CRITICAL REVIEW

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COMMUNITY RESILIENCE IN MEGA COASTAL

CITIES THREATENED BY SEA LEVEL RISE: THE CASE OF ALEXANDRIA AND
JAKARTA

BIMA FATWA MUHARRAM

NRP 5015201148

REGIONAL PLANNING IUP 2022

DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

FACULTY OF CIVIL, PLANNING, AND GEO ENGINEERING

INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER

SURABAYA

2022
Description

The authors introduce the issue in paper by raising the awareness of Sea Level Rise
(SLR). The authors state that SLR is phenomena caused by climate change that threatening the
coastal area. The authors also give evidence that East Asia and the Middle East and North
Africa would experience large portion of SLR impact. The other evidence the authors has
attached is that both regions do not have good resilience yet to SLR. The authors then explain
that their research will measure the community resilience. The authors then provide an
overview in measuring community resilience by giving the example of Climate Disaster
Resilience Index (CDRI).

In the next part, the authors explain their reason in choosing the case study areas. In
this case, the authors choose one sample city from East Asia which is Jakarta in Indonesia and
one city from Middle East and North Africa which is Alexandria in Egypt. The authors state
that both cities have critical function to each state. The authors also provide evidence about
critical status of both cities in the future due to flooding. Meanwhile, the authors also explain
the selection of districts of each city. For Jakarta, the authors choose Pademangan while for
Alexandria, the authors choose Abu Qir. Both districts have a high number of population and
some areas are below sea level. These reasons are supported by evidences provided by the
authors. Finally, the authors choose zone specifically to get community perspectives. These
zones were chosen based on consideration in previous point which is region that below sea
level.

After the area selection part, the authors explain why did they choosing flood disaster
as a case study. The authors provide definition of flood and conclude it. The author conclude
that flood can be happened due to increasing rain, like in Abu Qir, and tidal waters, like in
Jakarta. There is an inconsistency from the authors’ conclusion. For Jakarta, it is clear that tidal
waters are the impact of Sea Level Rise. However, for Abu Qir, increasing rain is not a direct
impact of SLR. It might be connected to climate change but not the SLR. The authors then cite
argument about flooding which is a characteristic of coastal zone and responsible for half of
worldwide disaster and 84% of all disastrous death. That is why flood chosen as the impact of
SLR by the author. By giving these citations, the author has done a good job in raising the
danger of flooding.

The next part discussed in the paper by the authors is the methodology part. First, the
author using descriptive analysis to show us the composition of sample from the population, as
well as the classification of stakeholders. Second, the authors explain that they will using the
capital approach which consists of Natural, Physical, Social, Economic, and Governance. The
authors then cite that this capital approach is suitable for the concept of sustainability which is
linked to disaster resilience. Meanwhile, the authors then explain that each of these capitals
have several variables and those variables have their own indicators for each. These variables
and indicators are modified by the authors with the consideration of CDRI created by several
experts which then results in FDRI framework to measure the community resilience. Third, the
authors explain on how they chose the data processing and analysis that based on literatures.
In this section, the authors more explaining the mathematical aspect so that it won’t be reviewed
here.

After the methodology part is done, the authors move to result and discussion part. The
authors state that both cities, Jakarta and Abu Qir, have a good result on Governance Capital.
However, Alexandria is good in Natural Capital better than Jakarta said the author. This section
is mostly represented by charts/diagrams of overall performance for both cities through the
FDRI's five capitals and justifications for the FDRI's five capitals. From these charts/diagrams,
the authors have clearly show us the results of their analysis in measuring the community
disaster resilience index through FDRI.

Finally, the last part, authors conclude all of the discussions in their paper. The authors
state that this paper has showed that various types of vulnerability are found in each selected
city. However, the authors giving the overall recommendations to enhance the community
resilience in facing flood by increasing sustainability. The author also specifically give
suggestion for each city. It is focusing the Social Capital for Alexandria and Natural Capital
for Jakarta. Moreover, the author also gives tips in improving the Governance Capital by
promoting awareness campaigns for floods impacts, held by the government specialists, and
increasing communication effectiveness between government and community. The authors
also finally give recommendation for Social Capital and Physical Capital. The Social Capital
suggestion is good for Alexandria but Physical Capital has no context because Jakarta is weak
in Natural Capital, not the Physical. Therefore, the author should’ve given the suggestion in
Natural Capital.

Explanation

In this paper, the author has show us on how SLR has a great threat to East Asia and
the Middle East and North Africa. Hence, the disaster resilience must be built in these regions.
However, the author only focusing on community resilience. This might make us wonder why
the author only focusing on the community aspect.

First of all, we must know what is the definition of resilience. There are many
definitions of resilience from several experts. (1) Resilience is the capacity that people or
groups may possess to withstand or recover from the emergencies and which can stand as a
counterbalance to vulnerability (Buckle, 1998). (2) Resilience is a measure of how well people
and societies can adapt to a changed reality and capitalize on the new possibilities offered
(Paton & Johnston, 2006). (3) A person, society, ecosystem, or a city is resilient in the face of
shock or stress when it returns to normal (i.e., equilibrium) rapidly afterward or at least does
not easily get pushed into a new alternative equilibrium (Pendall et al., 2007).

Based on definitions above, we can conclude that resilience is highly related to

community. Resilience is the ability of community on how they can recover from disaster.
Therefore, the author wants to measure the community resilience in these both cities which
have a great threat to SLR and still have a low resilience.

To measure the resilience, the authors using the approach that has a linkage to the
concept of sustainability because disaster resilience itself also aligned with sustainability. The
approach used by the authors is capital approach which consists of Natural, Physical, Social,
Economic and Governance. Again, this leads us to the question why the capital approach is
consists of these five capitals.

In the paper, the authors have stated that R. Shaw and IEDM Team (Shaw, 2009) that
have proposed the Climate Disaster Resilience Index (CDRI), consisted of 25 variables, in
order to measure the existing level of climate disaster resilience of targeted areas. Table below
explains the variable of each dimension:

Table 1 Climate Disaster Resilience Index

Dimensions Variable considered

Physical Electricity, water supply, sanitation, solid waste disposal, internal road
network, housing and land use, community assets, warning system and
evacuation
Social Health status, education and awareness, social capital
Economic Income, employment, households’ assets, access to
Financial service, savings and insurance, budget and
 Subsidy
Institutional Internal institutions and development plan, effectiveness
Of internal institutions, external institutions and networks,
institutional collaboration and coordination
Natural Hazard intensity, hazard frequency
Source: Shaw,2009

In the paper, the author has modified the framework with the consideration on focusing
similar factors that could increase community resilience against floods. Therefore, the author
has changed the term institutional to governance and dimension to capital. The author also adds
some indicators to achieve the variables which specific to flood disaster caused by SLR.

This capital approach also similar to the Community Disaster Resilience Index
proposed by Mayunga (2007). Mayunga is the experts who stated that the capital approach is
linked to the concept of sustainability. The detailed explanation of capital approach proposed
by Mayunga is shown in the table below:

Table 2 Community Disaster Resilience Index

Form of Capital Indicator of resilience

Social Capital 1. Facilitates coordination and cooperation
2. Facilitates access to resources
Economic Capital 1. Increases capacity e.g., Insurance
2. Speeds recovery process
3. Increases wellbeing and reduces poverty
Human Capital 1. Increases knowledge and skill to understand community risks
2. Increases ability to develop and implement risk reduction strategy
Physical Capital 1. Facilitates communication and transportation
2. Facilitates evacuation
3. Increases safety
Natural Capital 1. Sustains all forms of life
2. Increases protection to storms and floods
3. Protects the environment
Source: Mayunga, 2007

Conclusion
 In this paper, the author wants to measure the community resilience in facing flood
caused by sea level rise. The author community because community is the basis of the resilience
itself. Alexandria and Jakarta are chosen as the case study area because each area has a high
risk of the flood caused by SLR. However, both cities still didn’t have a good resilience even
though both has a critical function for each state. Pademangan is chosen as the sample of
Jakarta and Abu Qir as the sample of Alexandria because both districts have a high population.
Both districts also have some regions that has an area below sea levels so that these regions
become the sample for the research. The author then chose flooding as the measuring criteria
due to its high risk and hazard as the impact of SLR.

To measuring the community resilience, the author using Flood Disaster Resilience
Index framework. This framework was modified by the author from the Climate Disaster
Resilience Index. This framework has five capitals which are Natural, Physical, Social,
Economic and Governance. This framework also can be called the capital approach. The capital
approach is chosen because it is linked to sustainability which is aligned to disaster resilience.

From the result of the analysis. Both Jakarta and Alexandria are good in Governance
capital. Therefore, both suggested to promoting awareness campaigns for floods impacts, held
by the government specialists, and increasing communication effectiveness between
government and community. However, Alexandria is low in Social Capital while Jakarta in
Natural Capital so that both must focus on each capital. Eventually, both Jakarta and
Alexandria must increase the sustainability to strengthening community disaster resilience in
facing flood cause by SLR.

Lesson Learned

Regional planning is a study on how to planning a region. The concept of regional

planning can be divided into several basis: (1) economic based regional development concept;
(2) technology and innovation based regional development concept; (3) environment carrying
capacity based regional development concept; and (4) spatial and location factor based regional
development concept.

In the environment carrying capacity based regional development concept, we must

understand regional development concept by considering the capacity of carrying capacity and
capacity of the region (ecological foot print), as well as regional development concept in
reducing the risk of floods and geological disasters, and the risk of climate change (example:
drought, bushfire, sea level rise). In the reviewed paper, the research is focusing on the sea
level rise issue. Sea Level Rise (SLR) is the great threat to coastal region. Therefore, the
disaster resilience is needed. The authors have provided us the real application environment
carrying capacity based regional development concept.

Moreover, in the concept of regional development in reducing the risk of climate

change, we must understand the concept of mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation is efforts to
stabilize GHG concentrations in the atmosphere to reduce disaster risk, both through physical
development as well as awareness and capacity building to deal with disasters. Meanwhile,
Adaptation is Actions to adapt to anticipate real climate adverse effects by developing
adaptation strategies and taking advantage of profitable opportunities. The application of
building community resilience is closely related to the concept of adaptation. Therefore, the
authors again have provided us the real case of adaptation in the real world.

Each region has their own way on how to adapt with climate change. In Indonesia itself,
we have Rencana Aksi Nasional Adaptasi Perubahan Iklim (RAN-API) which is the action
plan adaptation to climate change effort. This RAN-API will be used as the direction for
development plan in Indonesia. This correlation of RAN-API and Indonesia Development Plan
is implementing the concept of Sustainable Development. In the paper, the author also raised
the issue on how sustainability is linked to the disaster resilience.

Considering that the result of author research which Jakarta still has a low community
resilience in Natural Capital, then the government can evaluate the action plan for adaptation
(RAN-API). This evaluation is important because RAN-API is related to RPJMN which related
to RTRWN. There is also action plan for adaptation in regional level which called Rencana
Aksi Daerah Adaptasi Perubahan Iklim (RAD-API). This action plans a derivative to RAN-
API and has a linkage to RPJMD. RPJMD itself also has a relation to RTRW Provinsi,
Kabupaten, dan Kota. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the community resilience in tef
form of adaptation action plan to create a good regional planning.
Blibiography

Buckle, P., 1999. Re-defining community and vulnerability in the context of emergency
management. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, The, 13(4), pp.21-26.

Mayunga, J.S., 2007. Understanding and applying the concept of community disaster
resilience: a capital-based approach. Summer academy for social vulnerability and resilience
building, 1(1), pp.1-16.

Paton, D. and Johnston, D., 2017. Disaster resilience: an integrated approach. Charles C
Thomas Publisher.

Pendall, R., Foster, K.A. and Cowell, M., 2010. Resilience and regions: building understanding
of the metaphor. Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 3(1), pp.71-84.

Shaw, R. and Team, I.E.D.M., 2009. Climate disaster resilience: focus on coastal urban cities
in Asia. asian Journal of environment and disaster Management, 1(1), pp.101-116.
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ScienceDirect
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

Urban Planning and Architecture Design for Sustainable Development, UPADSD 14- 16 October
2015

Comparative Study of Community Resilience in Mega Coastal

Cities Threatened by Sea Level Rise: The Case of Alexandria and
Jakarta
Yasmin Z. Kamha* , Marwa A. Khalifab, Aly N. El-Bahrawyc
a
M.Sc Student, Dep. of Urban Planning and Design, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University,Cairo,Egypt
b
Associate Prof., Dep. of Urban Planning and Design, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University,Cairo,Egypt
c
Professor, Dep. of Irrigation and Hydraulics, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University,Cairo,Egypt

Abstract

This study aims to develop a Flood Disaster Resilience Index (FDRI), as an attempt to measure the level of communities’
resilience in mega coastal cities. The FDRI is developed on five resilience-based capitals: Governance, Economic, Natural,
Physical and Social. Alexandria in Egypt and Jakarta in Indonesia are selected as case studies, as they rank the 11th and the 20th in
terms of population exposed to coastal flooding by 2070, according the Organization for Economic Cooperation Development
(OECD). The study showed that higher values of resilience are correlated with higher preparedness and sustainability to cope
with flood disasters and vice versa.
©©2016
2016TheTheAuthors.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier Ltd. Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of IEREK, International experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange.
Peer-review under responsibility of IEREK, International experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange
Keywords: Community Resilience; Sea Level Rise; Flood Disaster Resilience Index; Alexandria; Jakarta

1. Introduction

Sea Level Rise (SLR) due to climate change is a serious threat to coastal cities with heavy concentrations of
population, economic activity and a fast rate of urban development. SLR threats are represented by various
phenomena such as: floods, saltwater intrusion, erosion, and inundation. According to recent researches, East Asia
and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) regions would experience the largest portion of SLR impacts.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +2-011-182-337-46

E-mail address: yasmin.kamh@gmail.com

1877-0428 © 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of IEREK, International experts for Research Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.12.007
504 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

Population impact is larger in MENA for a 1 m SLR, while it is larger in South-East Asia for a 5 m SLR (Dasgupta
& Laplante, 2010; Blankespoor & Dasgupta, 2012).
Despite the growing recognition of building resilient communities to SLR, Asian and MENA urban communities
have not received adequate attention yet, although that SLR impacts will affect their livelihoods, properties, and
environmental quality since climate change is expected to alter the frequency and severity of SLR represented by
floods (ADPC, 2004).
Many definitions of ‘resilience’ could be found in the literature. This study looks at resilience from the
perspective of urban communities and is mainly focused on three characteristics: (i) capacity to absorb stress
through preparedness as a way of adaptation; (ii) capacity to maintain certain basic functions and structures during
disastrous events, and (iii) capacity to recover or ‘bounce back’ after an event (Twigg, 2007; Cutter & Barnes,
2008).
Measuring coastal community resilience is a complex process due to its dynamic interactions with societies and
environment. However, literature has discussed various conceptual frameworks that break down coastal community
resilience into general similar factors which can increase the community resilience. For example, R. Shaw and his
team (Kyoto University , 2011)have proposed the Climate Disaster Resilience Index (CDRI) , consisted of 25
variables, in order to measure the existing level of climate disaster resilience of targeted areas.

2. The Selection of Case Study Areas

This section illustrates the justification for choosing the areas on three levels: city, district and zone.

2.1. Selection of cities

Alexandria city -with area 300 km2 and number of population equals to 4110015- is considered to be the second
largest metropolitan area after Greater Cairo, an industrial center, an important tourist resort and the largest Egyptian
seaport which serves approximately 80% of Egypt's imports and exports (Encyclopidia Britannica, 2014). It is
located between the Mediterranean coast and Lake Mariout, at the western edge of the Nile River delta as shown in
Fig.1.

Jakarta city -Capital of the Republic of Indonesia- is a huge, sprawling metropolis located on the northwest of
the Island of Java as shown in Fig.1. It is known to be the country's economic, cultural and political center and the
most populous city in Southeast Asia and a home to 9 million people (Ministry of Tourism, 2013).

Figure 1: Location of Alexandria and Jakarta from the world (Source: Google Earth)
 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517 505

Among the top 20 cities ranked in terms of population exposed to coastal flooding by 2070, Alexandria and
Jakarta are ranked as the 11th and the 20th, respectively (Dasgupta, Laplante, & etal, 2010). Moreover, they are
ranked as the 17th and the 11th respectively in the term of exposed assets by 2070 (Nichollas & etal, 2008).

2.2. Selection of districts

Much of the Abu Qir region is below sea level as shown in Fig. 2 and includes communities with a high
population density. It is therefore particularly vulnerable to potential devastating impacts of SLR (El-Nawawi,
2014).

For Pademangan, the number of population living in a land with large areas below sea level, as shown in Fig. 3,
is 149809 inhabitants (BPS, 2011). It is considered one of five districts in North Jakarta, with a highly risk to
inundation exaggerated by SLR (Hadi, Ningsih, & Latief, 2011).

Figure 2: General topography of the Nile delta with a selection on Abo-Qeer (source: (Weekly Ahram, 2007))
506 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

Figure 3: Topography of North Jakarta with a selection on Pademangan District (Source: (Hadi, Ningsih, & Latief, 2011). P.36)

2.3. Selection of zones

The selected zones were chosen in a way to get the community’s perspective about the five capitals taking into
consideration the inclusion of different age, gender, education and socio-economic tiers. Fig. 4 represents detailed
illustrations for study area in Egypt and Indonesia on four levels: country, city, district, and zone. These selections
were chosen based on the previous justifications. Questionnaires have been distributed among the individuals and
in-depth interviews have been held with academic, governmental officials, NGOs, private and public sectors
representatives in both cities.

Figure 4: Illustration for the study area on four levels: country- city- district- zone, a: Egypt
 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517 507

Figure 4: Illustration for the study area on four levels: country- city- district- zone, a: Egypt (continued)
508 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

Figure 4: Illustration for the study area on four levels: country- city- district- zone, b: Indonesia
 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517 509

3. Why Choosing Flood Disaster?

Flood can be defined simply as: "A general and temporary condition of partial or complete inundation of
normally dry land areas from overflow of inland or tidal waters from the unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff
of surface waters from any source" (UN, 2010). From this definition, it could be recognized that it can happen from
increasing rain causing flash floods -as in Abo-Qeer- and tidal waters -as in Pademangan-. Although periodic
flooding is an essential characteristic of coastal zones (Blankespoor & Dasgupta, 2012), it is responsible for causing
half of worldwide disasters and 84% of all disastrous death (Aon Benfield Americas, 2013). Hence, it was chosen as
a catastrophic impact of SLR for this paper.

4. Methodology

In this section, the descriptive analysis of the sample, forming the proposed framework, data sources as well as
data processing and analysis are presented.

4.1. Descriptive analysis

Number of population in Eastern Pademangan and Western Abo-Qeer districts are 44005 and 25784 inhabitant,
respectively (Information and Decisson Support Center, 2006; BPS, 2011). The sample size for the two zones are
449 and 267 people, respectively, who are representing the public sector, which are considered to be 1% of the
population in each areas in both zones. Four stakeholder groups have been interviewed in both cities as shown in
Table 1.
Table 1: Stakeholders whom have been personally in-depth interviewed by the researchers
Type of Stakeholder
Government Public sector Private sector NGO
- Directorate of Utilities and - Alexandria University - Fish shops' retail -Egyptian Red Crescent Society
Alexandria

Housing (Staff member) -Supermarkets' owner representative

-Coastal Research Institute - Leader of fishermen -Food maker retail (Cairo and Alexandria
representative branches)
-Shore Protection Authority
representative
-Urban Planning Department- -Universtas Negeri Jakarta - Stationary retail -Indonesian Red Cross society
Pademangan Sub-District (Staff member) -Food maker retail owner representative
Jakarta

Office representative -Sub-community leader - Gas station retail owner (Jakarta branch)
-Post flood Department-
Pademangan Sub-District
Office representative

Discriptive analysis for both samples which include gender,age and income is presented in Fig. 5.

60%

50%

40%

30% Alexa ndria

Ja ka rta

20%

10%

0%
Ma le% Fema le% Less tha n 30 30-40 More tha n Sta ble Unsta ble Dependent
40
Gender Age Income

Figure 5: Descriptive analysis for samples of Pademangan, Jakarta and Abo-Qeer, Alexandria
510 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

4.2. Forming the proposed framework

As shown earlier in section 2.0, the community resilience against floods can be assessed by five different
capitals: Natural, Physical, Social, Economic and Governance. According to Mayunga (2007); the notion of capital
aligns very well with the concept of sustainability, which is related and often linked to the concept of disaster
resilience (Tobin, 1999).The essence of using the capital approach is that, capital consists of Social, Economic,
Human, Nature and Physical components, which are necessary for development of a sustainable community
economy
Each of these capitals consists of a number of variables and each variable would have numbers of simple
indicators. By addressing all variables and indicators of the above capitals, a framework is created depending on
researchers' modifications applied to the Climate Disaster Resilience Index created by Rajib Shaw and IEDM Team
(Shaw, 2009)and number of indices which conceptualize disaster resilience in the same way by focusing on similar
factors that could increase community resilience against floods (Allan, Cottrell, & Goach, 2012; Jha , Miner, &
Geddas, 2013) as shown in Table 2. In this table, capitals are colored in grey, variables are colored in yellow and
indicators are colored in white.

Table 2: Proposed framework to measure FDRI’s five capitals

1- Governance 4-Physical
G1- Mainstreaming of floods resilience P1- Electricity
Existence of governmental institution that target the P1.1 Accessibility
G1.1
reduction of floods' impacts (Y/N)
Existence of regulations for land use and building codes P1.2 Existence of alternative capacity
G1.2
target the reduction of floods' impacts (Y/N)
Existence of city local strategies target the reduction of SLR
G1.3
impacts floods on people and city (Y/N) P2- Water
G2- Good governance P2.1 %Accessibility
G2.1 %Effectiveness of government -community communication P2.2 %Existence of alternative capacity
Existence of the ability to access the governmental
G2.2 P3- Sanitation
information related to floods (Y/N)
G3- Effectiveness of city's crisis management P3.1 % Accessibility
Existence of governmental disaster management structure
G3.1 P4- Accessibility during floods
(Y/N)
G3.2 Existence of evacuation centers in the strategic plan (Y/N) P4.1 %Accessibility of roads during floods
G3.3 Existence of financial resources for floods reduction (Y/N) P4.2 %Efficiency of dams and bridges conditions
P4.3 Existence of any mechanism of rain water
G3.4 Existence of flood early warning systems (Y/N)
draining (Y/N)
%Trust in the governmental data transferred through the P4.4 %Accessibility to shelters in flood time
G3.5
media
G4- Collaboration during floods with organizations 5-Social
Existence of city's dependency on external supporters
G4.1 S1- Public participation in decision making
(Y/N)
G5- Knowledge dissemination and management S1.1 %Population participating in activities
Existence of awareness campaigns for floods held by the
G5.1 S1.2 %Trustfulness in representatives
government (Y/N)
2-Economic S1.3 %Effectiveness of the local elections
E1- Employment S1.4 % Ability to express needs
E1.1 Dependency ratio S2- Education and awareness
E1.2 %Unemployment S2.1 % High Education level
E2- Household assets S2.2 % Population awareness about flood disaster
S2.3 % Awareness efforts received form from
E2.1 %Owners motorized vehicle
specialist
E2.2 %Owned homes S3- Health
E2.3 %House description S3.1 %Accessibility to health facilities
E3- Finance S3.2 %Existing medical alternative option
E3.1 %Income range S4- Community preparedness
E3.2 %Total income range S4.1 % People have alternative food source
E4-Subsidy S4.2 % People regularly check emergency supply
 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517 511

Table 2: Proposed framework to measure FDRI’s five capitals (continued)

2-Economic (continued) 5-Social (continued)
E4-Subsidy (continued) S5- Population
E4.1 % Subsidy's type to pass the flood crisis time S5.1 % Single families per home
3-Natural
N1- Ecosystems services
N1.1 %Quality of drinking water
N1.2 % Quality of air
N1.3 Existence of drainage in channels (Y/N)
N1.4 Existence improper disposal (Y/N)

4.3. Data processing and analysis

The methodology of processing and analyzing the data proposed in this paper derived from the climate disaster
resilience literatures, particularly from the works of R. Show and IEDM team (APA, 2013) and J. Mayunga
(Mayunga, 2007) . According to Mayunga’s work, there are many methods that can be used to construct an index,
the basic difference is in the summation of the components of the developed index. A normalization method,
commonly used, is the one which adjusts the observation to take a value from 0 to 1 (Briguglio, 2003) . After
obtaining the normalized scores of each indicator, a transformation is needed to allow cross comparisons among two
districts. This transformation is done by the “Min-Max” method as shown in Eq. 1, where Emin equals the minimum
value for variable E and Emax equals the maximum value for variable E (Cross Validated, 2013). Finally, Radar
diagrams are resulted from this .The closer the point is to the outer circle, the more flood preparedness is achieved.
݁ ݅ െ‫݊݅݉ܧ‬
ܰ‫݀݁ݖ݈݅ܽ݉ݎ݋‬ሺ݁݅ ሻ ൌ ......................................................................................Equation 1
‫ ݔܽ݉ܧ‬െ‫݊݅݉ܧ‬

In order to make the calculations easier, an assumption was made that all the dimensions/indicators have the
same weight, due to the following: firstly, according to the previous mentioned literatures that all the
capitals/indicators are important; therefore, no capital/indicator shall be favored in the final outcome of the FDRI;
secondly, the calculation of the FDRI scores becomes more transparent and structured; and thirdly, to overcome
having different types (yes/ no questions, usually/ sometimes/ rarely questions). Therefore, by using this assumption
in the formula in Eq. 2- proposed by J. Mayunga (Mayunga, 2007), combining indicators to generate individual
indices for each capital is done.

‫ ݅ݕ‬ൌ σሺܺͳ ‫ ͳݓ‬൅ ܺʹ ‫ ʹݓ‬൅ ܺ͵ ‫ ͵ݓ‬൅ ‫ ݊ݓ ݊ܺ ڮ‬ሻ.......................Equation 2

Microsoft Excel software is used in order to compute the data in the proposed framework shown in Table 2.

5. Results and discussions

Overall, FDRI performance for both cities is represented in Fig. 6. The values in this diagram vary for both cities
and are ranged from 1.2 to 9.7. As it can be observed from this figure that both cities have a high tendency to reach
the best situation in the Governance Capital. However, for the Natural Capital, Alexandria city has a higher
preparedness than Jakarta. In general, results showed strength and weaknesses in one capital or another. Table 3
illustrates justification and performance for both cities through the five community-resilience capitals. Each capital
has two parts in this table, the upper part shows the performance represented by radar diagram and the lower part
represents justifications for the results.
512 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

Governance
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
Social 3 Economic
2
1
Alexandria
0
Jakarta

Physical Natural

Figure 6: Overall performance for both cities through the FDRI's five capitals

Table 3: Justifications for the FDRI's five capitals

1-Governance Capital
Governance Capital
G1.1
1
G5.1 G1.2
0.8

0.6
G4.1 G1.3
0.4

0.2
Alexandria
G3.5 0 G2.1
Jakarta

G3.4 G2.2

G3.3 G3.1
G3.2
Alexandria Jakarta
Mainstreaming of floods resilience
G1.1 Presence of Shore Protection Authority (SPA) Presence of Post flood department for Pademangan sub-district
G1.2 Respecting the beach buffer (Abo-Bakr, 2014; Salwa, Handling laws for evacuating settlements and turn these spaces
2014). into green belt (Waristo, 2013; Dharma, 2013)
G1.3 Periodic maintenance in Mohammed Ali Sea wall and Building three pumps to raise the excess water from Anchol river
raising level of sand ground. (Abo-Bakr, 2014; Salwa, to the Java sea and Increasing the depth of Anchol river and
2014) periodic maintained for Anchol’s river water gate (Dharma, 2013)
 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517 513

Table 3: Justifications for the FDRI's five capitals (continued)

1-Governance Capital
Alexandria Jakarta
Good governance
G2.1 No existence for a local leader Decentralization of the government in the Indonesia and Existence
of success local leader (Dharma, 2013; Alamsyah, 2013)
G2.2 Existence of the ability due to the transparency between the selected governmental institutions and the individuals
Effectiveness of city's crisis management
G3.1 Existence of Egyptian National Committee for Disaster Existence of Indonesian Disaster Management Agency(BNPB)
Management (Salwa, 2014; Waristo, 2013)
G3.2 Existence of evacuation alternatives: move to another safe Existence of evacuation alternatives :move to higher floors in the
house (Abo-Bakr, 2014; Salwa, 2014) same house (Waristo, 2013; Dharma, 2013)
G3.3 Existence of Council of Ministries to SPA and Center of Existence of Revenue and Expenditure Budget (APBD). (Waristo,
Research Institute (CoRI) (Abo-Bakr, 2014; Salwa, 2014) 2013; Dharma, 2013)
G3.4 Existence of electronic sensors that keep recordings of the sea level [ (Salwa, 2014; Dharma, 2013)
G3.5 Low performance of trust in governmental data due High performance of trust in governmental data due to that the
to instability of the political situation governor did what he promised in his election’s program
(Alamsyah, 2013)
Collaboration during floods with organizations
G4.1 Existence of international organization: World bank(WB) Existence of international organization : Australian Indonesian
, Global International Finance (GIF), Red Crescent Facility for Disaster Reduction (AIFDR), United Nations
Institution (Salwa, 2014; Ayyad, 2014) Children's Fund (UNICEF) and Red Cross Institution (Waristo,
2013; Irma, 2013)
Knowledge dissemination and management
G5.1 No existence for flood-awareness campaigns (Abo-Bakr, Existence of awareness campaigns resulted from cooperation
2014; Ayyad, 2014) between the government and the Indonesian universities
(Alamsyah, 2013; Irma, 2013)
2-Economic Capital

Economic Capital
E1.1
1

0.8
E4.1 E1.2
0.6

0.4

0.2
Alexandria
E3.2 0 E2.1
Jakarta

E3.1 E2.2

E2.3
Employment
E1.1 Rapid population growth leads to insufficient number of jobs available (The World Bank, 2014)
E1.2 Job opportunities have grown at a slower rate compared to the growth rate of population
Household assets
E2.1 High percentage for the owners of motorized vehicles due to that
motorcycles are cheaper than cars
E2.2 The higher the percentage; the higher the ability to increase safe precautions for the house as the owner wants
E2.3 The higher the type of house; the higher the income level. Hence, the higher the ability to reduce floods' impacts
Finance
E3.1 The higher the income; the higher the ability to secure the home with important preparations to reduce floods' impacts
514 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

Table 3: Justifications for the FDRI's five capitals (continued)

2-Economic Capital (continued)
Alexandria Jakarta
Finance (continued)
E3.2 The higher the total income; the higher the ability to secure the home with important preparations to reduce floods' impacts
Subsidy
E4.1 The higher the percentage; the higher availability of side give subsidy to impacted houses
3- Natural Capital
Natural Capital
N1.1
1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

Alexandria
N1.4 0.00 N1.2
Jakarta

N1.3
Ecosystems services
N1.1 People drink filtered tape water or directly from the tape due to lower pollution in water resources near district
N1.2 Existence of high percentage of air pollution caused by the big
number of motorcycles which force people to wear muzzles
N1.3 Activation for lows that organize drainage in the sea and rivers (Salwa, 2014)
N1.4 Absence of waste disposal in soil affecting the selected zone (Salwa, 2014; Abo-Bakr, 2014)
4-Physical Capital
Physical Capital
P1.1
1

P4.4 0.8 P1.2

0.6

0.4

P4.3 0.2 P2.1

Alexandria
0
Jakarta

P4.2 P2.2

P4.1 P3.1

Electricity
Accessibility to electricity in Egypt: 9.6% (The World Accessibility to electricity in Indonesia: 72.9 % (The World Bank,
P1.1
Bank, 2014) 2014)
 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517 515

Table 3: Justifications for the FDRI's five capitals (continued)

4-Physical Capital (continued)
Alexandria Jakarta
Electricity (continued)
Occasion of electric cut off during floods .Hence, Frequent occurrence of electric cut off during floods .Hence, people
P1.2
people aren't used to have alternative electric capacity are used to have alternative electric capacity.
Water
Accessibility to water in Egypt : 99.3% (The World
P2.1
Bank, 2014) Accessibility to water in Indonesia : 84.9% (The World Bank, 2014)
Existence of occasion floods. Hence, people aren't used Frequent occurrence of floods. Hence people are used to have
P2.2 to have alternative water capacity alternative water capacity
Sanitation
Existence of sanitation networks. Although they Absence of sanitation network in the selected zone, People rely
P3.1 sometimes during the floods they don't work upon private septic tanks
sufficiently
Accessibility during floods
Existence of insufficient sewage drainage network lead Existence of sufficient rain drainage network lead to accessible
P4.1
to inaccessible roads during floods roads during floods
Equivalent score is taken from P4 4.1 duo to that both Existence of some insufficient ooden/ concrete due to humidity and
P4.2
of the indicators have a common target. time
P4.3 Absence of rain water drainage system in the area Existence of rain drainage canals beside houses and in the streets
P4.4 Existence of accessible shelters is higher Existence of accessible shelters is lower
5-Social Capital
Social Capital
S1.1
1
S5.1 S1.2
0.8

0.6
S4.2 S1.3
0.4

0.2
Alexandria
S4.1 0 S1.4
Jakarta

S3.2 S2.1

S3.1 S2.2
S2.3
Public participation in decision making
S1.1 Few community's activities Various community's activities : collecting donations, recycled
materials.
S1.2 Low sense of cooperation among the individuals Participate to help raising the community's situation (Alamsyah, 2013)
S1.3 Low trust in the effectiveness of the community's Local leaders' creditability and his communication with the
representative whenever there is one government effectively (Alamsyah, 2013; Hendra, 2013)
S1.4 Trustfulness in the Jakarta's governor and governmental officers
Education and awareness
S2.1 Lower number of unemployed with primary education Higher number of unemployed and peddler retailers with primary
or illiteracy education or illiteracy
S2.2 People's awareness is lower due to occasionally floods People's awareness is higher due to frequent floods
S2.3 Lack of awareness campaigns (Abo-Bakr, 2014; Ayyad, Existence of awareness campaigns (Alamsyah, 2013; Irma, 2013;
2014; Mohi, 2015) Hendra, 2013)
Health
S3.1 Higher percentage can access health facilities due to Lower percentage can't access health facilities due to high sever
low severe floods floods
516 Yasmin Z. Kamh et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016) 503 – 517

Table 3: Justifications for the FDRI's five capitals (continued)

5-Social Capital (continued)
Alexandria Jakarta
Health (continued)
S3.2 Tendency to keep first aid kit and other medical Tendency to keep first aid kit and other medical alternatives is less
alternatives is more favourable favourable
Community preparedness
S4.1 Existence of mild short -period floods force less people Occurrence of severe long -period floods force more people to keep
to keep food food at their second floors
S4.2 Higher tendency to stay healthy force more people to Occurrence of seldom checking for the emergency supply
regularly checking their emergency supply
Population
S5.1 Existence of higher percentage of single families per Existence of lower percentage of single families per home due to
home due to current condition of social fabric for Current condition of social fabric for community in Pademangan.
community in Abo-Qeer.

6. Conclusions

Findings in this study showed that various types of vulnerability are found for each targeted city. Based on those
differences, recommendations are provided to city governments and other stakeholders also differ. However, overall
recommendations are converging to one goal: the enhancement of community resilience facing flood related
disasters, hence, increasing its sustainability.

For Alexandria, intense interest should be given to aspects of the Social Capital as it's considered to be the lowest
value among other values of the capitals. On the contrary, Jakarta has to apply intense interests to enhance the
Natural Capital against floods- as it's considered to be the lowest value among the other capitals.
For the Governance Capital, more efforts should be done in the following fields: promoting awareness campaigns
for floods impacts, held by the government specialists, and increasing communication effectiveness between
government and community to overcome the shortage in the Governance Capital for both cities. However, for the
Social Capital, innovative means of education and awareness tools will help in uplifting and renewing the existing
current situation. Finally, efficiency of dams and accessibility of roads during floods need to be strengthened in
order to address the shortcomings in the Physical Capital.

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