13. A.C.

CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

A.C. GENERATOR OR COIL ROTATING IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD :-
(i) Cosider a rectangular coil PQRS of conductin insulated copper wire having n number of turns,
‘A’ is cross-sectional area of the coil. It is rotatin in uniform magnetic field of induction ‘B’with uniform
angular velocity 𝟂.

Let P’Q’ be its position at any instant of time ‘t’. the angle between initial and this new position of coil is 𝜃
(angle between ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 is 𝜃). Then,
𝜃 = ωt
(ii) Magnetic flux crossing the coil at this position can be written as
𝟇 = 𝑛𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
𝟇 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
∴ 𝟇 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵 cos ωt --------------1.
(ii) The rate of change of flux associated with the coil can be obtained by diffentiating equation 1
w.r.t. ‘t’.
𝑑∅ 𝑑
= 𝑛𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑡(cos ωt )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
= 𝑛𝐴𝐵(-ωsin ωt )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
∴ = −𝑛𝐴𝐵 ωsin ωt ----------------2.
𝑑𝑡
But according to electromagnetic induction
𝑑∅
𝑒 =− 𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑒 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵 ωsin ωt ------------------3.
Equation 3. represent an expression for induced emf in a coil rotating in uniform magnetic field ‘B’ having
area ‘A’ and ‘n’ number of turns.
(iii) But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 where ‘f ‘ is frequency of rotation of the coil. Now equation 3 can be written as
𝑒 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵 2𝜋𝑓sin ωt
For a given coil n, A and 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 ω are constants. Therefore, by putting 𝑛𝐴𝐵 2𝜋𝑓 = e0 = constant.
∴ 𝑒 = e0 sin ωt -----------------4.
Equation 4 represent the value of emf ‘e’ is not constant but varies with sin ωt OR ‘t’. threfore it is called
alternating emf OR sinusoidal emf.
(iv) (a) If sin ωt = 1 i.e. angle between vector area A of the coil and magnetic induction B.
Then, 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒0 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵ω
This value 𝑒0 is called peak value of emf.
(b) If sin ωt = −1 i.e. angle between ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ is 3𝜋
𝐴 and 𝐵 2
Then, 𝑒 = − 𝑒0 = −𝑛𝐴𝐵𝜔 this is negative value of emf
(c) If sin ωt = 0 i.e. angle between ⃗⃗⃗𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ is 0 , then e = 0
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

Hence, induced emf varies between − 𝑒0 to +𝑒0 including 0. Therefore it is called varying emf OR
alternating emf.
(v) Symbol of induced alternating emf used in electrical circuit is
Graphical representation of alternating emf :-
We have,
e = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡
e = 𝑛𝐴𝐵𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
where, ′𝑒0 = 𝑛𝐴𝐵𝜔′ is called peak value OR amplitude of altenating emf.
T- is time period of alternating emf
𝜔- angular frequency of alternating emf.
𝑇 𝑻 3𝑇 5𝑇 3𝑇 7𝑇
Time ‘t’ 0 T 2T
4 𝟐 4 4 2 4
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 0 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
2 2 2 2
e = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 0 𝑒0 0 −𝑒0 0 𝑒0 0 −𝑒0 0

From graph it is seen that emf changes its direction as well as magnitude in each half half rotation of
the coil on which emf is induced.
The frequency of rotation of coil is called frequency of alternating emf or AC.
AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES OF EMF AND AC:-
a) Average or mean value of AC:
This is the average of all values of the voltage (or current) over one half cycle. As can be seen in Fig. 13.1,
the average over a full cycle is always zero since the average value of sin 𝜔𝑡 over a cycle is zero. So the
mean value of AC over a cycle has no significance and the mean value of AC is defined as the average over
half cycle. Average value of sin 𝜃 in the range 0𝐶 to 𝜋 𝐶
𝜋
∫0 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
< sin 𝜃 > = 𝜋
∫0 𝑑𝜃

[− cos 𝜃]0𝜋
= [𝜃]𝜋
0

2
= = 0.637
𝜋

Therefore, average value of current or emf = 0.637 × their peak value i.e., 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 0.637 i0 and 𝑒𝑎𝑣 = 0.637 𝑒0
where 𝑖𝑎𝑣 and 𝑒𝑎𝑣 are the average values of alternating current and emf (voltage) respectively.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

Explaination:
(i) At the end of every half cycle, the alternating emf and current reverse their direction, hence average
value of emf OR current over one complete cycle is zero.
(ii) Hence to measure effective value of alternating emf or current, it is necessary to make use of a
property, which does not depends up on change in direction of alternating emf or current. This
propertiy is heating effect of current or emf.
(iii) Since heating effects only depends on square of the alternating emf OR current, however squre of
alternating emf of current or emf (𝑖 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 2 ) is always positive.
(iv) The average value of square of the alternating emf OR current is called mean square value . the
square root of the mean square value is called Root Mean Square (RMS) value of alternating emf OR
current.
b) RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OF
ALTERNATING CURRENT:-
The value of steady direct current which would produce the same heating effect per sec. as the alternating
current will produce in that resistance per sec. is called root mean square (RMS) value of alternating current.
OR
It is defined as that constant steady direct current, which produces same amount of heat in a given
resistance in a given time as is produced by an alternating current, when flowing through the same
resistance for the same time.
If ‘I’ be the steady direct current, produces H heat per sec. when flowing through resistance
R and ‘i’ be the alternating current when flowing in R produce same amount of heat H per sec. then I
is called RMS value of alternating current ‘i’

𝑖0
i.e. 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼 =
√2
It is found that,
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝑖𝑜
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707 𝑖𝑜 .

c) RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING EMF OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OF ALTERNATING

EMF:-
The value of steady direct emf which when applied across the given resistance, would produce
same heating effect per sec. in the resistance, as the alternating emf will produce in the resistance
per sec. is called RMS value of alternating emf.

OR
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

The effective or Root Mean Square value of an alternating emf is defined as the value of steady direct emf
when applied across a resistor produces same heating effect per sec. as that of alternating emf will
produce per sec when applied across same resistor.
If E be the steady direct emf, produces H heat per sec. when applied across resistance R and e be
the alternating emf when applied across R produce same amount of heat H per sec. then E is called RMS
value of alternating emf ‘e’ as in fig.
i.e. 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐸
It is found that,
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝑒0
𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = Therefore, 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707𝑒0
√2
PHASOR:-
A rotating vector that represents a quality varying sinusoidal with time is called a phasor and the diagram
representing it is called phasor diagram.
The phasor for alternating emf and alternating current are inclined to the horizontal axis at angle
ωt or ωt + αand rotate in anticlockwise direction. The length of the arrow represents the maximum value
of the quantity (i0 and e0). The projection of the vector on fixed axis gives the instantaneous value of
alternating current and alternating emf. as in the figure.

Fig. Phasor diagrams for alternating current

DIFFERENT TYPES OF AC CIRCUITS:-
Electrical circuit consists of resistor, capacitor, inductor, etc. or the combination of these elements is called AC
circuits. It is possible to obtain phase relation between emf (voltage) and current in different circuits.
(a) AC APPLIED TO A RESISTOR:-
(i) Consider an alternating emf ‘e’ is applied across the resistor of resistance ‘R’
𝑒 = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ----------------1.
(ii) Let i be the current flowing through the resistor ‘R’ at any instant of time ‘t’
Applying Ohm’s law
𝑒 = 𝑖𝑅

∴ 𝑖=
𝑒
𝑅
𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑖= 𝑅
OR

𝑒0
𝑖= 𝑅
sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑒0
But 𝑅
= 𝑖0 is maximum current OR peak value of current OR amplitude of current.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

∴ 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ----------------2.

Hence, current changes with sin 𝜔𝑡 , therefore it is called sinusoidal current with ‘t’.
(iii) By equations 1 and 2 emf and current varies in the same phase. There is no phase difference
between alternating emf and current through resistance. The graph of emf and time OR 𝜔𝑡 is as shown in
fig.

REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE :-

Reactance(X):-
The effective resistance offered by inductor OR capacitor OR both to flow of an
alternating current through them is called reactance.
Inductive reactance (𝑿𝑳 ) :-
The reactance of an inductor, is called inductive reactance.
OR
Opposition offered by inductor to flow of alternating current through it is called inductive
reactance.
Let ‘L’ be the self indutance, f be the frequency of the ac applied across inductor then inductive reactance
becomes,
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
For ideal inductor 𝑋𝐿 = ∞.
Capacitive reactance (𝑿𝒄 ) :-
The reactance of capacitor is called capacitive reactance. OR
The opposition offered by capacitor to flow of alternating current (ac) through it, is called
capacitive reactance.
If ‘C’ is capacity of a capacitor and ‘f’ is frequency of alternating current, then capacitive reactance
becomes,
1
𝑋𝑐 = 𝜔𝐶
1
𝑋𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
For ideal capacitor, 𝑋𝑐 = 0
SI unit of reactance (inductive and capacitive) is –ohm (Ω).
Impedance (Z):-
An ac circuit consist of electrical componants such as resistors, capacitors, inductors etc. this ac circuit
offers opposition for flow of an alternating current through it, is called impedance.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

The total effctive resistance offered by ac circuit to the flow of alternating current through it, is called
impedance of the circuit.
The relation between impedance, resistance and reactance:-
(𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 2 = (𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 2 + (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)2
𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2
SI unit of impedance (Z) is ohm (Ω) .

b) AC TO INDUCTOR (INDUCTOR COIL) :-

(i) Consider an alternating emf ‘e’ is applied across a pure inductor of self-inductance ‘L’ as in fig. Let
‘𝑖’ be the alternating instantaneous current through the inductor is given by equation
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ---------------1.

𝑑𝑖
As the current is alternating, a back emf ‘𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡 ’ is INDUCED in the inductor.
(ii) By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) of electricity
𝑒 + 𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 0
𝑑𝑖
𝑒−𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

∴ 𝑒=𝐿
𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡

∴ 𝑑
𝑒 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 (𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑒 = 𝐿𝑖0 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑒 = 𝜔𝐿𝑖0 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑒 = 𝜔𝐿𝑖0 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) OR
𝜋
𝑒 = 𝑒0 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) ---------------2.
Where 𝑒0 = 𝜔𝐿𝑖0 ---------------3.
is peak value of the emf .
(iii) By comparing equation 1 and 2
𝜋
We conclude that (a) emf lead the current by 2 radian phase. OR
𝜋
(b) Alternating emf lag behind the current by 2 radian phase.
(iv) Graphical representation of emf and current through inductor is as shown in the fig.
Emf and current both are sinusoidal of same frequency. The phase difference between emf and
current is as shown in the phase diagram.

(v) From equation 3 we have,

 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

𝑒0 = 𝜔𝐿𝑖0

∴ 𝜔𝐿 =
𝑒0
𝑖0
----------------4.
𝑒0

OR 𝜔𝐿 = √2
𝑖0
√2
𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜔𝐿 = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
-----------------5.
𝑉
By comparing equation 4 and 5 with ohm’s law i.e. = 𝐼
, we have,
The quantity ‘𝜔𝐿’ is opposition offered by inductor to flow of alternating current through it.
Hence the quantity ‘𝜔𝐿’ is called inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 )

∴ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 -----------------6.
𝑒0 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑋𝐿 =
𝑖0
=
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
-----------------7.
Hence, from equation 7 the ratio of peak value OR RMS value of alternating emf to the current through the
inductor, is called inductive reactance.
(vi) equation 6 can be written as
𝑋𝐿= 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 -------------------8.
Where ‘𝑓’ is frequency of alternating emf or current.
The graph of frequency (𝑓) Vs inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 ) is straight line passing through origin having slope 2𝜋𝐿 .
The graph between angular frequency (𝜔) and inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 ) is also straight line through origin
having slope self inductance (L) of inductor.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

c) AC APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR:-
(i) Consider an alternating emf ‘e’ is applied across pure capacitor having capacity ‘C’as in the fig.

The equation of emf becomes

𝑒 = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ---------------------1.
(ii) Let ‘q’ be the charge on the plate of capacitor at any instant ‘t’ , v be the potential diffrence between
the plates, then
𝑞
𝑣= 𝐶 ----------------------2.
(iii) But P.D. developed across the capacitor is instantaneous emf applied at that time becomes
𝑞
𝑒=𝑣=𝐶

∴ 𝑞 = 𝐶 𝑒 = 𝐶𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 ----------------------3.

(iv) Differentiating equation 3 w.r.t.’t’
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶 𝑒0 𝑑𝑡
(sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶 𝑒0 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑞
But 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑖 is instantaneous current

∴ 𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶 𝑒0 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶 𝑒0 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) -----------------------4.
Put 𝜔𝐶 𝑒0 = 𝑖0 -----------------------5.(peak value of alternating current).
Equation 4 becomes
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) -----------------------6.
By comparing equation 1 and 6 , we conclude that
𝜋
(a) The alternating current through capacitor lead the emf by 2
radian phase.
𝜋
OR (b) The alternating current through capacitor lags the emf by 2
radian phase.

(iv) Graphical representation of emf and current through capacitor is as shown in the fig.
Emf and current both are sinusoidal of same frequency. The phase difference between emf and
current is as shown in the phase diagram.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

From equation 5 we have,

𝑖0 = 𝜔𝐶 𝑒0

∴ 𝜔𝐶
1
=
𝑒0
𝑖0
----------------------7.
𝑒0
1
𝜔𝐶
= √2
𝑖0
√2
1 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜔𝐶
= 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
-------------------8.
𝑉
By comparing equation 7 and 8 with the Ohm’s law i.e. . 𝑅 = 𝐼
, we have,
1
The quantity ‘𝜔𝐶’ is the opposition offered by capacitor to flow of alternating current through the
1
capacitor ‘C’. Therefore, the term ‘ ’ is capacitive reactance.
𝜔𝐶
(v) The ratio of peak value OR RMS value of emf to peak value OR RMS value of current through
capacitor is capacitive reactance(𝑋𝐶 ).

∴ 𝑋𝐶 =
1
𝜔𝐶
=
1
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
------------------9.
Where ‘𝑓’ is frequency of AC (vi) The graph of capacitive
reactance (𝑋𝐶 ) Vs frequency (𝑓) is as in the fig.

(vii) For direct steady current 𝑓 = 0 therefore, 𝑋𝐶 = ∞ .

Hence, capacitor offers infinite resistance for flow of direct current (D.C.) through it. Therefore, capacitor blocks
the D.C.
When capacitor connected to D.C. then immediately plates of capacitor gets fully charged, and D.C.
stops flowing.
When capacitor connected to ac source, the charging and discharging takes place. Due to this charging
and discharging alternating current (ac) flows through capacitor but opposite in direction.
d) AC applied to series combination of Inductor, Capacitor and Resistor:-
AC applied to series LCR circuit :-
(i) Suppose an alternating emf is applied across
series combination of inductor (L),capacitor (C)
and resistor (R), such circuit is called series LCR
circuit which is as in the fig.

(ii) Let 𝑒𝐿 , 𝑒𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑅 be the alternating

voltages across L,C and R respectively. The
applied emf becomes vector sum of all these
voltages.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

(iii) Let ‘i’ be the alternating instantaneous current flowing through the circuit. Following are some
conclusions.
(a) 𝑒𝑅 is in the same phase with ‘i’
𝜋
(b) 𝑒𝐿 leads the current ‘i’ by radian.
2
𝜋
(c) 𝑒𝐶 is leging behind with the current ‘i’ by 2 radian.
If ‘i’ and 𝑒𝑅 are taken on positive X-axis, then the 𝑒𝐿 and 𝑒𝐶 becomes on positive and negative Y- axis
respectively.this can be shown by phasor diagram.

𝑒𝐿 - 𝑒𝐶 will be along positive direction of Y- axis.the resultant emf of 𝑒𝐿 , 𝑒𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑅 is applied emf‘e’.
Therefore from phaser diagram ,
𝑒 2 = 𝑒𝑅 2 + (𝑒𝐿 − 𝑒𝐶 )2 -----------1.
(iv) But by Ohm’s law
𝑒𝑅 = P.D. across 𝑅 = 𝑖
𝑒𝐿 = P.D. across 𝐿 = 𝑖𝑋𝐿 and
𝑒𝐶 = P.D. across 𝐶 = 𝑖𝑋𝐶
Putting this values in equation 1 we have,
𝑒 2 = (𝑖𝑅)2 + (𝑖𝑋𝐿 − 𝑖𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑒 2 = 𝑖 2 [𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ]
Taking square root both sides

∴ 𝑒 = 𝑖√[𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ] --------------2.

∴ 𝑒 = 𝑖𝑍 -----------------3.
𝑒
Where 𝑍 = √[𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ] and from equation 3, 𝑍= 𝑖
----------------4.
𝑉
(v) by comparing equation 4 with the Ohm’s law i.e. 𝑅 = 𝐼
we have,
The term ‘𝑍 = √[𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ] represents opposition (resistance) offered by series combination of L,C and
R, which is called impedance of ac circuit.
Opposition offered by ac circuit for flow of alternating current through it, is called impedance (Z).
OR
Ratio of peak (RMS) value of emf to the peak (RMS) value of alternating current is called impedance.
(vi) From phaser diagram
𝑒 −𝑒
tan ∅ = 𝐿 𝑒 𝐶
𝑅
𝑖𝑋𝐿 − 𝑖𝑋𝐶
tan ∅ = 𝑖𝑅
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
tan ∅ = 𝑅
---------------------5.
𝑋 −𝑋
OR ∅ = tan−1 ( 𝐿 𝑅 𝐶 ) --------------------6.
Equations 5.and 6 represent phase difference (∅) between alternating emf and current in ac circuit.
(vii) (a) If 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 , then the emf leads the current by phase ‘∅’ OR emf lags behind the current phase
‘∅’.
Therefore equation of current can be written as,
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ∅) ------------------7.
(b) If 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 , then the crrent leads the emf by phase ‘∅’ OR current lags behind the emf phase
‘∅’.
Therefore equation of current can be written as,
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅) ------------------8.
The general equation of current from equation 7 and 8 can be written as
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅) ------------------9.
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS:-
(A) AC power in circuit with resistor :-

(i) Let us consider an alternating emf ‘e’is

applied across resistor ‘R’ only. If ‘i’ be the alternating current through ‘R’ at any instant ‘t’.

Then equations of emf and current is written as

𝑒 = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 --------------------1.
And 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 --------------------2.
Since emf and current are in the same phase in the case of resistor only.

(ii) The instantaneous power

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒𝑖
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒0 𝑖0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 --------------------3.
This equation 3 represent instanteneous power in the resistor ‘R’.
(iii) The energy absorbed by resistor ‘R’ in time dt
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Energy absorbed by resistor ‘R’ in one complete cycle of AC

𝑇
𝑊 = ∫0 𝑑𝑤
𝑇
𝑊 = ∫0 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑊 = ∫0 𝑒0 𝑖0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Where ‘T’ is time period of applied AC.

The average power in one cycle will be,
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

∴
𝑇
∫0 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇
𝑇
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑒0 𝑖0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 𝑖 𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0 0 ∫0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑒 𝑖 𝑇 (1−cos 2𝜔𝑡)
= 0𝑇 0 ∫0 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑒0 𝑖0 𝑇 𝑇
= 2𝑇 [∫0 𝑑𝑡 − ∫0 cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ]
𝑒0 𝑖0 𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 2𝑇 [𝑇 − 0] since ∫0 cos 2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =0

∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
2
𝑒0 𝑖0
-------------------4.
𝑒0 𝑖0
OR 𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
√2 √2
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 -------------------5.
Equations 4 and 5 represents average power consumed across resistor ‘R’.
(B) AC power in series LCR circuit:-

(i) Consider series LCR circuit. Let ‘e’ be

the alternating emf and ‘i’ be the instantaneous current in the circuit.

Then
𝑒 = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 --------------------1.
And 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅ ) --------------------2.
(ii)The instantaneous power consumed in the circuit will be,
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒𝑖
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒0 sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅ )
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒0 . 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡[sin 𝜔𝑡 . cos ∅ ± cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ∅ ]
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒0 . 𝑖0 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ∅ ± sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ∅] ------------3.
This equation 3 represent instanteneous power in the series LCR circuit.
(iii) The average power per cycle of ac will be
𝑇
∫0 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
𝑇
1 𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑒 . 𝑖 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ∅ ± sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ∅]
𝑇 0 0 0
𝑒0 .𝑖0 𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇
∫0 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos ∅ ± sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin ∅]
𝑒0 .𝑖0 cos ∅ 𝑇 2 𝑒0 .𝑖0 sin ∅ 𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇
∫0
sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ± 𝑇
∫0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 -----------4.
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
But ∫0 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2
and ∫0 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
Therefore equation 4 can be written as
𝑒0 .𝑖0 cos ∅ 𝑇
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇
[2 ± 0 ]
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
𝑒0 𝑖0
2
cos ∅ ---------------------5.
𝑒0 𝑖0
OR 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = cos ∅
√2 √2
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ∅ ---------------------6.

Equations 5 and 6 represents an expression for average power in series LCR circuit.
In these equations the term cos ∅ is called power factor.
(iv) The quantity 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 is called apparent power and the term 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ∅ is called true
power in ac circuit.
Equations 5 and 6 shows that average power in AC circuit not only depends on peak values (or
RMS values )of emf and current, but also depends on the phase difference ‘∅’ between emf and current.
(v) From equation 6
𝑃𝑎𝑣
cos ∅ =
𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Hence, power factor, cos ∅ = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ----------------7.
Hence, power factor is ratio of true power to the apparent power in AC circuit.
From phaser diagram of LCR circuit
𝑅
cos ∅ = 𝑍
Therefore, power factor is the ratio of rsistance to the impedance of the AC circuit.
(vi) For purely inductive and capacive circuit,
𝜋
∅ = 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 OR 90°
From equation 6
𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 0

∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0
Hence, no average power is consumed in inductor or resistor.
Wattless power:-
If the average power consumed by the circuit is zero, then the circuit is called wattless circuit, and
the current flowing in the circuit is called ideal current.
For purely resistive circuit ∅ = 0

∴ cos∅ = cos 0 = 1

∴ power factor = 1
Hence, for purely resistive circuit power factor is unity.
LC OSCILLATIONS:-
(i) Let us consider pure inductor ‘L’ and initially charged capacitor ‘C’ is connected in parellel
combination as in the fig.34.
(ii) Suppose that capacitor ‘C’ is charged such that plate 𝑃1 is positively charged and plate 𝑃2 is
negatively charged as in the fig.(a). when switch ‘S’ is closed the capacitor sends the current through inductor ‘L’
.
(iii) This current through produces magnetic flux around it, which increases slowly. This change in
magnetic flux across ‘L’ produce induced emf in the coil. When capacitor ‘C’ is comletely dischrged the induced
emf in the coil is maximum. i.e. electrostatic energy is converted in to magnetic energy as in fig. (b).
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

(iv) Now induced emf (back emf) in the

coil sends current to the capacitor but opposite in direction. The capacitor is begaining to charged with opposite
polarity as in the fig. (c), such that 𝑃1 is negatively charged and plate 𝑃2 is positively charged.
(v) Now again capacitor begains to discharge through inductor in opposite direction as in fig. (d).
In this way charging and discharging of capacitor goes on repeating again and again. This is
called oscillting of current OR oscillation of LC circuit.

RESONANT CIRCUIT:-
If frequency of alternating current OR emf applied across inductor OR capacitor OR combination
of both, is gradually changed, then at a cirtain suitable frequency, impedance of the AC circuit reach to
maximum OR minimum value and the alternating current starts oscillating, such circuit is called resonant circuit.
(a) Series Resonant circuit(Accepor circuit):-
(i) When alternating emf is applied to series LCR circuit as in the fig. the RMS current in the circuit is
given by
𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠𝑍
= 2 2]
√[𝑅 +(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )

Where ‘Z’ is impedance of the circuit.

(ii) When impedance ‘Z’ of the circuit is minimum, the rms value of current passing through the
circuit is maximum. This is the condition of series resonance. The variation of impedance of the circuit in
combination with 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 with the frequency of applied AC is as in the fig.(a). and variation of current
through the circuit with frequencyis as shown in the fig. (b).
(iii) From the above fig. impedance ‘Z’of the circuit and current ‘i’ varies with frequency.
When 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 then Z =R, i.e. circuit is purely resistive and current in the circuit has maximum value. The emf
and current are in the same phase. At this condition the circuit is said to to be in resonance with applied AC.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

Fig. .(a,b) Variation of impedance (z) and current (i)

in series resonant circuit with frequency (f )

Resonant frequency (𝒇𝒓 ):-

(iv)The frequency of applied AC for which resonance takes place and maximum rms current
flows through the circuit, is called resonance frequency.
The resonance occures at Z= 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 and Z is minimum at 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶

∴ at resonance 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
1
𝜔𝐿 = 𝜔𝐶
1
𝜔2 = 𝐿𝐶
but 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
2 1
(2𝜋𝑓𝑟 ) = 𝐿𝐶

∴ 𝑓𝑟 =
1
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
(v) The variation of rms current with the frequency of AC is as in the fig. the curve is called series
resonance curve. When alternating current of different frequencies are sent through series resonan circuit, it
offers minimum impedance to the current of resonating frequency and high impedance to the current of other
frequency. Therefore series LCR circuit allow current resonant frequency and rejects the currents of other
frequency. Hence, series LCR circuit is called acceptor circuit.
(vi) Series LCR circuit is used to tune radio and TV receivers to signals from a desired transmitting
station or channel.
(b) Parellel resonant circuit (rejector circuit) :-
(i) Consider a pure inductor of inductance ‘L’and
capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ are connected in
parellel combination with source of alternating emf
‘e’as in the fig. Such a circuit is called is called
parellel resonant circuit.

(ii) Let 𝑖𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑐 be the instantaneous currents

through the inductor and capacitor respectively.
The current in the inductor ‘𝑖𝐿 ’ lags behind the emf
𝜋
by phase of radian,
2
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

𝑒0
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿
sin(𝜔𝑡 −
𝜋 𝑒0
2
)= − 𝑋𝐿
cos 𝜔𝑡 --------------
-1.
As the current throuh the capacitor
𝜋
‘𝑖𝐶 ’ leads the emf by phase of 2
radian,
𝑒0
𝑖𝐶 = 𝑋𝐶
sin(𝜔𝑡 +
𝜋 𝑒0
2
)= 𝑋𝐶
cos 𝜔𝑡 --------------2.
(iii) From equation 1 and 2 the
instantaneous current ‘i’ drawn from the source of emf is given by
1 1
𝑖 = 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑒0 ( − ) cos 𝜔𝑡 -------------3.
𝑋 𝑋 𝐶 𝐿
Equation 3 in general form can be written as
𝑒 1 1
𝑖= 𝑍
= 𝑒0 cos 𝜔𝑡 (𝑋 − 𝑋 ) -------------4.
𝐶 𝐿

∴ 𝑍
1
= 𝑋𝐶
1 1
− 𝑋 = 𝜔𝐶 −
𝐿 𝜔𝐿
1

∴ 𝑍= 1
−
1
1 =
1
𝜔𝐶−
1 --------------5.
𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿

Where 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 are inductive and capacitive reactance respectively.

(iv) If 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 then Z=∞ and i=0 . thus no current is drawn from the source. At 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 impedance ‘Z’ of the
circuit is maximum (infinite) and the current goes on circulating in LC loop. This is called parellel resonance. Current
through ‘L’ and ‘C’ are not zero individually but the current taken from the source is zero OR minimum.

(v) The variation of impedance of the circuit in combination with 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 with the frequency of
applied AC is as in the fig.(a). and variation of current through the circuit with frequency is as shown in the fig.
(b).
Resonant frequency(𝒇𝒓 ):-
(vi) The frequency of applied AC for which the resonance takes place and minimum or zero current flows
through the circuit is called resonant frequency ‘𝑓𝑟 ’.
The resonance occures at Z= 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 and Z is maximum or ∞ at 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶

∴ at resonance 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
1
𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶
1
𝜔2 = 𝐿𝐶
but 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟
2 1
(2𝜋𝑓𝑟 ) = 𝐿𝐶

∴ 𝑓𝑟 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
1

(vii) In actual practice, pure inductor does not exist. Every inductor possess a small resistance and hence
at resonant frequency also a very small current is drawn from the source alternating emf.
(viii) The variation of alternating current with the frequency of AC is as in the fig. the curve is called
series resonance curve. When alternating current of different frequencies are sent through parallel resonant
circuit, it offers maximum impedance to the current of resonating frequency and low impedance to the current of
other frequency. Therefore parallel resonant circuit reject the current of resonant frequency and allows the
currents of other frequency. Hence, parallel resonant circuit is called rejector circuit.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

(ix) Parellel resonant circuit are used in wireless transmission and radio communication as a filter
circuits.
SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE: Q FACTOR
We have, amplitude of current in the series LCR circuit is given by
𝑒0
𝑖0 =
√𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿 − 1 )2
𝜔𝐶
1
Also if 𝜔 is varied, then at a particular frequency 𝜔 = 𝜔 𝑟 , XL = XC i.e. 𝜔 𝑟 𝐿 − =0
𝜔𝑟 𝐶
For a given resistance R, the amplitude of current is maximum
1
∴ 𝜔𝑟 =
√𝐿𝐶
.
For values of ω other than ωr , the amplitude of the current is less than the maximum value i0.
1
Suppose we choose a value for ω for which the amplitude is times its maximum value, the power
√2
dissipated by the circuit becomes half (called
half power frequency).

From the curve in the Fig. we see that there are

two such values of 𝜔 say 𝜔 1 and 𝜔 2 , one
greater and other smaller than 𝜔 𝑟 and
symmetrical about 𝜔 𝑟 such that
𝜔 1 = 𝜔 𝑟 + 𝛥𝜔 and
𝜔 2 = 𝜔 𝑟 – 𝛥𝜔
The difference 𝜔 1 – 𝜔 2 = 2𝛥𝜔 is called the
𝜔𝑟
bandwidth of the circuit. The quantity ( ) is
2∆𝜔
regarded as the measure of the sharpness of
resonance. The sharpness of resonance is
measured by a coefficient called the quality or Q
factor of the circuit. The Q factor of a series
resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the
resonant frequency to the difference in two
frequencies taken on both sides of the resonant
frequency such that at each frequency the
1
current amplitude becomes times Fig. Sharpness Resonance
√2
the value at resonant frequency.
𝜔𝑟 𝜔𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
∴ 𝑄 = = =
𝜔2 −𝜔1 2∆𝜔 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Q-factor is a dimensionless quantity. The larger the value of Q-factor, the smaller the value of 2 𝛥𝜔 or the
bandwidth and sharper is the peak in the current or the series resonant circuit is more selective.
CHOKE COIL:-
A choke coil is an inductor, used to reduce AC passing through a circuit without much loss of energy. It is
made up of thick insulated copper wires wound closely in a large number of turns over a soft iron laminated
core. Choke coil offers large resistance XL = ω L to the flow
of AC and hence current is reduced. Laminated core reduces
eddy current loss.
Suppose capacitor C is absent in the series LCR circuit, then the
circuit becomes series LR circuit.
 13. A.C. CIRCUITS /Short Notes/YPM

13. A.C. CIRCUITS

In this circuit 𝑋𝐶 = 0 , hence equation becomes,

𝑒 = 𝑖√[𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 ]
𝑒 = 𝑖√[𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 0)2 ]

𝑒 = 𝑖√[𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ]

∴ 𝑒
𝑖
= √[𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ]
Hence impedance of series LR circuit will be

𝑍 = √[𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ]

For a choke coil, L is very large. Hence R is very small so cosφ is nearly zero and power loss is very
small.