BIOLOGY Science Checkpoints

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Living things have the following characteristics:
Organization: All living things are organized in a specific way,
from cells to tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Energy Utilization: All living organisms require energy to carry
out life-sustaining processes. This energy is obtained from the
environment and is used to perform work.
Homeostasis: Living organisms maintain a relatively constant
internal environment despite changes in the external
environment.
Growth and Development: Living organisms grow and develop
throughout their lives, which is characterized by an increase in
size and complexity.
Reproduction: Living organisms reproduce to ensure the survival
of their species. This may involve sexual or asexual.
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
Reproduction: Living organisms reproduce to
ensure the survival of their species. This may
involve sexual or asexual reproduction.
Response to Stimuli: Living organisms respond to
internal and external stimuli, such as changes in
temperature, light, and sound.
Evolution: Living organisms change over time,
adapting to their environment through natural
selection and evolution.
These characteristics are commonly used to
define living organisms and differentiate them
from non-living matter.
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
Characteristic Living Things Non-Living Things
Organized in a specific way, from cells to tissues, Lack a specific organization and
Organization
organs, and organ systems structure
Do not require energy to sustain
Energy Utilization Require energy to carry out life-sustaining processes
their form or composition
Maintain a relatively constant internal environment Do not maintain a constant internal
Homeostasis
despite changes in the external environment environment
Growth and Grow and develop throughout their lives,
Do not grow or develop
Development characterized by an increase in size and complexity
Reproduce to ensure the survival of their species,
Reproduction Do not reproduce
may involve sexual or asexual reproduction
Respond to internal and external stimuli, such as
Response to Stimuli Do not respond to stimuli
changes in temperature, light, and sound
Change over time, adapting to their environment Do not evolve or adapt to their
Evolution
through natural selection and evolution environment
 The major organ systems in the human body are:
Circulatory System: Comprised of the heart, blood
MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS vessels, and blood, this system transports oxygen,
nutrients, and waste products throughout the body.
Respiratory System: Comprised of the lungs and
airways, this system facilitates the exchange of
gases, allowing for the uptake of oxygen and the
removal of carbon dioxide.
Digestive System: Comprised of the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver,
and pancreas, this system processes food and
extracts nutrients and energy from it.
Nervous System: Comprised of the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves, this system controls and
coordinates the body's responses to internal and
external stimuli.
Endocrine System: Comprised of glands that secrete
hormones, this system regulates and maintains
various bodily functions, including metabolism,
growth, and development.
 MAJOR ORGAN SYSTEMS
Muscular System: Comprised of muscles that allow for movement
and support of the body's structure.
Skeletal System: Comprised of bones, cartilage, and ligaments,
this system provides support, protection, and movement.
Integumentary System: Comprised of the skin, hair, and nails, this
system serves as a barrier against external threats and
regulates temperature.
Urinary System: Comprised of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and
urethra, this system removes waste products and excess water
from the body.
Reproductive System: Comprised of organs that allow for
reproduction, this system ensures the continuation of the species.
These organ systems work together to maintain the body's
overall function, allowing for survival, growth, and reproduction.
Organ System Main Organs/Components Function
Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout
Circulatory Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood
the body
Facilitates the exchange of gases, allowing for the uptake of
Respiratory Lungs, Airway
oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach,
Digestive Processes food and extracts nutrients and energy from it
Intestines, Liver, Pancreas
Controls and coordinates the body's responses to internal and
Nervous Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves
external stimuli
Glands (e.g. Thyroid, Regulates and maintains various bodily functions, including
Endocrine
Adrenal, Pituitary) metabolism, growth, and development
Muscular Skeletal Muscles Allows for movement and support of the body's structure
Skeletal Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments Provides support, protection, and movement
Serves as a barrier against external threats and regulates
Integumentary Skin, Hair, Nails
temperature
Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder,
Urinary Removes waste products and excess water from the body
Urethra
Male: Testes, Penis; Female:
Reproductive Ensures the continuation of the species through reproduction
Ovaries, Uterus
 Cells are the basic unit of life, and all
living organisms are made up of one or
CELLS more cells. These cells come in a variety
of shapes and sizes, and each performs
specific functions within the organism.
The three main components of a cell are
the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and
nucleus. The cell membrane is a thin,
flexible layer that surrounds the cell and
controls the movement of materials in and
out of the cell. The cytoplasm is the gel-
like substance that fills the cell and
contains various organelles, such as
mitochondria, ribosomes, and the
endoplasmic reticulum, that carry out
specific functions. The nucleus is the
control center of the cell, containing
genetic material in the form of DNA that
directs cellular activity.
 CELLS
There are two main types of cells:
prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic
cells are simple in structure and lack a
nucleus, while eukaryotic cells are more
complex and contain a nucleus and other
organelles.
Cells play a crucial role in maintaining the
life of an organism, carrying out essential
processes such as energy production,
protein synthesis, and cell division.
Understanding the structure and function
of cells is essential in the study of biology
and the exploration of life on Earth.
 CELLS
Characteristic Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Size Small (usually less than 10 μm) Larger (usually between 10-100 μm)
Has a true nucleus, which contains genetic material in the
Nucleus Lacks a true nucleus
form of DNA
Genetic Material Single circular chromosome Multiple linear chromosomes
Membrane-bound Contains membrane-bound organelles, such as
Lack membrane-bound organelles
Organelles mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the endoplasmic reticulum
Present in most prokaryotes, but
Present in some eukaryotes, but chemically distinct from
Cell Wall chemically distinct from eukaryotic
prokaryotic cell walls
cell walls
Ribosomes Smaller and simpler Larger and more complex
Asexual reproduction through
Reproduction Can reproduce asexually or sexually
binary fission
Examples Bacteria and Archaea Plants, animals, fungi, and protists
 CELLS
Characteristic Animal Cells Plant Cells
Usually round or irregularly Typically rectangular or box-
Cell Shape
shaped shaped
Cell Wall Absent Present
Chloroplasts Absent Present
Vacuoles Small or absent Large and central
Present but often pushed to the
Nucleus Present and centrally located periphery due to the large central
vacuole
Mitochondria Present Present
Lysosomes Present Rarely present
Centrioles Present in some animal cells Absent
Examples Muscle cells, nerve cells, blood cells Leaf cells, root cells, stem cells
 MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms are living organisms that are too
small to be seen with the naked eye. They can be
found in virtually every environment on Earth, from
soil to water to air.
There are several types of microorganisms, including
bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae.
Bacteria are single-celled organisms that can be
found in many different shapes and sizes. They are
responsible for many important processes, such as
nitrogen fixation, decomposition, and fermentation.
Viruses are tiny infectious agents that require a host
cell to replicate. They can cause a wide range of
diseases in animals, plants, and bacteria.
 Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can be
unicellular or multicellular, and play
MICROORGANISMS important roles in decomposition, nutrient
cycling, and food production. Protozoa are
single-celled organisms that are often found
in aquatic environments, and can be either
free-living or parasitic. Algae are a diverse
group of photosynthetic organisms that can
be unicellular or multicellular, and are
important primary producers in many aquatic
ecosystems.
Microorganisms play important roles in many
different aspects of life on Earth, including
nutrient cycling, disease transmission, food
production, and biotechnology.
Understanding the structure, function, and
diversity of microorganisms is essential in the
study of biology and the exploration of life
on Earth.
LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Living things interact with their environment in complex ways.
Organisms are influenced by both biotic factors (living things)
and abiotic factors (non-living things) in their surroundings.
One of the most important factors in an organism's
environment is its habitat, which includes all of the physical,
chemical, and biological components of an ecosystem. The
habitat provides resources and conditions necessary for the
survival and reproduction of the organism.
Living things also interact with other organisms in their
environment. This can include competition for resources,
predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. These
interactions can shape the structure and function of
ecosystems, and can have important impacts on the distribution
and abundance of different species.
 LIVING THINGS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Environmental factors such as temperature,
moisture, sunlight, and nutrient availability also
play important roles in the distribution and
abundance of organisms. Organisms have
adapted to their environments through natural
selection, allowing them to survive and
reproduce under a range of conditions.
Understanding the interactions between living
things and their environment is an important
area of study in biology, and is essential for
understanding the distribution and abundance
of different species, as well as the functioning
of ecosystems.
 Intraspecific competition Interspecific competition

Competition between members of

Competition between members of the same
different species for limited
Definition species for limited resources such as food, water,
resources such as food, water, or
or mates.
shelter.
Lions and hyenas competing for
Male deer competing for access to females
access to prey in a savannah.
Examples during mating season. Plants competing for
Different bird species competing for
sunlight in a dense forest.
access to a bird feeder.
Can result in changes in species
Can lead to the emergence of dominant
distribution and abundance, and
Outcome individuals or groups within a population, and can
can influence the evolution of
limit population growth.
different species.
Population density, resource availability, Similarity and overlap in resource
Factors influencing
individual traits such as size, strength, and use, abundance and distribution of
intensity
reproductive capacity. resources, environmental conditions.
 PEOPLE AND THE PLANET
People and the planet are intimately interconnected, and
human activities have significant impacts on the
environment.
Human populations have grown rapidly in recent
centuries, leading to increased demands for resources
such as food, water, and energy. These demands have
resulted in widespread changes to natural ecosystems,
including deforestation, soil degradation, water pollution,
and loss of biodiversity.
Many human activities also contribute to climate change,
including the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and
industrial agriculture. Climate change has a range of
impacts on the environment, including rising sea levels,
more frequent and severe weather events, and changes
in temperature and precipitation patterns.
PEOPLE AND THE PLANET
At the same time, the environment also has important
impacts on human health and well-being. Air and water
pollution, exposure to toxins and hazardous chemicals, and
food insecurity can all have significant negative impacts on
human health.
To address these complex issues, it is important to
understand the interactions between people and the
environment and to work towards sustainable and
equitable solutions. This involves promoting sustainable
practices in agriculture, energy use, and resource
management, as well as addressing issues such as poverty,
inequality, and access to education and healthcare.
 CLASSIFICATION AND VARIATION
Classification and variation are two important concepts in
biology.
Classification is the process of grouping living organisms
into categories based on their characteristics. Taxonomy
is the science of naming, describing and classifying
organisms, and it involves developing hierarchies of
classification. The main taxonomic levels are domain,
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
Variation, on the other hand, refers to differences
between individuals within a population or between
populations of the same species. Variation can be caused
by genetic factors, environmental factors, or a
combination of both. Adaptation is a form of variation
that occurs when an organism develops traits that help it
survive and reproduce in its environment.
CLASSIFICATION AND VARIATION
Classification and variation are closely linked
because taxonomic groups are based on similarities
and differences in characteristics, which can reflect
patterns of variation. For example, species are
defined as groups of individuals that can interbreed
and produce fertile offspring, but they may also
have variations in physical characteristics, behavior,
or other traits.
Understanding classification and variation is
important for many areas of biology, including
ecology, evolution, and biotechnology. By
understanding the relationships between different
organisms and the patterns of variation within and
between populations, scientists can gain insights into
how life has evolved and how to conserve
biodiversity.
 Classification Variation
The process of grouping living
Differences between individuals within a population or between
Definition organisms into categories based
populations of the same species.
on their characteristics.
Grouping organisms based on
Focus Differences within and between groups of organisms
shared characteristics
Helps to organize and understand Provides insight into how life has evolved and how organisms adapt
Purpose
the diversity of life to their environment
Based on physical, genetic, and Studied through observations and experiments, often with a focus on
Methods
behavioral traits genetic factors
Taxonomic hierarchy: Domain,
Can occur at any level, from genetic variations within individuals to
Levels Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order,
broader variations between populations
Family, Genus, Species
Helps to identify and name new
Provides insights into how populations adapt and evolve, and helps
Importance species, and to understand the
in conservation efforts
relationships between organisms
Classification of animals into phyla
Variation in skin color within human populations, or differences in
and classes based on shared
Examples beak size and shape in finch populations on different islands in the
characteristics like body structure
Galapagos
and development
 A HEALTHY DIET
A healthy diet is essential for
maintaining good health and
preventing chronic diseases. A
healthy diet should provide all
the necessary nutrients that our
body needs to function properly,
including carbohydrates,
proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals,
and water.
 A HEALTHY DIET
The key components of a healthy diet include:
Variety: Eating a variety of foods from all food groups can
help ensure that you get all the necessary nutrients.
Balance: Balancing the intake of different types of food,
such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, is important for
maintaining good health.
Moderation: Moderating the intake of certain types of
food, such as high-fat and high-sugar foods, can help
prevent chronic diseases.
Adequacy: Eating enough food to meet the body's energy
and nutrient needs is important for maintaining good
health.
Hydration: Drinking enough water and fluids is important
for maintaining proper hydration and for the proper
functioning of the body.
A HEALTHY DIET
A healthy diet should include plenty
of fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
lean proteins, and healthy fats. It is
also important to limit the intake of
processed and fast foods, high-sugar
and high-fat snacks, and sugary
drinks.
A healthy diet can help prevent
chronic diseases such as heart
disease, diabetes, and obesity. In
addition to a healthy diet, regular
physical activity and a healthy
lifestyle can also help maintain good
health and prevent chronic diseases.
 DIGESTION
Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into
smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.
Digestion involves both mechanical and chemical processes,
and it occurs in different stages along the digestive tract.
The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is
mechanically broken down by chewing and mixed with
saliva, which contains enzymes that begin the breakdown of
carbohydrates.
From the mouth, food travels down the esophagus and into
the stomach, where it is further mechanically broken down
by the muscular walls of the stomach and mixed with gastric
juices, which contain enzymes and hydrochloric acid that
break down proteins.
After the stomach, food enters the small intestine,
where most of the nutrients are absorbed into the
bloodstream. The small intestine also receives
digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from
the liver, which aid in the breakdown of fats and
other nutrients.
The remaining waste products move into the large
intestine, where water and electrolytes are
absorbed, and the waste products are formed into
feces.
The digestive system also includes accessory organs
such as the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder, which
produce and release digestive enzymes and other
substances that aid in digestion.
A healthy digestive system is important for overall
health, and digestive problems can lead to various
health issues. Maintaining a healthy diet, drinking
plenty of water, and getting regular physical activity
can help promote good digestive health.
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system is responsible for the
transportation of blood, nutrients, oxygen, and hormones
throughout the body. It consists of the heart, blood
vessels, and blood.
The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood through
the blood vessels, and it is divided into four chambers:
the right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle, and
the left ventricle. The right atrium receives deoxygenated
blood from the body, which is then pumped to the lungs
for oxygenation, while the left atrium receives
oxygenated blood from the lungs, which is then pumped
to the rest of the body.
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The blood vessels are divided into three types: arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry
oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Capillaries are small, thin-walled vessels that allow for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and
waste products between the blood and the body's tissues.
Blood is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma is a fluid
that carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which
carries oxygen to the body's tissues, while white blood cells are responsible for fighting infections.
Platelets are responsible for blood clotting, which helps to stop bleeding when a blood vessel is
damaged.
The circulatory system plays a crucial role in maintaining the health of the body's cells and tissues
by delivering essential nutrients and oxygen while removing waste products. Maintaining a healthy
lifestyle, including regular physical activity, a healthy diet, and avoiding smoking and excessive
alcohol consumption, can help promote good cardiovascular health.
 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system is responsible for
the exchange of gases between the body
and the environment. It consists of the
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
Air enters the respiratory system through
the nasal cavity, which filters, warms, and
moistens the air. The air then travels
through the pharynx and larynx, which
lead to the trachea. The trachea divides
into two bronchi, which lead to the lungs.
 Inside the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller
bronchioles, which end in clusters of tiny air
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM sacs called alveoli. The exchange of gases
occurs in the alveoli, where oxygen from the air
is transferred into the bloodstream and carbon
dioxide, a waste product of cellular
metabolism, is transferred from the
bloodstream into the air to be exhaled.
The respiratory system is controlled by the
respiratory center in the brainstem, which
regulates the rate and depth of breathing
based on the body's needs for oxygen and
removal of carbon dioxide.
Maintaining a healthy respiratory system is
important for overall health. Avoiding smoking
and exposure to pollutants, exercising
regularly, and maintaining a healthy diet can
help promote good respiratory health.
 REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Reproduction in humans is the process by which new
individuals are produced. It involves the fusion of a
male sperm and a female egg, resulting in the
formation of a zygote, which develops into an embryo
and eventually a fetus.
The male reproductive system includes the testes,
epididymis, vas deferens, prostate gland, and seminal
vesicles. The testes produce and store sperm, which is
transported through the epididymis and vas deferens
during ejaculation. The prostate gland and seminal
vesicles produce fluids that mix with the sperm to form
semen, which is ejaculated from the penis during
sexual intercourse.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries,
fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina. The ovaries
produce and release eggs, which travel through the
fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the egg is fertilized by
a sperm during sexual intercourse, it implants in the
uterus and develops into a fetus. If the egg is not
fertilized, it is shed along with the uterine lining during
menstruation.
The reproductive process is controlled by hormones,
including estrogen and testosterone, which regulate
the development and function of the male and female
reproductive systems. Fertility can be affected by a
variety of factors, including age, genetics, lifestyle
factors, and medical conditions.
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Reproductive health is important for the overall

well-being of individuals and the continuation of
the species. Regular check-ups, safe sex practices,
and family planning can help maintain good
reproductive health.
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system includes the testes,
epididymis, vas deferens, prostate gland, and seminal
vesicles.
The testes produce and store sperm.
Sperm is transported through the epididymis and vas
deferens during ejaculation.
The prostate gland and seminal vesicles produce fluids
that mix with sperm to form semen.
Ejaculation occurs through the penis during sexual
intercourse.
The male body produces testosterone, which regulates
the development and function of the male reproductive
system.
The male reproductive system does not undergo a
monthly cycle.
The male reproductive system does not undergo
menopause.
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries,
fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina.
The ovaries produce and release eggs.
Eggs travel through the fallopian tubes to the uterus.
The cervix produces mucus that helps sperm reach the
egg.
Sexual intercourse allows for the transfer of sperm to
the egg, leading to fertilization.
The female body produces estrogen and progesterone,
which regulate the development and function of the
female reproductive system.
The female reproductive system undergoes a monthly
menstrual cycle.
The female reproductive system undergoes menopause,
which marks the end of reproductive capacity.
 DIET, DRUGS AND DISEASE
Diet, drugs, and disease are interrelated topics in biology that have a significant impact on human
health.
 DIET, DRUGS AND DISEASE
Diet refers to the food and nutrients that people consume, which play a vital role in maintaining
proper bodily function and preventing disease. A balanced and nutritious diet is important for
maintaining good health, as well as preventing chronic conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and heart
disease.
Drugs are substances that are used to treat and prevent diseases or disorders, or to enhance or alter
bodily functions. Prescription drugs are approved by regulatory agencies and prescribed by
healthcare professionals, while over-the-counter drugs can be purchased without a prescription.
Misuse of drugs can lead to addiction, overdose, and other negative health consequences.
Disease refers to a wide range of conditions that affect the body and impair normal bodily function.
Diseases can be caused by genetics, environmental factors, lifestyle factors, or a combination of these
factors. Proper diet and drug use can help prevent and treat some diseases, but many diseases
require medical intervention and ongoing management to control symptoms and improve quality of
life.