. It proved impossible to
bring his four elderly sisters out with the rest of the family, and they died in concentration camps. A
condition for the Freuds' emigration was that Freud should sign a statement to the effect that he had
been treated well and his scientific work respected. He agreed, with the stipulation that he could add his
own endorsement. This read, with heavy irony: T can most highly recommend the Gestapo to everyone'
(Gay 1988: 628). Freud arrived in London in 1938, where he died a year later. The house in Hampstead
where he and his family lived is now the Freud Museum. It offers a fascinating insight into the extensive
Freud family and the formative years of psychoanalysis.

Artical+630

This theory is founded by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). He quoted that, “there is a
powerful force within us, an unilluminated part of the mind that is constantly at working molding our
thought, feelings and actions” (Juma, 2019). Freud further claims that the human mind possesses
unconscious and conscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. A person’s conscious mind is
aware of the present sensation, memories, thoughts, and feelings (keefner et al., 2016). It acts as the tip
of the iceberg. In the case of the iceberg, the bigger portion always remains under the water and
therefore remains unseen. Like this under the conscious mind, an unconscious mind carries the
repressed memory or desire which a person does not want to express to the people but still, they always
come outside in a way or with some medium. From this unconscious mind, a person can retrieve
memories into the conscious mind. He claims that instinct and emotions associated with trauma can be
found on the unconscious level. In 1923 he introduced id, ego, and superego as the biological drivers of
human behavior to describe the psyche of an individual or human personality. Id lies in the unconscious
mind and seeks immediate satisfaction. Superego also lies in the unconscious mind but it refers to moral
behavior. The ego is the most prominent part of the human psyche. It works keeping in mind both id and
superego. Ego helps an individual to walk on a path where neither his behavior will go against society
nor he has to suffer for not getting any pleasure.

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the
interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This theory, known
as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of unconscious
psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality. Dynamic interactions among these
fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress through five distinct psychosexual stages of
development. Over the last century, however, Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in part
because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.

Sigmund_Freud_and_Hysteria_The_Etiology

Sigmund Freud developed a specific interest in hysteria after his stay with Professor Jean-Martin Charcot
during the winter of 1885–1886, although his previous activity mainly consisted of neuropathology and
general medical practice. Most of his initial studies on hysteria (hysteria in men, influence of
subconscious ideas, role of traumas, and psychological and sexual factors) were indeed ‘borrowed’ from
Charcot and his immediate followers, such as Pierre Janet and Paul Richer. Subsequently, Freud
developed with Breuer a theory of hysteria which encompassed a mixture of Janet’s ‘fixed subconscious
ideas’ with the ‘pathological secret’ concept of Moriz Benedikt. After their book Studies on Hysteria
(1895), Freud interrupted his collaboration with Breuer and developed the concept of conversion of
psychological problems into somatic manifestations, with a strong ‘sexualization’ of hysteria. Firstly, he
believed that actual abuses had occurred in these patients (the ‘seduction’ theory), but then blamed
them for having deceived him on that issue, so that he subsequently launched a ‘fantasy’ theory to
explain the development of hysterical symptoms without the necessity of actual abuses. Like many of his
contemporaries, and contrary to his claims, Freud did not follow a scientific process of verified
experiments, but rather adapted his theories to the evolution of his own beliefs on psychological
conditions, selectively emphasizing the aspects of his ‘therapies’ with patients which supported his
emerging ideas, with often abrupt changes in theoretical interpretations. While it remains difficult to get
a clear, synthetic vision of what was Freud’s definite theory of hysteria, it is obvious that hysteria really
was the origin of what would become Freud’s psychoanalytical theory. Indeed, psychoanalysis appears
to have been initially developed by him largely in order to absorb and explain his many changes in the
interpretation of hysterical manifestations.

3aa109d6def702728b0c51c428e33639

In December of 1908, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud (18561939) received an intriguing
invitation from the American psychologist G. Stanley Hall (18441924), inviting him to visit Clark
University in Worcester, Massachusetts, and deliver a series of lectures describing his novel views about
abnormal psychology. The invitation was intriguing partly because it came from one of the senior and
most influential figures in American psychology. A prolific author and researcher, Hall had pioneered the
field of developmental psychology and brought both the term and the concept of "adolescence" to wide
public notice. He had also been America's leading institution builder for the emerging discipline of
psychology, establishing The American Journal of Psychology as his country's first professional
psychology journal in 1887, and serving as the founding president of the American Psychological
Association in 1892. Since 1889 he had been president of Clark University, which despite its small size
had become the leading American producer of Ph.D. students in psychology. Indeed, Hall was just now
planning a conference to celebrate the University's 20th anniversary, which he assured Freud would
attract "the best American professors and students of psychology and psychiatry," and which was the
occasion for the present invitation.[1] Freud was flattered to receive an invitation from such an eminent
representative of the psychological establishment, for he himself was anything but an establishment
figure. For more than twenty of his fifty-two years he had been developing an innovative psychological
theory and treatment method that he called "psychoanalysis," but even though he had published
extensively in respectable German language journals his work had not "taken off" in the way the
ambitious Freud had hoped it would. As Freud later put it, he had spent the decade of the 1890s
working in "splendid isolation" and only after the 1900 publication of his book Die Traumdeutung (The
Interpretation of Dreams) had he begun to attract a small following in Europe. A few young Viennese
intellectuals started meeting regularly at his home to discuss his work, occasionally joined by outside
visitors such as Karl Abraham (1877-1925) from Berlin, Sandor Ferenczi (1873-1933) from Budapest, and
Carl Jung (1875-1961) from Zurich. By April of 1908 this group had become large and enthusiastic
enough to organize a "First International Congress of Psychoanalysis" in the Austrian city of Salzburg,
which attracted some forty participants from five countries. But this was still relatively small stuff.
Almost all of the writing about psychoanalysis was still in German and its reputation was primarily
confined to continental Europe; even there, it was distinctly a fringe movement. In America and the rest
of the English speaking world, some rumors had begun to spread about Freud as the promoter of a
strange and sensational new theory that emphasized sexuality and the unconscious, but few had any
direct knowledge of him or his work. Hall, who had emphasized sexuality in his own theorizing about
child development and adolescence, was among the first Americans to read Freud in the original and to
be positively impressed. Hence the invitation. Following negotiations during which the date of the
conference was changed to a more convenient time, the speaker's honorarium increased from $400 to
$750, and Freud was offered an honorary degree if he came, he accepted. Despite some uneasiness
about the receptivity of American culture to his work, Freud recognized the invitation as offering a
wonderful platform from which to present his theory directly to a new and prestigious group of
psychologists, under the official sponsorship of a highly respected American institution. He arranged to
bring his Hungarian disciple Ferenczi along for moral support, and convinced Hall to issue Jung a last
minute invitation to address the conference as well. Freud and his party sailed to New York aboard the
ocean liner George Washington in late August, and arrived in Worcester for the early September
conference. Freud delivered five lectures on five consecutive days from Tuesday, September 7 through
Saturday the 11th. Given in German and following no written text, each was extemporaneously planned
on a walk with Ferenczi earlier in the day. Despite these apparent limitations, the talks were a great
success. His audience was more multilingual than would be the case for a comparable gathering today,
and Freud fully revealed his skill as a cogent and captivating lecturer, sprinkling his talks with small jokes
and personal references that everyone enjoyed. His lectures told the story, in roughly chronological
order, of how he had arrived at the main points of his theory and technique. Although more than twenty
speakers participated in the conference, Hall clearly promoted Freud as the star attraction, and his
lectures received wide press coverage. Although not everyone was convinced by everything Freud had
to say, his goals for the visit were more than realized. He provided a lucid summary of his complicated
theories, in terms easily understood and remembered by intelligent laypeople. Hall liked the lectures
very much, and wanted to preserve them in a more permanent and definitive form than just newspaper
accounts. Accordingly, he wrote to Freud shortly after his return to Vienna: "Your lectures were such
masterpieces of simplification, directness, and comprehensiveness that we all think that for us to print
them here would greatly extend your views at a psychological moment here and would do very much
toward developing in future years a strong American school."[2] If Freud would agree to recreate the
lectures in writing by the next January, Hall would have them translated into English and published in
the American Journal of Psychology. Freud readily agreed, and after working "head over heels to meet
the imminent deadline you have set for me"[3], produced the five written lectures on time. Although
slightly amended to accommodate the written medium, they faithfully recaptured the substance and
spirit of his original talks. As they arrived one by one, Hall immediately sent them for translation to his
student Harry W. Chase, who was concurrently completing a doctoral dissertation on the new Freudian
psychology. After some frantic transatlantic exchanges for Freud to approve the translations, they duly
appeared in the April issue of the journal under the title, "The Origin and Development of
Psychoanalysis," in the exact form in which they appear below. Later in 1910 Freud published his
German version of the lectures, in a small book that he gratefully dedicated to Hall. In the following
years Freud's enthusiasm for Hall dimmed somewhat, as the American began to endorse some of the
views of Alfred Adler, Freud's early follower who had broken with psychoanalysis and established a
competing school of "Individual Psychology." Freud complained that Hall too much enjoyed playing the
role of "kingmaker," and was fickle in his devotion to those he had previously anointed. Nonetheless he
was correct to be grateful to Hall, for the lectures and their attendant honors and publicity marked a
genuine turning point. Now accessible for the first time to a wide audience, Freud and psychoanalysis
were fairly on their way to becoming household terms, in America as well as Europe. Freud's German
version of the lectures has subsequently been re-translated into English, mainly to make all of their
terminology consistent with the more recent "Standard Edition" of Freud's work. But the essence of all
versions remains the same, and the original translation presented here has the historical virtue of
enabling the reader to encounter Freud in exactly the same way his American audience first did in 1910.
There is still no better short introduction to the man and his work.

Sigmund Freud was born on 6 May 1856 in the town of Freiburg in the AustroHungarian Empire (now
called Prîbor and part of the Czech Republic). In 1860 his father, a Jewish wool merchant of modest
means, moved the family to Vienna, where Freud remained until the final year of his long life. The family
constellation was unusual in that Freud's father was much older than his mother, and in a previous
marriage had had two sons who were roughly the same age as Freud's mother. One of these
halfbrothers had a son - Freud's nephew - who was older than Freud himself. Freud was the first of his
mother's eight children, and so grew up as the oldest - and most favored - child within his immediate
family household. Some have speculated that this unusual situation may have particularly sensitized
Freud to family dynamics such as those he later emphasized in formulating the Oedipus Complex. Be
that as it may, young Freud became a brilliant and ambitious student, standing at or near the top of his
class at school with particular interests in history and literature. A chance hearing of a lecture on nature
during his final year of secondary school turned his attention toward science, and led to his almost
impulsive enrollment in the University of Vienna's medical school in 1873. There, after a brief but
intense involvement in the "act psychology" promoted by his philosophy professor Franz Brentano
(1838-1917), his imagination was captured by the new, "mechanistic physiology" promoted by his
physiology teacher, Ernst Brücke (1819-1892). According to this view, all physiological processes, no
matter how complex, had to be accounted for "mechanistically" in terms of ordinary physical and
chemical laws. Freud worked enthusiastically and productively in Brücke's laboratory for six years,
publishing several papers on neuroanatomy, and hoping eventually to pursue a career as a research
physiologist rather than as a practicing physician. In the early 1880s, however, he reluctantly concluded
that an academic research career would not be possible for an impecunious Jew in anti-Semitic Vienna.
He would have to practice medicine after all, and so he went to the General Hospital for clinical training.
There, Freud's prior neurophysiological interests naturally led him to the psychiatry clinic directed by the
famous brain anatomist Theodore Meynert (1833-1893). Under Meynert's direction, Freud became
unusually adept at diagnosing organic brain disorders, particularly the effects of localized injuries. He
now developed ambitions of specializing in this field, and as Meynert's best student he won a fellowship
enabling him to travel to Paris and study with the great French neurologist Jean Charcot (1825-1893) for
six months beginning in November of 1885. Charcot had made his reputation by studying "orthodox"
neurological conditions such as polio and multiple sclerosis, but when Freud encountered him he
happened to be deep into the study of hysteria. As Freud relates in the first of his Clark lectures,
hysterical symptoms often resemble in some ways the effects of localized brain injuries, but occur in the
absence of such injuries. Most physicians of the time dismissed hysteria as malingering and did not take
it seriously, but Charcot believed it was a real condition caused by generalized (as opposed to localized)
weakness of the nervous system, and closely related to the susceptibility to hypnosis. As Freud suggests
at the beginning of his second lecture, Charcot's specific theory proved to be incorrect. But with his
great prestige he helped elevate the previously "disreputable" subjects of hysteria and hypnosis to
scientific respectability, and introduced Freud to their serious and systematic study. This proved crucial
to Freud after he returned to Vienna and tried to establish himself in private practice.