brain
sciences
Article
Exploring the Mediating Role of Executive Function in the
Relationship between Aerobic Fitness and Academic
Achievement in Adolescents
Seyun Park 1 , Haeyong Chun 2 , Jennifer L. Etnier 3 and Daehyun Yun 1, *
Citation: Park, S.; Chun, H.; Etnier,
J.L.; Yun, D. Exploring the Mediating
Role of Executive Function in the
Relationship between Aerobic Fitness
and Academic Achievement in
Adolescents. Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
brainsci13040614
Academic Editors: Notger G. Müller
and Valerio Santangelo
Received: 26 February 2023
Revised: 23 March 2023
Accepted: 1 April 2023
Published: 4 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13040614
1 Department Sport Science, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu,
Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
2 Department of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, 109C IM Sports Circle Building 308 W. Circle Drive,
East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
3 Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402, USA
* Correspondence: dhyuncnu@cnu.ac.kr
Abstract: (1) Background: The performance of physical activity at a sufficient volume can result
in improvements in fitness. Aerobic fitness is a particular aspect of fitness that has consistently
been shown to be related to both cognitive performance and academic achievement. Cognitive
performance, particularly executive function, is itself predictive of academic achievement. It has
been hypothesized that the benefits of aerobic fitness for academic achievement are due to improve-
ments in executive function. This study explores the mediating role of cognitive performance on
the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in high-school-aged adoles-
cents. (2) Methods: High school students (N = 283, 127 male, 156 females, mean age = 16.05 years,
SD = 0.41) performed a shuttle run test to assess aerobic fitness and completed the Stroop Color,
Stroop Word, and Stroop Color–Word tests to measure information processing and inhibition. They
also completed the National Union Academic Achievement Assessment (NUAAA) as part of their
high school requirements. (3) Results: Mediation analyses showed that inhibition (performance
in the Stroop Color–Word test) fully mediated the relationship between aerobic fitness and both
mathematics and Korean performance. (4) Conclusions: This cross-sectional investigation suggests an
important mediating role of cognitive performance related to executive function in understanding the
relationship between aerobic fitness and the academic achievement of high-school-aged adolescents.
This suggests that enhancements in performance related to executive function, which are attributed
to increases in aerobic fitness, could explain the observed benefits for academic attainment.
Keywords: physical activity; physical fitness; aerobic fitness; cognition; executive function; academic
achievement; mediation; adolescent
1. Introduction
Many studies have reported a positive association between fitness and academic
achievement in children [1–3] and adolescents [4–8]. Findings from a systematic review
suggest that aerobic fitness is the most studied aspect of fitness in this research area, and is
also the factor most consistently resulting in significant benefits to cognitive performance
and academic achievement [9–11]. Further, meta-analytic reviews indicate that aerobic
fitness has a moderately sized positive relationship with academic achievement [12].
Aerobic fitness is the capacity to transport oxygen to the muscles and employ it for
energy production during physical activity. It is widely recognized as the most effective
indicator of the cardiorespiratory system’s functional ability [13]. Furthermore, physical ac-
tivity (PA) plays a critical role in enhancing aerobic fitness among children and adolescents.
Systemic reviews and meta-analyses of physical activity interventions have demonstrated
that they enhance physical fitness and aerobic capacity among youth aged 6–18 [14] and
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/brainsci
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 2 of 11

10–19 years [15]. Being related to better academic achievement, aerobic fitness has also been
shown to have a positive relationship with cognitive performance. The positive association
between aerobic fitness and cognitive performance in children has been investigated, with
meta-analytic results supporting an association between aerobic fitness and cognitive per-
formance [9] and a positive effect for PA interventions on cognitive performance [16]. These
latter findings support the hypothesis that PA benefits academic achievement through
physical fitness and cognitive performance improvements. In a cross-sectional study with
children (6–9 years), it was found that PA indirectly influenced academic achievement
in the area of mathematics through the mediating effects of aerobic fitness [17]. Another
study found a positive relationship between changes in aerobic fitness among adolescents
and changes in academic achievement in reading and mathematics [18]. Furthermore,
Sardinha et al. [8] followed 1286 adolescents aged 11–14 years for a period of 3 years and
found a prospective association between consistently high or improving aerobic fitness and
better academic achievement.
Considering the relationship between cognitive performance and academic achieve-
ment, diverse studies persistently report a positive relationship between one particular
aspect of cognitive performance, executive function, and academic achievement [19]. This
relationship has been shown to exist across cultures, with correlations evident for various
aspects of executive function (inhibition, working memory, and attentional control) in
Chinese and American preschool-aged children [20]. These relationships are consistently
demonstrated across a range of studies [19,21,22]. In the case of adolescents, a recent study
identified the significance of aerobic fitness in enhancing inhibitory control and cognitive
flexibility [23], and suggested it was positively related to cortical brain development [24]
and white matter [25]. During adolescence, white matter continues to develop, and its
characteristics have been demonstrated to be essential for cognitive functions, such as
executive function, as well as behavior, including risk-taking behaviors [25]. Additionally,
the development of the cortical brain is associated with the enhancement of executive
function [26].
Considering physical activity, aerobic fitness, cognitive performance, and academic
achievement simultaneously, a systematic review exploring mechanisms of the PA–academic
achievement relationship found that aerobic fitness and cognitive performance were con-
sistently significant mediators of the relationship in empirical studies [27]. This review
provides a basis for the hypothesis that improvements in aerobic fitness in adolescence will
be able to enhance cognitive performance and academic achievement, and suggests that
cognitive performance is predictive of academic achievement. In particular, the mediating
role of executive function has recently attracted attention in this relationship [28,29]. Given
the similarity between the brain regions where inhibitory processes operate and those asso-
ciated with mathematics and reading performance [30], it is expected that inhibition will
play a significant role in the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achievement.
However, the role of cognitive performance as a mediator of the effects of aerobic fitness on
academic achievement has not been dealt with sufficiently for two reasons. The first relates
to the age of the participants and the second to using latent variables to represent cognitive
performance.
Recent studies found a mediating effect of cognitive function [31] and executive
function [32,33] in the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in
primary school children. These studies all show that cognitive performance is a mediator
of the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement. However, these
studies were limited in that they considered executive function or cognitive performance as
a latent variable and hence were unable to determine the mediating effect of specific aspects
of cognitive performance. Another limitation of the literature is that researchers have
previously mainly focused on children in primary school [29,31,31–33]. There is a lack of
research on adolescents, with only a small number of studies even exploring the relationship
between physical fitness and cognitive performance, or physical fitness and academic
achievement [34,35]. In fact, as a result of synthesizing reviews on chronic physical activity
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 3 of 11

and academic achievement, cognition, and the brain in children and adolescents, reviewers
consistently point to the lack of studies involving adolescents [36]. Understanding the
mediating role of cognitive performance in the relationship between aerobic fitness and
academic achievement in adolescents is important because this developmental stage is
a period when academic performance is influential. Hence, this study aims to explore
the mediating effects of two measures of cognitive performance (information processing
and inhibition) on the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achievement in
adolescents.

2. Methods
2.1. Participants
The participants for this study included a total of 283 high-school-age adolescents
(127 male, 156 females, mean age = 16.05 years, SD = 0.41) in South Korea, who did not
report any physical or mental health problems. The sample size of this study was selected
by referring to previous studies related to multi-mediated effect analysis [37,38]. All the
participants were living in urban areas, and they attended general public high schools
where differences in social economic status were unlikely to occur since they lived in similar
residential regions. Prior to selecting the final study participants, six students (5 male,
1 female) were excluded after reporting they had not finished the National Assessment
of Educational Achievement test. After approval by Chungnam National University’s
Institutional Review Board (202203-SB-024-01), the study took place with the voluntary
participation of the participants. Their parents submitted a consent form after receiving a
description of the study.

2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Aerobic Fitness
Aerobic fitness was measured with a 20 m shuttle run, which was performed based
on the manual of the Physical Activity Promotion System (PAPS) in order to examine
the physical ability of all elementary, middle, and high school students in South Korea.
The 20 m shuttle run or “PACER” is probably the most widely used field test to estimate
aerobic fitness [39]. The shuttle run is a physical fitness test that assesses an individual’s
aerobic capacity by quantifying the number of shuttle runs completed back and forth
over a 20-meter distance within a predetermined time frame. This evaluation is used
to examine physical ability in a wide range of populations such as children, teenagers,
soldiers, and even firefighters. The measurement was performed at gyms in the participants’
high schools. The researchers measured performance with the cooperation of physical
education teachers. The shuttle run was completed with 10 students of the same gender,
who commenced the test simultaneously upon receiving a signal. The PAPS manual from
the Korean Ministry of Education suggests a 5-level evaluation of fitness test outcomes
depending on gender and age. Based on the PAPS manual, this study classified shuttle run
records into 5 levels (5 higher–1 lower), thus controlling for gender and age.

2.2.2. Cognitive Performance

Cognitive performance was examined by using the Stroop Word, Stroop Color, and
Stroop Color–Word tests. The Stroop test is used widely to evaluate versatile cognitive
functions such as attention, processing speed, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition [40].
Inhibitory control is a core indicator of cognitive executive control that is indicative of
self-regulatory abilities [41]. The Stroop test is an examination of reading words and colors
as accurately and fast as possible. The Stroop Word test requires participants to read
aloud words printed in black ink, the Stroop Color test requires participants to verbally
identify the color of colored blocks printed without words, and the Stroop Color–Word test
requires participants to verbally identify the color of the ink in which words are printed,
not read out the colors that are written down. This study used the method suggested by
Golden [42] that measured the number of correct responses within 45 s. Participants in
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 4 of 11

the study were instructed to perform a paper-printed Stroop Test with oral responses, the
researcher pointed out the errors when they were made, and participants were to correct
their errors before proceeding. The Stroop Word, Stroop Color, and Stroop Color–Word
tests reflect processing speed, and the Stroop Color–Word test measures inhibition [40,43].

2.2.3. Academic Achievement

The academic achievement of high schoolers was assessed by the National Union
Academic Achievement Assessment (NUAAA) of Korea. The NUAAA is a paper test that
is administered by education offices across Korea four times a year during the first and
second years of high school. This study used standard scores for Korean and mathematics
in order to reflect linguistic and mathematical achievement. Standard scores have the
advantage of reflecting the relative rankings among examinees, regardless of the subject
level. The class teachers provided the scores of the NUAAA for each participant. Generally,
most Korean high school students participate in taking the NUAAA, which is administered
across a day, from 08:40 a.m. to 16:32 p.m. The Korean and mathematics tests are conducted
in the morning, with Korean tested for 80 min in the first session and mathematics tested
for 100 min in the second session.

2.3. Procedures
The researchers collected data from students, who wished to participate voluntarily,
from two general high schools. In cooperation with the high school, the researchers
conducted an aerobic fitness test and a cognitive test after obtaining consent from parents
and assent from students. The researchers and research assistants visited the high schools
and gathered the aerobic fitness measurements in cooperation with physical education
teachers. The fitness tests were conducted in the high schools’ gymnasiums during physical
education classes. Cognitive performance was measured with the cooperation of a physical
education teacher and a class teacher, and was measured at a time when physical activity
had not been performed in the previous 2 h. The Stroop tests were conducted more
than 2 weeks after the aerobic fitness test had been completed. The researcher provided
face-to-face instructions and then assessed Stroop test performance for about 6 min in a
quiet classroom. Academic achievement was operationalized as the NUAAA Korean and
mathematics scores. After aerobic fitness and cognitive performance measurements, the
researchers were provided with the NUAAA score from the time point most proximal to
these assessments. All data collection was completed in approximately four months.

2.4. Data Analysis

Before analyzing the data, the data were screened to test for skewness and kurtosis
between −2 and +2 to determine if the data were normally distributed [44]. Descriptive
statistics were examined, and correlation analysis was employed to identify associations
between the variables. In addition, a parallel multiple mediator model was employed to
investigate the role of cognitive performance in the relationship between aerobic fitness
and academic achievement. To mitigate the influence of gender, a covariate adjustment
was implemented for gender, given that Korean scores exhibit gender-based discrepancies.
Bootstrap confidence intervals [45] were used to show the significance of the mediating
effect because the method provides superior verification power compared with the Sobel
test. In the context of analyzing cognitive function and academic performance as latent
variables using structural equation modeling, the analysis provides the total indirect effect.
However, it does not provide separate bootstrapping for the specific indirect effect. In
essence, the application of structural equation modeling precludes the assessment of
individual indirect effects, thus necessitating the use of a process macro to derive and
analyze these effects [46] (p. 152). The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS v.26, and
PROCESS Macro v. 3.4.1 was employed to test each mediating effect and the significance of
the effects. All the analyses were conducted at the 0.05 significance level.
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 5 of 11

3. Results
Descriptive statistics and the results of correlation analyses between aerobic fitness,
cognitive performance, and academic achievement are presented in Table 1. Aerobic fitness
was positively correlated with Stroop Word (r = 0.15, p < 0.05), Stroop Color (r = 0.14,
p < 0.05), Stroop Color–Word (r = 0.19, p < 0.01), and mathematics (r = 0.15, p < 0.05), but
not with Korean. Positive correlations were observed among all indicators of cognitive
performance and academic achievement, except for a negative correlation between aerobic
fitness and Korean.

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and correlations of variables.

Boys (n = 127) Girls (n = 156) Total (n = 283) Correlations

M SD M SD M SD AF SW SC SCW Math
AF 3.84 1.02 3.00 1.92 3.38 1.05 1
SW 91.92 8.96 92.31 8.41 92.13 8.65 0.149 * 1
SC 74.09 12.30 72.97 10.90 73.48 11.54 0.135 * 0.589 ** 1
SCW 51.39 11.21 50.85 9.68 51.09 10.38 0.185 ** 0.438 ** 0.642 ** 1
Math 106.86 21.44 104.75 17.89 105.70 19.55 0.145 * 0.175 ** 0.190 ** 0.245 ** 1
Korean 98.65 20.74 105.46 17.13 102.40 19.10 −0.055 0.153 ** 0.198 ** 0.241 ** 0.665 **
Note. AF: Aerobic Fitness, SW: Stoop Word, SC: Stroop Color, SCW: Stroop Color–Word, Mathematics and Korean
scores: standard scores 0~200, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

Relationships between variables were analyzed by applying parallel multiple mediator

Brain Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11
models based on the significant associations among variables. The conceptual structural
diagram of a parallel multiple mediator model is presented in Figure 1.

(A) (B)

Math Korean
Indirect effect Stroop Word (a1b1) b = 0.244, BCa CI (−0.213, 0.993) b = 0.097, BCa CI (−0.370, 0.742)
Indirect effect Stroop Color (a2b2) b = 0.040, BCa CI (−0.442, 0.521) b = 0.174, BCa CI (−0.261, 0.732)
Indirect effect Stroop Color-Word (a3b3) b = 0.722, BCa CI (0.130, 1.549) b = 0.733, BCa CI (0.136, 1.527)

Figure 1. (A,B). Statistical diagram of the parallel multiple mediator model. Note: Confidence
Figure 1.
intervals (A,B). Statistical
presented are BCa diagram of thea1:
bootstrapped, parallel multiple
the path from IV mediator model.
to SW, a2: Note:from
the path Confidence
IV to SC,inter-
a3:
vals
the presented
path from IV are BCa bootstrapped,
to SCW, a1: the
b1: the path from SWpath from
to DV, b2: IV
thetopath
SW,from
a2: the
SCpath from
to DV, b3:IVthetopath
SC, a3:
from the
path from IV to SCW, b1: the path
SCW to DV, c’: the path from IV to DV. from SW to DV, b2: the path from SC to DV, b3: the path from
SCW to DV, c’: the path from IV to DV.
According to the results with mathematics as a dependent variable (Table 2), aero-
4. fitness
bic Discussion
was a significant predictor of Stroop Word (β = 1.55, p < 0.01), Stroop Color
(β = 1.50, p < 0.05),
Studies and Stroop
investigating theColor–Word (β =of2.05,
positive effects p < 0.01)
physical performance,
fitness while it did
or PA on cognitive per-
not significantly
formance predict mathematics
and academic achievementscores directly.
in children andStroop Word and
adolescents haveStroop Color
increased were
since the
2000s, and have been expanding even more over the past decade [6,35]. The outcomes of
these studies show that aerobic fitness (or cardiovascular fitness) is closely related to the
executive function aspect of cognitive performance [1,12,47], and has a consistent positive
relationship with academic performance in areas such as mathematics and linguistics [48].
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 6 of 11

not significant predictors of mathematics scores, but Stroop Color–Word was a significant
predictor of mathematics scores (β = 0.35, p < 0.05). In testing the mediation effect of Stroop
Word, Stroop Color, and Stroop Color–Word in the relationship between aerobic fitness and
math, the indirect effect of Stroop Color–Word was significant (b = 0.722, BCa CI (0.130,
1.549)) while the indirect effects of Stroop Word and Stroop Color were not significant.
These results revealed that Stroop Color–Word fully mediated the relationship between
aerobic fitness and mathematics.

Table 2. Regression coefficients, standard errors, and model summary information for the parallel
multiple mediator model with mathematics achievement.

M1 (SW) M2 (SC) M3 (SCW) DV (Math)

Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p
IV (AF) a1 1.55 0.53 <0.01 a2 1.50 0.71 <0.05 a3 2.05 0.63 <0.01 c’1.72 1.20 >0.05
M1 (SW) b1 0.16 0.16 >0.05
M2 (SC) b2 0.03 0.19 >0.05
M3 (SCW) b3 0.35 0.14 <0.05
CV (Gender) −0.50 2.49 >0.05
Constant 84.29 2.98 <0.001 68.18 4.00 <0.001 42.34 3.56 <0.001 66.16 12.99 <0.001
R2 = 0.03 R2 = 0.02 R2 = 0.04 R2 = 0.08
F (2, 280) = 4.37, p < 0.05 F (2, 280) = 2.59, p > 0.05 F (2, 280) = 5.37, p < 0.01 F (5, 277) = 4.51, p < 0.001
Note. IV: independence variable, DV: dependent variable, CV: control variable, AF: Aerobic Fitness, SW: Stoop
Word, SC: Stroop Color, SCW: Stroop Color–Word, a1: the path from IV to SW, a2: the path from IV to SC, a3: the
path from IV to SCW, b1: the path from SW to DV, b2: the path from SC to DV, b3: the path from SCW to DV, c’:
the path from IV to DV.

With Korean scores as the dependent variable (Table 3), aerobic fitness had a significant
influence on Stroop Word (β = 1.55, p < 0.01), Stroop Color (β = 1.50, p < 0.05), and Stroop
Color–Word (β = 2.05, p < 0.01); however, it did not significantly predict Korean scores.
Stroop Word and Stroop Color were not significant predictors of Korean scores, but Stroop
Color–Word (β = 0.36, p < 0.05) was a significant predictor of Korean scores. In testing the
mediation effect of Stroop Word, Stroop Color, and Stroop Color–Word, only the indirect
effect of Stroop Color–Word was significant (b = 0.733, BCa CI (0.136, 1.527)). These results
revealed that Stroop Color–Word fully mediated the relationship between aerobic fitness
and Korean.

Table 3. Regression coefficients, standard errors, and model summary information for the parallel
multiple mediator model with Korean achievement.

M1 (SW) M2 (SC) M3 (SCW) DV (Korean)

Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p
c’
IV (AF) a1 1.55 0.53 <0.01 a2 1.50 0.71 <0.05 a3 2.05 0.63 <0.01 1.16 >0.05
−0.66
M1 (SW) b1 0.06 0.16 >0.05
M2 (SC) b2 0.16 0.14 >0.05
M3 (SCW) b3 0.36 0.14 <0.05
CV (Gender) 6.55 2.40 <0.01
Constant 84.29 2.97 <0.001 68.18 4.00 <0.001 42.34 3.56 <0.001 61.90 12.54 <0.001
R2 = 0.03 R2 = 0.02 R2 = 0.04 R2 = 0.10
F (2, 280) = 4.37, p < 0.05 F (2, 280) = 2.59, p > 0.05 F (2, 280) = 5.37, p < 0.01 F (5, 277) = 5.97, p < 0.001
Note. IV: independence variable, DV: dependent variable, CV: control variable, AF: Aerobic Fitness, SW: Stoop
Word, SC: Stroop Color, SCW: Stroop Color–Word, a1: the path from IV to SW, a2: the path from IV to SC, a3: the
path from IV to SCW, b1: the path from SW to DV, b2: the path from SC to DV, b3: the path from SCW to DV, c’:
the path from IV to DV.
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 7 of 11

4. Discussion
Studies investigating the positive effects of physical fitness or PA on cognitive perfor-
mance and academic achievement in children and adolescents have increased since the
2000s, and have been expanding even more over the past decade [6,35]. The outcomes of
these studies show that aerobic fitness (or cardiovascular fitness) is closely related to the
executive function aspect of cognitive performance [1,12,47], and has a consistent positive
relationship with academic performance in areas such as mathematics and linguistics [48].
Although the relationship has been consistently identified, not enough research has scruti-
nized the role of cognitive performance as a mechanism in the aerobic fitness–academic
achievement relationship. In addition, the few studies on this subject have examined
mainly primary school ages [10,35], while it seldom happens that research has explored
the high school age group, where academic performance is important. Thus, this study
investigated the mediating effect of cognitive performance in the aerobic fitness–academic
achievement relationship in adolescents.
This study showed that cognitive performance in high-school-age adolescents had
a full mediating effect on the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achieve-
ment for both mathematics and linguistic performance. In short, aerobic fitness did not
directly influence academic achievement, but rather had an indirect effect on it through the
mediating role of cognitive performance. These results contribute to understanding the
mechanism of the aerobic fitness–academic achievement relationship. According to relevant
studies, aerobic fitness may impact structural and functional changes in the brain [49–51].
Some studies have shown that aerobic fitness is positively related to improving cognitive
performance [20,52]. Therefore, a hypothesis has been raised about the mediating role of
cognitive performance as a mechanism by which aerobic fitness affects academic achieve-
ment. The results of this study support this hypothesis, in that aerobic fitness had no
direct influence on academic achievement, but demonstrated that aerobic fitness had an
indirect positive effect on academic achievement through its relationship with cognitive
performance.
In terms of aerobic fitness being a product of long-term PA, the findings that acute
and chronic PA interventions affect cognitive performance and academic achievement
improvement have meaningful implications. In this study, aerobic fitness individually
had a positive effect on cognitive performance and, indirectly, on academic achievement.
Reviews have shown that acute and chronic PA has a beneficial relationship with children’s
brain health and fitness [53]. A recent study focusing on adolescents reported that acute
PA in adolescents had a significant effect on the improvement of cognitive performance
and academic achievement, and chronic PA also affected cognitive performance but had a
greater effect on academic performance [54]. Recently, it was found that 20 min of acute
aerobic PA improved EF in high school age groups (15.9 years old) [34]. This evidence
suggests that PA can have a positive effect on cognitive function development and academic
skills in high-school-age adolescents as well as in children, regardless of whether the PA
occurs once or over the long term. This supports the importance of PA in adolescents’
daily lives. Previous research has shown that PA plays a significant role in improving
aerobic fitness in children and adolescents [14,15]. Moreover, studies have demonstrated
a positive relationship between adolescent aerobic fitness and brain development [24,26]
as well as in the development of executive function [26] and academic achievement [8].
The findings of this study contribute to the expansion of this knowledge. However, few
studies have explored the effect of chronic intervention in adolescents, so future studies are
necessary [54].
A unique finding of this study was the individual mediating effect of each aspect of
cognitive performance. The results showed that only inhibition (Stroop Color–Word) had a
significant mediating effect, while the measures of information processing (Stroop Color,
Stroop Word) did not have a mediating effect. This is consistent with the findings of a recent
study that identified the mediating effects of executive function and aerobic fitness on the
association between academic achievement and moderate to vigorous physical activity
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 8 of 11

(MVPA) in 9- to 11-year-old children [27]. The authors showed that MVPA had a direct
impact on academic achievement that was mediated by aerobic fitness and EF, so their
findings are congruent with the results of this study. Additionally, the mediating effect of
cognitive performance as a latent construct in the positive relationship between PA and
academic achievement was demonstrated in primary school children [31,33]. However,
it was not possible to identify the individual effects of each cognitive test because these
studies employed SEM to verify the mediating effects.
The results of this study showed that inhibition had a significant mediating effect while
information processing did not. These results suggest that inhibition, which is necessary
for performance on the Stroop Color–Word test, fully explains the relationship between
aerobic fitness and academic achievement. Although processing speed (Stroop Word and
Stroop Color) is related to academic achievement, it does not explain the relationship
between aerobic fitness and academic achievement for high-school-aged adolescents. This
result is supported by a recent investigation with primary-school-aged children, which
found that executive function fully mediated the relationship between aerobic fitness and
academic achievement [32]. In addition, these results afforded evidence to reinforce existing
findings [27,35] that showed the close relationship between aerobic fitness and academic
achievement in children and adolescents.
Furthermore, it is noteworthy that this study dealt with academic achievement in a
real-world setting. This study used grades from the NUAAA tests, which were conducted
simultaneously across the nation. This study strengthened the validity of the research data
by using comparable standardized scores of relative academic achievement.
Despite the contribution of the current study to extending knowledge on the relation-
ships between the aerobic fitness, cognitive performance, and academic achievement of
high-school-aged adolescents, this study has the following limitations. Firstly, the study
measured cognitive performance related to information processing and inhibition using
the Stroop Test. However, there are various methods to measure cognitive performance.
Specifically, executive function, which is attracting attention in the relationship between
aerobic fitness and academic achievement, is an umbrella term that includes at least three
distinguishable attributes, i.e., shifting, updating, and inhibition, as well as elements such
as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning [55]. Moreover, a recent investiga-
tion [29] reported that working memory and cognitive flexibility mediated the relationship
between children’s cardiorespiratory fitness and mathematics and linguistics simultane-
ously, in addition to inhibition. Therefore, more diverse measurement batteries should be
applied in future studies to measure adolescents’ executive function. Secondly, since this
study was conducted using a cross-sectional design, there are limitations to confirming the
causality of the relationships. To address this issue, intervention or longitudinal design
studies are needed. Finally, although this study controlled for gender in the analysis,
each variable may be influenced by demographic characteristics, individual interests, or
motivation.

5. Conclusions
This study explored the relationships between physical fitness, cognitive performance,
and academic achievement in high school adolescents, a population that has not been
frequently considered. Additionally, this study tested the mediating effect of cognitive
performance as a potential mechanism for the relationship between aerobic fitness and
academic achievement. This cross-sectional study results showed that inhibition had a fully
mediating effect on the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic achievement.
Moreover, the results of this study are meaningful because of the assessment of academic
performance in the real world. This will be valuable evidence to support the importance and
necessity of enhancing PA in children and adolescents, and the provision of high-quality
physical education classes and PA programs.
Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 614 9 of 11

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.P. and J.L.E.; methodology, S.P. and J.L.E.; formal analy-
sis, S.P. and H.C.; resources, D.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, D.Y. and H.C.; writing—review
and editing, J.L.E. and S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declara-
tion of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of CHUNGNAM NATIONAL
UNIVERSITY (202203-SB-024-01, 12 May 2022).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the
study.
Data Availability Statement: The data is unavailable due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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