Project Report On Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid

PROJECT REPORT ON
LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE SULFONIC ACID
SUBMITTED TO
THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF THE
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
(CHEMICAL ENGINEERING)
PREPARED BY GUIDED BY
KARTAVYA MAURYA Mrs. JANAKI TAILOR
PRN No.: 2018033800120584 DEPT. OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
YEAR 2021–2022
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FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that MR. MAURYA KARTAVYA, student of BE – IV Chemical

Engineering, Exam No.801023 has satisfactorily completed this project on “LINEAR
ALKYL BENZENE SULFONIC ACID” under my guidance and here with submit his
project in partial fulfilment of the degree of B.E. Chemical for the year 2021-22.
Guide Head of the Department
Mrs. Janaki Tailor Dr. Nitin V. Bhate
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my proud privilege and duty to acknowledge the kind of help and guidance received
from people in preparation of this report. It would not have been possible to prepare it
without their valuable help, cooperation and guidance.
I am thankful to my guide, Mrs. Janaki Tailor for her excellent guidance, encouragement
and support throughout my dissertation work. Her knowledge that she readily shared with
me has helped me overcome my difficulties. Her valuable inputs enabled me to address
problems of the project and work towards their solutions very efficiently.
I would also like to thank the authorities of the library for providing me the journal articles
& research papers, which were very helpful for the project work. I am grateful to all the
teaching and non-teaching staff members of the department for their direct or indirect
support.
Kartavya Maurya
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ABSTRACT
The objective of this report is to offer the details about the manufacturing process of
“Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid”.
The project is aimed at designing a plant producing linear alkyl benzene sulfonic acid
(LABSA) by sulfonation reaction between linear alkyl benzene (LAB) and Sulphur
trioxide. The project report is purely academic in nature, prepared solely from the literature
available from various journals, books, papers and from the internet. This report describes
the introduction of linear alkyl benzene sulfonic acid, its various properties, product usage,
demand & supply and production process description. An attempt to the material balance
and energy balance, equipment design and cost estimation for the entire process as well as
details at each stage of the production process have been presented. Thus, this project
represents an idea of industrial production of linear alkyl benzene sulfonic acid.
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INDEX
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 3
2.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF LABSA: .............................. 3
2.2 APPLICATIONS: ................................................................................................. 3
2.3 PRODUCTION – MARKET DEMAND: ............................................................ 4
3 PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND FLOW DIAGRAM ............................................... 7
3.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION: ................................................................................. 8
3.2 AIR COMPRESSION AND DRYING SECTION: ............................................. 9
3.3 HEAT EXCHANGER: ......................................................................................... 9
3.4 HYDROCYCLONE: ............................................................................................ 9
3.5 ADSORPTION TOWER: ..................................................................................... 9
3.6 SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2) PRODUCTION SECTION: ................................. 10
3.6.1 SULPHUR MELTING: ............................................................................... 10
3.6.2 OVEN: ......................................................................................................... 10
3.7 SULPHUR TRIOXIDE (SO3) PRODUCTION SECTION:............................... 10
3.7.1 FIXED BED CATALYTIC CONVERTER: ............................................... 10
3.8 FALLING FILM SULPHONATING REACTOR: ............................................ 11
3.9 AGITATING TANK: ......................................................................................... 12
3.10 NEUTRALIZATION: ..................................................................................... 12
3.11 EFFLUENT TREATMENT: ........................................................................... 13
4 MATERIAL BALANCE ........................................................................................... 14
4.1 RAW MATERIAL: ............................................................................................ 14
4.2 AIR PRECOOLER: ............................................................................................ 15
4.3 HEAT EXCHANGER: ....................................................................................... 16
4.4 HYDROCYCLONE: .......................................................................................... 16
4.5 ADSORPTION TOWER: ................................................................................... 17
4.6 OVEN: ................................................................................................................ 17
4.7 FIXED BED CATALYTIC REACTOR: ........................................................... 18
4.8 FALLING FILM SULPHONATING REACTOR: ............................................ 22
4.9 AGITATING TANK: ......................................................................................... 23
5 ENERGY BALANCE ............................................................................................... 24
5.1 COMPRESSOR: ................................................................................................. 24
5.2 HEAT EXCHANGER (1): ................................................................................. 24
5.3 HEAT EXCHANGER (2): ................................................................................. 25
5.4 HEAT EXCHANGER (3): ................................................................................. 26
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5.5 HEAT EXCHANGER (4): ................................................................................. 27
5.6 HEAT EXCHANGER (5): ................................................................................. 28
5.7 HEAT EXCHANGER (6): ................................................................................. 29
5.8 OVEN: ................................................................................................................ 29
5.9 FIXED BED CATALYTIC CONVERTER: ...................................................... 30
5.10 FALLING FILM SULPHONATING REACTOR: ......................................... 34
5.11 AGITATING TANK: ...................................................................................... 35
6 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN .......................................................................... 36
6.1 DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER: ............................... 36
6.2 DESIGN OF FIXED BED CATALYTIC CONVERTER: ................................ 39
6.3 DESIGN OF AGITATING TANK: .................................................................... 46
7 COST ESTIMATION ................................................................................................ 51
8 PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT ..................................................................... 56
8.1 PLANT LOCATION: ......................................................................................... 56
8.2 PLANT LAYOUT: ............................................................................................. 56
8.3 COST: ................................................................................................................. 56
8.4 PROCESS ECONOMICS:.................................................................................. 57
8.5 PROCESS REQUIREMENT: ............................................................................ 57
8.6 OPERATION: ..................................................................................................... 57
8.7 MAINTENANCE: .............................................................................................. 58
8.8 RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY:............................................................................. 58
8.9 MARKETS AND TRANSPORTAION: ............................................................ 58
8.10 POWER AND FUEL SUPPLY: ..................................................................... 58
8.11 WATER SUPPLY: .......................................................................................... 58
8.12 LABOUR: ....................................................................................................... 59
8.13 PLANT LAYOUT DIAGRAM: ..................................................................... 60
9 PROCESS SAFETY .................................................................................................. 61
9.1 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION: .......................................................................... 61
9.2 FIRST AID MEASURES: .................................................................................. 62
9.3 FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES:......................................................................... 62
9.4 ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES: ......................................................... 63
9.5 ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS: ............................................................ 63
9.6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT: ..................................................... 64
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 66
11 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................... 67
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Properties of LABSA ............................................................................................ 3

Table 2: Material Balance around Heat Exchanger ........................................................... 16
Table 3: Material Balance around Hydro cyclone ............................................................. 17
Table 4: Material Balance around Oven ............................................................................ 18
Table 5: Material Balance around First bed of Catalytic Converter .................................. 19
Table 6: Material Balance around Second bed of Catalytic Converter ............................. 19
Table 7: Material Balance around Third bed of Catalytic Converter ................................ 20
Table 8: Material Balance around Fourth bed of Catalytic Converter .............................. 21
Table 9: Material Balance around Falling Film Sulphonating Reactor ............................. 22
Table 10: Material Balance around Aging Tank ............................................................... 23
Table 11: Inlet Composition for Catalytic Converter ........................................................ 40
Table 12: Composition in Agitator Tank ........................................................................... 46
Table 13: Purchased Equipment Cost ................................................................................ 52
Table 14: Direct Cost ......................................................................................................... 53
Table 15: Indirect Cost ...................................................................................................... 53
Table 16: Fixed Charges .................................................................................................... 54
Table 17: Total Production Cost ........................................................................................ 54
Table 18: General Expenses .............................................................................................. 55
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Structure of LABSA............................................................................................. 2

Figure 2: World Consumption of LABSA .......................................................................... 5
Figure 3: Export data from India in 2017 ............................................................................ 5
Figure 4: Export from India to different countries .............................................................. 6
Figure 5: Process Flow Diagram ......................................................................................... 7
Figure 6: Block Flow Diagram ............................................................................................ 8
Figure 7: Neutralization System ........................................................................................ 12
Figure 8: Effluent Treatment Plant .................................................................................... 13
Figure 9: Diagram of Agitator ........................................................................................... 47
Figure 10: Plant Layout ..................................................................................................... 60
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NOMENCLATURE
SR NO. SYMBOL TITLE

1 M mass flowrate, kg/hour
2 Cp Specific heat, kJ/kg ˚C
3 Q Heat loss/Heat load, kJ/hour
4 ΔH𝑓 Heat of formation, kJ/kg
5 hp Power, horsepower(hp)
6 ∆Tlm Log Mean Temperature Difference, K
7 ρ Density, kg/m3
8 NRe Reynolds Number
9 NPr Prandtl Number
10 FA Molar rate, kg moles/hour
11 λ Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
12 k Thermal Conductivity, W/m*K
13 XA Percentage conversion, %
14 τ Space time, sec
15 f Allowable stress, N/mm2
16 j Joint efficiency factor
17 C Corrosion allowance, mm
18 µ Viscosity, kg/m s
19 Tm Maximum Torque, N∗m
20 Rb Radius of blade, m
21 ∈ Porosity of Catalyst
22 ε Fractional change in volume of system
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1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE SULFONIC ACID

Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid, commonly known as LABSA, is the largest volume
synthetic surfactant because of its relatively low cost, good performance and the fact that
it can be dried to a stable powder, biodegradable and environment friendly. It is key raw
material for manufacture of synthetic detergent cakes, powders and liquid detergents.
LABSA is extensively applied anionic surfactant with molecules characterised by a

hydrophobic and a hydrophilic group. They are non-volatile compounds produced by
sulfonation. Linear alkyl benzene sulfonic acid are complex mixtures of homologues of
different alkyl chain lengths (C10 to C13 or C14) and phenyl positional isomers of 2 to 5-
phenyl in proportions dictated by the starting materials and reaction conditions, each
containing an aromatic ring sulfonated at the para position and attached to a linear alkyl
chain at any position with the exception of terminal one (1-phenyl).
In Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid (LABSA), the hydrophilic portion is linear alkyl
benzene (LAB) and hydrophobic portion is sulfonic acid. The detergency property of
LABSA depends on number of active matters, free acid colour and viscosity in the
compound. In the present situation the extent of biodegradability of detergents pays a major
role and so many of the manufactures were concerned over this concept in order to increase
the bio degradability. In the case of detergents, the bio degradability depends on their
molecules structure. Linear chain molecular structure is more bio degradable than branches
chain molecular structure.
It is highly efficient versatile surfactant suitable for use separately as detergent in acidic
environments. As intermediate it is usually neutralized with various bases to produce
sulfonates that are used in numerous industries, most commonly in the production of liquid
and powder detergents, household and I&I cleaners, laundry detergents, dishwashing
liquids, car wash products, hard surface cleaners etc. it is also applied in various industrial
applications such as agriculture, emulsion polymerization, oil field chemicals etc.
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Figure 1: Structure of LABSA
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2 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF LABSA:
Table 1: Properties of LABSA
Chemical Formula C18H29SO3H

Molecular Weight 320 kg/kg moles (range)
Density at 50˚C (linear) 1040 kg/m3
Viscosity at 50˚C 0.2 N s/m2
Flash Point 140˚C (min.)
Freezing Point 10˚C
Boiling Point 300˚C
Appearance Brown Viscous Liquid
Odour Characteristic Acidic Odour
2.2 APPLICATIONS:
➢ LABSA is mainly used in detergent industry for the manufacturing of washing powder,
detergent powder, detergent cake, liquid soap, oil soap, scouring bar and cleaning
powder. This chemical finds applications in anionic specially formulations. The quality
of pesticide sprays can be improved from it.
➢ LABSA is used as a washing and mercerizing agent in the textile industry. The surface
area of distempers is increased using LABSA. It is used as a wetting agent as well as
an emulsifier in small quantities along with other surfactants.
➢ Owing to its high active matter content and miscibility with low salt content and water,
LABSA is used in the polymerization of emulsions and in production of coupling
agents, emulsifiers, agricultural herbicides, household and industrial cleaners.
➢ LABSA is especially suitable for the manufacture of sulphonates for both liquid and
powder detergents of all types.
➢ Sulphonates with different characteristics can be obtained by neutralizing with varying
bases such as caustic soda (or) amines.
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2.3 PRODUCTION – MARKET DEMAND:
Rapidly growing dish washing liquid demand across the globe, particularly due to positive
growth indicators in the food & beverage industry is another factor boosting the global
linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid market size in the recent years. As dish washing liquid is
essentially required in the food & beverage sector. Changing lifestyle and shifting
preference towards the environmental-friendly products have led to significant rise in the
demand for linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid -based personal care products and detergents.
Increasing demand for detergents and cleaners in order to maintain hygiene standard has
resulted into increase in demand for linear alkylbenzene sulfonate.
Furthermore, industrial norms pertaining to the hygiene standard in the food & beverage,
pharmaceutical, healthcare, chemicals and many other industries have led to increase in
demand for detergents for industrial cleaning application, which subsequently results into
increase in demand for the linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid market. Moreover, rising
consumer spending, improved lifestyle and increasing demand for personal care products
across the globe help to increase the demand for LABSA.
The global LABSA is mainly dominated by the Asia Pacific (APAC) region and is expected
to boost the demand for LABSA over the forecast period, owing to increasing population
coupled with growing lifestyle, increasing per capita expenditure and increasing demand
for personal care products. Rapid urbanization, industrial growth and changing consumer
preference towards environmental-friendly surfactant & detergents help to drive the
LABSA market in APAC and is expected to register significant growth over the forecast
period.
Linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid (LABSA) is the largest-volume synthetic surfactant

because of its relatively low cost, good performance. LABSA industry has low technology
barrier and is labour intensive industry. The production of LABSA increased to 3211.81
MT in 2016 from 2756.30 MT in 2012 with average growth rate of 3.90%. The global
consumption of LABSA by different countries is shown in the following chart:
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Figure 2: World Consumption of LABSA
EXPORTS BY INDIA:
As per the LABSA global market report, India is the sixth largest exporting country of this
product after Germany, USA, China, Korea and Italy. India exports of LABSA worth
$43595010 in the year 2017. However, LABSA export from India is increased by 14% in
terms of value during 2015-16. According to Export Genius report on LABSA exports in
India, Brazil and Sri Lanka are the main markets where India exports LABSA. As per the
LABSA Export Statistics, India did highest export sales of LABSA in Q4 2017 (Oct-Dec)
and recorded 34% of the total exports. The lowest export sales of this product were recorded
in Q1 2017 (Jan-Mar). Let’s check the below table to know the month wise analysis of
Indian LABSA Exports.
Figure 3: Export data from India in 2017
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According to LABSA Export Data of India, the country is exporting this product to more
than 50 countries across the world. India LABSA exports stood at USD 43.59 million and
exported this product highest to Brazil, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nigeria. Indian LABSA
exports to Brazil worth USD 7804061 from 7860 metric tons of LABSA in 2017 which
represented 17.90% of the total’s value. India LABSA exports to Sri Lanka worth USD
6873714 from 6960 metric tons in 2017 which was 15.77% of the total output. Bangladesh
is India’s third largest LABSA export partner and recorded USD 2933078 in 2017. Here is
the chart representing top 10 LABSA export partners of India with their value recorded in
2017.
Figure 4: Export from India to different countries
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3 CHAPTER 3. PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND FLOW
DIAGRAM
(5)
(6)
(4)
(3)
(Optional)
(Optional)
(2)
(1)
3. Process Flow Diagram

Figure 5:
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BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM:
Figure 6: Block Flow Diagram
3.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION:
LABSA is produced by sulphonation of Linear Alkyl Benzene with reaction of SO3.

There are 8 sections in LABSA production:
1. Air Compression & Drying
2. Sulphur Melting
3. SO2 / Steam production
4. SO3 production
5. Sulphonation
6. Ageing & hydrolysis
7. Neutralization
8. Effluent treatments
Raw materials required for LABSA production are as follows:

1. Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB)
2. Sulphur
3. Air
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3.2 AIR COMPRESSION AND DRYING SECTION:
The process air is sucked from the atmosphere and the air is filtered by using filter. The
filter removes the dust particles present in the air. The entering temp of the air will be at
30°C and after filtering the temp of the air will reduce to 27°C. After filtering the air must
be cooled. The air is cooled in the pre cooler. There are two sections in the pre cooler. By
using external agents as Glycol and water the air is cooled. In the first section the air is
cooled by using water from 27°C to 23°C and in the section the air is cooled by using
Glycol from 23°C to 20°C after cooling, the cooled air is compressed in compressor, due
to the high pressure developed in the compressor the temp of the air increases from 20 to
80°C and then the air is subjected to heat exchanger.
3.3 HEAT EXCHANGER:

The compressed air is once again cooled by using the heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger
the air is cooled by using water as external agents from 80°C to 50°C. In the heat exchanger
the air is cooled by using Glycol as external agents from (50°C to 10°C). Since the dew
point of the air is 19°C about 20% of water in the air gets condensed.
3.4 HYDROCYCLONE:
In hydro cyclone due to the centrifugal action, about 80% of the water gets separated from
the air there by 90% of drying is achieved. The moisture collected can be drained at regular
intervals. Drained water will be pumped to cooling water for maximum utilization of
chillness.
3.5 ADSORPTION TOWER:

The air is subjected adsorption tower, where actuated alumina is used as an adsorbing agent.
Here 99% of the remaining water in the air gets removed and then the air is distributed to
different sections as process air, Barrier air, and dilution air and washing air. The process
air from the absorber is subjected to pair of the heat exchanger, where the SO3 – air mixture
is cooled from 239°C to 52°C there by the air subjected gets heated from 10°C to 52°C.
The heated air is then subjected to SO2 production.
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3.6 SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2) PRODUCTION SECTION:
3.6.1 SULPHUR MELTING:
The Rhombic form or sulphur is melted using steam in heating coils. The melting point
sulphur is 116°C and so about 200°C of steam is subjected. Thus, molten sulphur of about
119°C is produced. This molten sulphur is subjected to the oven.
3.6.2 OVEN:
The oven used is lined with fire bricks. Once the molten sulphur and process air subjected.
The mixture is ignited. The molten sulphur burns as blue flame thereby producing SO2. The
reaction temperature maintained at the oven is about 720°C the SO2 formed is cooled in the
heat exchanger from 720°C to 435°C. About 92% conversion is achieved here.
3.7 SULPHUR TRIOXIDE (SO3) PRODUCTION SECTION:

3.7.1 FIXED BED CATALYTIC CONVERTER:
In the fixed bed catalytic convertor contains four beds of vanadium pent oxide (V2O5)
catalyst.
FIRST BED:
The SO2 – air mixture at 435°C is subjected to the fixed bed catalytic converter where in
the first bed 75% of SO2 is converted into SO3 by catalytic action. The reaction is as
follows:
440°C 1
V2O5 → V2O4 + O2
2
1 440°C
SO2 + O2 → SO3
2
The reaction temp is strictly maintained at 440°C in favour the reversible reaction of V2O5
catalyst. The unreacted SO2 – air mixture is subjected to 2nd bed. The Exit temperature of
exit stream is about 530°C. Subjected to 2nd bed. The Exit temperature of exit stream is
about 530°C.
SECOND BED:
The SO2 air mixture from the first bed at a temp of about 530°C is cooled to 440°C by heat
exchanger. The cooled SO2 mixture is further follows same procedure as in first bed to
form SO3. Here only 15% of conversion is achieved. The temperature of Exit stream is
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500°C. The SO2- air mixture is cooled at heat exchanger from 500°C to 440°C before
subjecting to third bed.
THIRD BED:
In the third bed only 6% of remaining SO2 - air mixture from second bed is converted to
SO3. The SO3 formed here is about 440°C approximately and so it is directly subjected to
fourth bed.
FOURTH BED:
In the fourth bed only 2% of remaining SO2 - air mixture is converted to SO3. The SO3 thus
formed is about 440°C. The SO3 - air mixture before subjecting to sulphonator it is cooled
using 3 heat exchangers, it is cooled from 440°C to 52°C.
3.8 FALLING FILM SULPHONATING REACTOR:

The sulphonator for the production of LABSA from LAB and SO3 is of special type of
Falling film sulphonator which contains about 44 tubes is used. In which a thin film of
linear alkyl benzene (LAB) is subjected over which proportional amount of Barrier air is
subjected and then SO3- air mixture is subjected. The purpose of barrier to stop the Reaction
is to stop the reaction between the reactants for few seconds at the initial stage. The
following reaction takes place in the rector:
In the sulphonator being the residence time of reactants is very low and so only 79%
conversion is achieved. The exit stream for sulphonator is directly subjected to ageing tank.
The sulphonator is maintained at temp of 40°C to 45°C in order to achieve maximum
conversion for that cooling water is circulated around the reactor.
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3.9 AGITATING TANK:
Agitating tank is nothing but a jacketed vessel with agitator. Here unconverted LAB and
SO3 air mixture is reacted. Here about 91% conversions achieved. LABSA formed is
hydrolysed in in hydrolysis tank by water in order to stop the reaction. The final LABSA
with 96% active matter is used for further manufacture of detergents. For the detergent
manufacture only about 7 to 16% of LABSA is used as key raw material in accordance
with the required detergency properties.
3.10 NEUTRALIZATION:
Figure 7: Neutralization System

The neutralizer combines sulfonic acid or organo-sulfuric acid with a neutralizing agent,
additives, and diluent (water), in a dominant bath neutralization. The result is a solution of
neutral active matter (slurry or paste) of the desired composition and pH. Caustic soda,
usually 50 wt.% NaOH, is the most common neutralizing agent. However, caustic potash,
aqueous ammonia, triethanolamine, and other agents are compatible with the neutralizer.
A recycle loop circulates neutral slurry through a heat exchanger to remove heat of
neutralization, mixing and pumping. Individual metering and/or gear pumps feed sulfonic
acid, neutralizing agent, dilution water, buffer solution and any additives into the loop to
mix through a high shear mixer.
A positive displacement pump circulates paste through the process heat exchanger and a
large portion of this stream recycles back to the mixer. A pressure control valve allows
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product to leave the recycle system as feed enters. A pH sensor is placed in the recycle line
near the inlet to the mixer. The in-line pH sensor measures an accurate pH on dilute slurries,
and produces a single-valued output signal that is proportional to pH on concentrated
pastes. The signal from the sensor feeds to the pH control system in either case, and controls
the flow of the neutralizing agent into the process. Use of a buffer promotes stability in the
pH control loop. Cooling water is also recirculated and automatically adjusted to maintain
a desired temperature at the process heat exchanger inlet. Therefore, higher melting point
products can be processed without plugging the heat exchanger during start-up.
3.11 EFFLUENT TREATMENT:

Effluent process gases leaving the sulfonation system or SO3 absorber are virtually free of
residual SO3, but contain any unconverted SO2 gas and entrained particulate anionic
materials (acidic mists of sulfonic and sulfuric acids). This gas stream is not suitable for
direct discharge to atmosphere. The recommended clean-up system, shown in Figure,
employs an electrostatic precipitator designed to collect particulate mists and a packed
tower scrubber to absorb SO2 gas in a dilute caustic. Final effluent gases cleaned to contain
less than 5 ppm SO2 and less than 10 mg/m3 combined sulphate mist and neutralized
organic mist are suitable for discharge to the atmosphere.
Figure 8: Effluent Treatment Plant
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4 CHAPTER 4. MATERIAL BALANCE
Basis: 8760 tons of LABSA produced per annum
Assume 365 days/year and 24 hours/day of operation
Therefore, 1000 kg of LABSA produced per hour
For 1 hour basis:
LABSA = 1000 kg/hour
4.1 RAW MATERIAL:

LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE (LAB) REQUIREMENT:
Molar rate of LABSA = 1000/320 = 3.125 kg moles/hour
79% of LAB reacts in sulphonator and remaining LAB goes to agitator where 91% of LAB
reacts.
3.125
So, total mass rate of LAB = [ ] ∗ 240= 765 kg/hour.
0.79 +( 0.21∗0.91)
SULPHUR REQUIREMENT:
3.125
Same as LABSA, SO3 requirement = [ ] ∗ 80 = 255 kg/hour
0.79 +(0.21∗0.91)
Molar rate of SO3 = 255 / 80 = 3.1875 kg moles/hour

SO3 is produced in fixed bed catalytic reactor having beds having conversion 75%, 90%,
96% and 98% respectively.
3.1875
So, SO2 requirement = [ ] ∗ 64 = 204 kg/hour.
0.75 + 0.225 + 0.024 + 0.00098
Molar rate of SO2 = 3.1875 kg moles/hour
In oven, 92% conversion of Sulphur is achieved to produce SO2.
So, Sulphur requirement = (3.1875/0.92) ∗ 32 = 110.87 kg/hour.
AIR REQUIREMENT:
Oxygen required in oven = (110.87/32) ∗ 0.92 ∗ 32 = 102 kg/hour
Oxygen required in fixed bed catalytic reactor = 51.02 kg/hour
So, total oxygen requirement = 153.02 kg/hour
Taking 20% excess oxygen = 153.02 ∗ 1.2 = 183.62 kg/hour
Air Requirement = 183.62 ∗ (100/21) = 874.38 kg/hour
By taking consideration of removal of water in hydro cyclone and adsorption tower,
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Total Air requirement = 877 kg/hour
So, Sulphur, S = 110.87 kg/hour
Air = 877 kg/hour
Linear Alkyl Benzene, LAB = 765 kg/hour
Reactions Involved:
dshdshshd
S + O2 → SO2
1 dshdshshd
SO2 + O2 → SO3
2
4.2 AIR PRECOOLER:
Properties of air:
Temperature = 30˚C
Relative Humidity = 50%
Humidity = 0.014 kg of H2O / kg of air
Dew Point = 19˚C
Amount of water in inlet air = 0.014 kg of H2O / kg of air
Amount of water in inlet air = 0.014 ∗ 877 = 12.28 kg/hour
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4.3 HEAT EXCHANGER:
Dew point of air is 19°C and so some amount of water in the gets conducted.
Assuming 20% of the water content gets condensed here,
Amount of water gets condensed = 12.28 ∗ 0.2 = 2.45 kg/hour
Amount of water in Air = 12.28 – 2.45 = 9.83 kg/hour
Air in exit stream = 877 – 2.45 = 874.55 kg/hour
Table 2: Material Balance around Heat Exchanger
Inlet Stream (kg/hour) Outlet Stream (kg/hour)

Air 877 874.55
Water 0 2.45
Total 877 877
4.4 HYDROCYCLONE:
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Here 80% of the remaining water content of the air gets condensed.
Amount of the water condensed = 9.83 ∗ 0.8 = 7.86 kg/hour
Amount of air exit stream = 874.55 – 7.86 = 866.69 kg/hour
Amount of the water in Air = 9.83 – 7.86 = 1.97 kg/hour
Table 3: Material Balance around Hydro cyclone

Air 874.55 866.69
Water 0 7.86
Total 874.55 874.55
4.5 ADSORPTION TOWER:
Here 99% of the remaining water in air gets absorbed.

Amount of air stream = 866.69 – (1.97 ∗ 0.99) = 864.74 kg/hour
amount of water in exit stream = 1.97 − 1.95 = 0.02 kg/hour
0.02 kg/hour of water is present in 864.74 kg/hour of dry air.
4.6 OVEN:
Amount of sulphur at sulphur at inlet = 110.87 kg/hour

Moles of sulphur = 110.87/32 = 3.465 kg moles
Moles of oxygen required = 3.465 kg moles
Assume 20% excess oxygen required = 3.465 ∗ 1.2 ∗ 32 = 133.06 kg/hour
17 | P a g e
Amount of air actually requires = 133.06 ∗ 100/21 = 633.62 kg/hour
Amount of air at inlet = 864.74 kg/hour
Amount of SO2 at outlet = 0.92 ∗ 3.465 ∗ 64 = 204 kg/hour
Amount of sulphur in exit stream = 0.08 ∗ 3.465 ∗ 32 = 8.87 kg/hour
Amount of oxygen reacted = 0.92 ∗ 3.465 ∗ 32 = 102 kg/hour
Amount of oxygen in air in exit stream = 181.6 − 102 = 79.6 kg/hour
Amount of air in exit stream = 864.74 − 102 = 762.74 kg/hour
Table 4: Material Balance around Oven

Air 864.74 762.74
Sulphur 110.87 8.87
SO2 0 204
Total 975.61 975.61
4.7 FIXED BED CATALYTIC REACTOR:

1 4440c
SO2 + O2 → SO3 (98% Conversion)
2
FIRST BED (75% Conversion):
Amount of air inlet = 762.74 kg/hour

Amount of SO2 at inlet = 204 kg/hour
Moles of SO2 = 204/64 = 3.1875 Kg moles/hour
Under 75% conversions
Amount of SO2 reacted = 0.75 ∗ 3.1875 ∗ 64 = 153 kg/hour
Amount of Oxygen reacted = 0.75 ∗ 3.1875 ∗ 32 ∗ 0.5 = 38.25 kg/hour
Amount of SO3 formed = 0.75 ∗ 3.1875 ∗ 80 = 191.25 kg/hour
Amount of SO2 in exit = 204 − 153 = 51 kg/hour
18 | P a g e
Amount of air in exit = 762.74 − 38.25 = 724.49 kg/hour
Table 5: Material Balance around First bed of Catalytic Converter

Air 762.74 724.49
SO2 204 51
SO3 0 191.25
Total 966.74 966.74
SECOND BED (90% Conversion):

Moles of SO2 = 51/64 = 0.797 Kg moles/hour
Amount of SO2 reacted = 0.90 ∗ 0.797 ∗ 64 = 45.91 kg/hour
Amount of SO2 in exit = 51 − 45.91 = 5.09 kg/hour
Table 6: Material Balance around Second bed of Catalytic Converter

Air 724.49 713.02
SO2 51 5.09
SO3 0 57.38
Total 775.49 775.49
19 | P a g e
THIRD BED (96% Conversion):

Amount of SO2 at inlet = 5.09 kg/hour
Moles of SO2 at inlet = 5.09/64 = 0.08 Kg moles/hour
Amount of SO2 in exit = 5.09 − 4.92 = 0.17 kg/hour
Table 7: Material Balance around Third bed of Catalytic Converter

Air 713.02 711.8
SO2 5.09 0.17
SO3 0 6.14
Total 718.11 718.11
FOURTH BED (98% Conversion):
20 | P a g e
Moles of SO2 at inlet = 0.17/64 = 0.0026 Kg moles/hour
Amount of SO2 in exit = 0.17 − 0.16 = 0.01 kg/hour
Table 8: Material Balance around Fourth bed of Catalytic Converter

Air 711.8 711.73
SO2 0.17 0.01
SO3 0 0.23
Total 711.97 711.97
Amounts of SO3 formed from

First bed = 191.25kg/hour
Second bed = 57.38 kg/hour
Third bed = 6.14 kg/hour
Fourth bed = 0.23 kg/hour
Therefore, Total SO3 = 191.25 + 57.38 + 6.14 + 0.23 = 255 kg/hour
21 | P a g e

Moles of SO3 = 255/80 = 3.1875 kg/moles hr
Amount of LAB reacted = 0.79 ∗ 3.1875 ∗ 240 = 604.35 kg/hour
Amount of LABSA formed = 0.79 ∗ 3.1875 ∗ 320 = 805.80 kg/hour
Amount of SO3 in exit stream = 255 − 201.45 = 53.55 kg/hour
Amount of LAB in exit stream = 765 − 604.35 = 160.65 kg/hour
Table 9: Material Balance around Falling Film Sulphonating Reactor

SO3 255 53.55
LAB 765 160.65
LABSA 0 805.80
Total 1020 1020
22 | P a g e
4.9 AGITATING TANK:
4545545454
SO3 + C18H30 → C18H29SO3H (91% Conversion)

Moles of SO3 at inlet = 5355/80 = 0.67 kg moles/hour
Amount of LAB at inlet = 160.65 kg/hour
Amount of LAB reacted = 0.91 ∗ 0.67 ∗ 240 = 146.33 kg/hour
Amount of LABSA formed = 0.91 ∗ 0.67 ∗ 320 = 194.20 kg/hour
Amount of SO3 in exit stream = 53.55 − 48.78 = 4.78 kg/hour
Amount of LAB in exit stream = 160.65 − 146.33 = 14.32 kg/hour
Table 10: Material Balance around Aging Tank

SO3 53.55 4.78
LAB 160.65 14.32
LABSA 0 194.20
Total 214.20 214.30
Amount of Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonic Acid (LABSA) totally formed,

Sulphonator = 805.80 kg/hour
Ageing Vessel = 194.20 kg/hour.
Therefore, TOTAL LABSA = 1000.00 kg/hour.
23 | P a g e
5 CHAPTER 5. ENERGY BALANCE
5.1 COMPRESSOR:
Taking reference temperature as 50˚C.

Amount of air at inlet and outlet is 877 kg/hour.
Heat in, Qin = MAir in ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔTAir
= 877 ∗ 1.008 ∗ (50 − 20)
= 26520.48 kJ/hour
Heat out, Qout = MAir out ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔTAir
= 877 ∗ 1.008 ∗ (80 − 50)
= 26520.48 kJ/hour
Net heat,Qnet = Qout − Qin = 0
5.2 HEAT EXCHANGER (1):
Amount of Air inlet MAir = 877 kg/hour

Heat in, Qi = MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔTAir
= 877 ∗ 1.008 ∗ (80 − 50)
= 26520.48 kJ/hour
24 | P a g e
Heat out, Qo = Mwater ∗ Cpwater ∗ ΔTwater
= Mwater ∗ (4.184) ∗ (32 − 27)
= 20.92 Mwater
𝐴
Qi = Qo ⇒ 26520.48 = 20.92 Mwater
Mwater = 1265 kg/hour
Amount of water required = 1265 kg/hour
Amount of Air inlet Mair = 877 kg/hour

Heat in, Qi = MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔTAir
= 877 ∗ 1.006 ∗ (50 − 10)
= 35290.48 kJ/hour
Heat out, Qo= Mglycol ∗ Cpglycol ∗ ΔTglycol
= Mglycol ∗ (2.36) ∗ (18 − 5)

= 30.68 Mglycol
𝐴
Qi = Qo ⇒ 35290.48 = 30.68 Mglycol
Mglycol = 1150 kg/hour
Amount of glycol required = 1150 kg/hour
25 | P a g e
Amount of SO2 = 204 kg/hour

Amount of dry air = 762.74 kg/hour
Amount of (SO2 + air) mixture = 966.74 kg/hour
Specific heat capacity of (SO2 + air) Mixture,
Cp(SO2+Air) = 𝑥𝑆𝑂2 ∗ CpSO2 + 𝑥𝐴𝑖𝑟 ∗ CpAir
= (0.21) ∗ 0.625 + 0.79 ∗ (1.112)

= 0.995 kJ/kg ˚C
Heat in, Qi = M(SO2+Air) ∗ Cp(SO2+Air) ∗ ΔT
= 966.74 ∗ 0.995 ∗ (740 − 435)

= 293381.42 kJ/hour
Heat out Qo = Mwater ∗ (Cpwater ∗ 𝛥𝑇 + 𝜆)
= Mwater ∗ (4.24 ∗ (200 − 45) + 2261.45)
= 2918.65 Mwater
𝐴
Qi = Qo ⇒ 293381.42 = 2918.65 Mwater
Mwater = 100.52 kg/hour
Amount of water required = 100.52 kg/hour
26 | P a g e

Amount of SO3 = 191.25 kg/hour
Amount of gas at inlet = 966.74 kg/hour
Specific heat capacity of gas Mixture,
CpMixture = 𝑥𝑆𝑂3 ∗ CpSO3 + 𝑥𝐴𝑖𝑟 ∗ CpAir + 𝑥𝑆𝑂2 ∗ CpSO2
= 0.20 ∗ 0.55 + 0.75 ∗ 1.054 + 0.05 ∗ 0.647

= 0.933 KJ/kg ºC
Heat in, Qi = MMixture ∗ CpMixture ∗ ΔT
= 966.74 ∗ 0.933 ∗ (440 − 239)
= 181295.65 kJ/hour
Heat out, Qo = Mwater ∗ (Cpwater ∗ ΔT + 𝜆)
= Mwater ∗ (4.24 ∗ (200 − 45) + 2261.45)
= 2918.65 Mwater
𝐴
Qi = Qo ⇒ 181295.65 = 2918.65 Mwater
Mwater = 62.11 kg/hour
Amount of water required = 62.11 kg/hour
27 | P a g e

Amount of gas mixture = 775.49 kg/hour
Specific heat capacity of gas mixture, CpMixture = 0.985 kJ/kg ˚C
= 775.49 ∗ 0.985 ∗ (239 − 120)
= 90900 kJ/hour
Heat out, Qo = MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔTAir
= MAir ∗ 1.006 ∗ (37 − 10)
= 27.162 MAir
𝐴
Qi = Qo ⇒ 90900 = 27.216 MAir
MAir = 3340 kg/hour
Amount of air required = 3340 kg/hour
28 | P a g e

Amount of gas mixture = 966.73 kg/hour
Specific heat capacity of gas mixture, CpMixture = 0.89 kJ/kg ˚C
= 966.73 ∗ 0.89 ∗ (120 − 52)
= 58506.5 kJ/hour
Heat Out, Qo = MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔTAir
= MAir ∗ 1.008 ∗ (52.5 − 37)
= 15.624 MAir
Qi = Qo; 58506.5 = 15.624 MAir
MAir = 3745 kg/hour
Amount of air required = 3745 kg/hour
5.8 OVEN:
Amount of Sulphur at inlet, MS = 110.87 kg/hour
29 | P a g e
Amount of air at inlet, MAir = 864.74 kg/hour
Oxygen content in air, MO2 = 181.6 kg/hour
Amount of SO2 formed, MSO2 = 204 kg/hour
Heat of formation of SO2, ΔH𝑓,SO2 = −4.638 kJ/kg
Heat of formation of Sulphur, ΔH𝑓,S = 0 kJ/kg
Heat of formation of Oxygen, ΔH𝑓,O2 = 0 kJ/kg
Heat of reaction, ∆Hreaction = MSO2 ∗ ΔH𝑓,SO2 − (MS ∗ ΔH𝑓,S + MO2 ∗ ΔH𝑓,O2 )
= 204 ∗ (−4.638) – (110.87 (0) + 181.6 (0))
= −946 kJ/hour
Heat of reaction, ∆Hreaction = −946 kJ/hour
Enthalpy in,
∆Hin = MS ∗ Cps ∗ ΔT + MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔT
= 110.87 ∗ 0.97 ∗ (200 − 25) + 864.74 ∗ 1.026 ∗ (200 − 25)
= 174084.25 kJ/hour
Enthalpy out,
∆Hout = MS ∗ Cps ∗ ΔT + MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔT + MSO2 ∗ CpSO2 ∗ ΔT
= 8.87 ∗ 0.97 ∗ (720 − 200) + 762.74 ∗ 1.026 ∗ (720 − 200) + 204 ∗

0.647 ∗ (720 − 200)
= 480044.83 kJ/hour
Net ΔH over Oven
= Enthalpy out – Enthalpy in + Heat of reaction
= 480044.83 – 174084.25 – 946
= 305014.58 kJ/hour = 84.73 kW
5.9 FIXED BED CATALYTIC CONVERTER:
30 | P a g e
Amount of SO2 at inlet, MSO2 = 204 kg/hour
Amount of air at inlet, MAir = 762.74 kg/hour
Oxygen content in air at inlet, MO2 = 160.18 kg/hour
Heat of formation of Oxygen ΔH𝑓,O2 = 0 kJ/kg
FIRST BED:
In the first bed, temperature rises from 435℃ to 530℃. Taking 480℃ as reference
temperature.
Amount of SO2 reacted = 153 kg/hour
Amount of SO3 formed = 191.25 kg/hour
Heat of reaction ∆Hreaction= MSO3 ∗ ΔH𝑓,SO3 + (MSO2 ∗ ΔH𝑓,SO2 + MO2 ∗ ΔH𝑓,O2 )
= 191.25 ∗ (−4.936) – ((153 ∗ (−4.638) + 38.25 ∗ (0))
= −234.4 kJ/hour
Heat of reaction ∆Hreaction = −234.4 kJ/hour
Enthalpy in,
∆Hin = MSO2 ∗ CpSO2 ∗ ΔT + MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔT
= 204 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (480 − 435) + 762.74 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (480 − 435)

= 48054.5 kJ/hour
Enthalpy out,
∆Hout = MSO2 ∗ CpSO2 ∗ ΔT + MAir ∗ CpAir ∗ ΔT + MSO3 ∗ CpSO3 ∗ ΔT
= 51 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (530 − 480) + 724.49 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (530 − 480) + 191.25 ∗

0.55 ∗ (530 − 480)
= 46285.26 kJ/hour
Net ΔH over First Bed
= 46285.26 – 48054.5 – 234.4
= –2003.6 kJ/hour
= – 0.56 kW
31 | P a g e
SECOND BED:
In the second bed, temperature rises from 440℃ to 500℃. Taking 470℃ as reference
temperature.
Amount of SO2 reacted = 45.91 kg/hour
Heat of reaction ∆Hreaction = MSO3 ∗ ΔH𝑓,SO3 + (MSO2 ∗ ΔH𝑓,SO2 + MO2 ∗ ΔH𝑓,O2 )
= 57.38 ∗ (−4.936) – ((45.9 ∗ (−4.638) + 11.47 ∗ (0))
= −70.34 kJ/hour
Enthalpy in,
= 51 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (470 − 440) + 724.49 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (470 − 440)

= 24615.53 kJ/hour
Enthalpy out,
= 5.09 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (500 − 470) + 713.02 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (500 − 470) + 57.38 ∗

0.55 ∗ (500 − 470)
= 24297.15 kJ/hour
Net ΔH over Second Bed
= 24297.15 – 24615.53 – 70.34
= –388.72 kJ/hour
= – 0.11 kW
THIRD BED:
In the third bed, temperature rises from 440℃ to 452℃. Taking 446℃ as reference
temperature.
= 6.14 ∗ (−4.936) – ((4.92 ∗ (−4.638) + 1.22 ∗ (0))
= −7.49 kJ/hour
32 | P a g e
Enthalpy in,
= 5.09 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (446 − 440) + 713.02 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (446 − 440)

= 4670.07 kJ/hour
Enthalpy out,
= 0.17 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (452 − 446) + 711.8 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (452 − 446) + 6.14 ∗

0.55 ∗ (452 − 446)
= 4663.28 kJ/hour
Net ΔH over Third Bed
= 4663.28 – 4670.07 – 7.49
= –14.28 kJ/hour = – 0.004 kW
FOURTH BED:
In the fourth bed, temperature rises from 440℃ to 444℃. Taking 442℃ as reference
temperature.
= 0.23 ∗ (−4.936) – ((0.16 ∗ (−4.638) + 0.07 ∗ (0))
= −0.393 kJ/hour
Enthalpy in,
= 0.17 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (442 − 440) + 711.8 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (442 − 440)

= 1534.86 kJ/hour
33 | P a g e
Enthalpy out,
= 0.01 ∗ 0.647 ∗ (444 − 442) + 711.73 ∗ 1.087 ∗ (444 − 442) + 0.23 ∗

0.55 ∗ (444 − 442)
= 1534.76 kJ/hour
Net ΔH over Fourth Bed
= 1534.76 – 1534.86 – 0.393
= –0.49 kJ/hour
= – 0.0001 kW
Overall ΔH over fixed bed catalytic converter = – 2407.09 kJ/hour
Amount of SO3 at inlet, MSO3 = 201.45 kg/hour

Amount of LAB at inlet, MLAB = 604.35 kg/hour
Amount of LABSA at exit, MLABSA = 805.8 kg/hour
Heat of formation of SO3, ΔH𝑓,SO3 = − 4.936 kJ/kg
Heat of formation of LAB, ΔH𝑓,LAB = 0.97 kJ/kg
Heat of formation of LABSA, ΔH𝑓,LABSA = − 0.53 kJ/kg
Heat of reaction ∆Hrxn = MLABSA ∗ ΔH𝑓,LABSA + (MSO3 ∗ ΔH𝑓,SO3 + MLAB ∗ ΔH𝑓,LAB )
= 805.8 (−0.53) – ((201.45 (−4.936) + 604.35 (0.97))
Heat of reaction, ∆Hrxn = −18.94 kJ/hour
Products from the catalytic converter is cooled to 52℃ and then fed to sulphonating
reactor which is maintained at 40℃. Taking reference temperature as 46℃.
Enthalpy in,
34 | P a g e
∆Hin = MSO3 ∗ CpSO3 ∗ ΔT + MLAB ∗ CpLAB ∗ ΔT
= 255 ∗ 0.55 ∗ (46 − 52) + 765 ∗ 2.034 ∗ (46 − 52)

= −10177.56 kJ/hour
Enthalpy out,
∆Hout = MSO3 ∗ CpSO3 ∗ ΔT + MLAB ∗ CpLAB ∗ ΔT + MLABSA ∗ CpLABSA ∗ ΔT
= 53.55 ∗ 0.55 ∗ (40 − 46) + 160.65 ∗ 2.034 ∗ (40 − 46) + 805.80 ∗ 1.6 ∗
(40 − 46)
= – 9872.97 kJ/hour
Net ΔH over Sulphonating reactor
= –9872.97 + 10177.56 – 18.94
= 285.65 kJ/hour
= 0.079 kW
5.11 AGITATING TANK:
Amount of SO3 at inlet, MSO3 = 48.78 kg/hour

Amount of LAB at inlet, MLAB = 146.33 kg/hour
Amount of LABSA at exit, MLABSA = 194.2 kg/hour
Heat of formation of SO3, 𝛥𝐻𝑓 , SO3 = − 4.936 kJ/kg
Heat of formation of LAB, 𝛥𝐻𝑓 ,LAB = 0.97 kJ/kg
Heat of formation of LABSA, 𝛥𝐻𝑓 ,LABSA = − 0.53 kJ/kg
Heat of reaction ∆Hreaction= MLABSA ∗ ΔH𝑓,LABSA − (MSO3 ∗ ΔH𝑓,SO3 + MLAB ∗ ΔH𝑓,LAB )
= 194.2 ∗ (−0.53) – (48.78 ∗ (−4.936) + 146.33 ∗ 0.97))
Heat of reaction,∆Hreaction = −4.09 kJ/hour
35 | P a g e
6 CHAPTER 6. PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN
6.1 DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER:
Shell side (SO2):
Feed = 966.74 kg/hour
Inlet temperature = 740°C
Outlet temperature = 435°C
Tube side (Water):
Flow rate, Mt = 100.52 kg/hour
Inlet temperature = 45°C
Outlet temperature = 200°C
Average properties of fluids:
Shell side:
Density = 2.93 kg/m3
Viscosity = 0.4 kg/m s
Cp = 0.995 J/kg °C
k = 4.1 W/m K
Tube side:
Density = 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity = 0.2 kg/m s
Cp = 4.24 J/kg K
k = 0.267 W/m K
Heat Duty, Q = MSO2 ∗ CpSO2 ∗ ΔT
= 966.74 ∗ 0.995 ∗ 305

= 293382 kW
(ΔT1 −ΔT2 )
LMTD, ΔTlm =
ln (ΔT1 /ΔT2 )
(740−200) −(435−45)
= 740−200
ln( 435−45 )
= 465°C
740 −435
R= = 1.967
200 − 45
200 −45
S= = 0.223
740 − 45
36 | P a g e
Correction factor at 465°C, Ft = 0.96
Corrected LMTD, ΔTm = 465 * 0.96 = 446.4°C
Heat transfer area:
Assume U = 200 W/m2 °C
Q = U ∗ A ∗ ΔTm
Therefore, A = 40.62 m2
Assume Outside diameter Do = 0.02 m & Inside diameter Di = 0.016 m

Length of the tube = 4.5 m
Heat transfer area per tube = 0.3 m2
Number of tubes = Area/ number of tubes
= 40.62/0.3
= 136
Considering Triangular pitch, Pt = 1.25 ∗ 𝐷𝑜 = 1.25 ∗ 20 = 25 mm
For 2 passes, K1 = 0.249
n1 = 2.207
1
N n
Bundle diameter, Db = Do ( t ) 1
K1
1
135 2.207
Db = 0.02 ∗ (0.249)
= 0.347 m
For split ring floating head,
Shell inside diameter – Bundle diameter = 0.055 m
Therefore, Shell inside diameter = 0.347 + 0.055 = 0.402 m
Tube side Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Cross sectional area of 1 tube = (3.14/4) * (0.016)2 = 0.000201 m2
Tube per pass = 136/2 = 68
Total flow area = 68 * 0.000201 = 0.014 m2
Tube side velocity, Vt = Mt / (Total flow area * Density)
= 1.5 m/s
jh = 0.035
37 | P a g e
ht ∗ Di
= 0.035 ∗ (NRe )0.8 ∗ (NPr )0.33
k
Di = 0.016 m
NRe = 138.75
NPr = 0.71
ht = 226.3 W/m2 ℃
Shell side Heat Transfer Coefficient:

0.2 ∗ (Pt − Do ) ∗ Ds
As =
Pt
= 0.015 m2
s M
Vs = (Total flow area ∗ Density)
= 3.1 m/s
Equivalent diameter De = (1.10 / Do) ∗ (Pt2 – 0.917 Do2) = 0.014 m

hs ∗ De
= 0.023 ∗ (NRe )0.8 ∗ (NPr )0.33
k
NRe = 3428.1
NPr = 0.69
hs = 3119 W/m2 ℃
Overall heat transfer co-efficient:

D
1 1 1 Di∗ ln( o ) Di Di
Di
= + + + +
Ui ht hs 2∗ kw Do ∗ ht Do ∗ hs
ht = 226.3 W/m2 ℃
hs = 3119 W/m2 ℃
Di = 0.02 m
Do = 0.016 m
kw = 45 W/m ℃
So, Ui = 116.61 W/m2 ℃ (Assumed U = 200 W/m2 ℃)
Tube side Pressure drop:

𝐿 𝜌∗𝑉𝑡 2
∆Pt = Np [8 ∗ jf ∗ ( ) + 2.5]*
𝐷𝑖 2
38 | P a g e
Np = 2
jf = 0.004
L = 4.5 m
Di = 0.016 m
ρ = 1110 kg/m3
Vt = 1.5 m/s
Therefore, ∆Pt = 0.66 kPa
Shell side Pressure drop:

Ds L ρ ∗ us 2
∆Ps = 8 ∗ jf ∗ ( ) ∗ ( ) ∗
de lB 2
Ds = 0.402 m
de = 0.014 m
jf = 0.02
L = 4.5 m
lB = 0.0804 m
ρ = 2.93 kg/m3
Vs = 3.1 m/s
Therefore, ΔPs = 1.24 kPa
6.2 DESIGN OF FIXED BED CATALYTIC CONVERTER:

ASSUMPTION:
➢ Vanadium Pentoxide (V2O5) Catalyst.
➢ The radius of pellet = 4 mm
➢ The length of pellet = 8 mm
➢ Internal diameter of the convertor = 0.8 m
➢ Diameter of inlet pipe = 0.15 m
➢ Porosity of fixed bed = 0.44
➢ Space time = 1.8 sec
Reaction Kinetics:
Oxidation of SO2 in the presence of V2O5 catalyst can be assumed to be pseudo first order.
−8050
− rSO2 = 2.1 ∗ 10−3 ∗ exp ( ) ∗ CSO2
T
39 | P a g e
T = 713 K
X = 0.98
1 − 1.5
𝜀= = −0.33
1.5
Table 11: Inlet Composition for Catalytic Converter
Initial (SO2)
Mass rate (kg/hour) 204
Molar rate (kg moles/hour) 3.1875
Concentration (kg moles/m3) 0.046
For a fixed bed reactor,

W X dX
= ∫0
FSO2, − rSO2
0
FSO20
∴ W= [−(1 + ε) ∗ ln(1 − X) − ε ∗ X]
−8050
2.1 ∗ 10−3 ∗ exp ( T ) ∗ CSO2 ,0
∴ W = 2159.9 kg
For, Vanadium Pentoxide pellets, ρbulk = 1843 kg / m3
W
V= = 1.2 m3
ρbulk
Volume of each bed = 0.3 m3
CALCULATION OF HEIGHT OF EACH BED:

Volume of a pellet, VP = π ∗ r2 ∗h
= 3.14 ∗ 42 ∗ 8
= 402.12 mm3
Volume of each pellet = 4.02∗10-7 m3
Volume of first bed = 0.3 m3
Total number of the pellets, n = 0.3 / (4.02∗10-7)
= 714286 pellets
d2 π∗12
Cross sectional area of column, A = π ∗ = = 0.785 m2
4 4
40 | P a g e
VP ∗ 𝑛 4.02∗10−7 ∗ 714286
Height of first bed = = = 0.7m
A∗(1− ∈) 0.785 ∗ (1−0.44)
Total height required for catalyst = 0.7 + 0.7 + 0.7 + 0.7 = 2.8 m
CALCULATION OF VOLUME OF HEIGHT OF THE CONVERTER

REQUIRED FOR GASEOUS STREAM:
Above First Bed:
Mass flow rate of SO2-Air mixture, M = 966.74 kg/hour
Density of SO2-Air mixture, ρ = 0.596 kg/m3
Diameter of inlet pipe, d = 0.15 m
Cross sectional area of pipe, A= 0.018 m2
Volumetric flow rate = M / ρ
= 966.74 / 0.596
= 1662.05 m3 /hour
= 0.45 m3 /sec
Mass velocity of inlet stream, u = v/A
= 0.45/0.018
= 25.03 m/sec
Volume required, V = v ∗ 𝜏
= 0.45 ∗ 1.8
= 0.811 m3
𝑉
Height of the convertor required, H =
(π ∗ r2 )
0.811
=
(3.14 ∗ 0.52 )
= 1.03 m
Above Second Bed:

41 | P a g e
= 775.49 / 0.745
= 1040.93 m3 /hour
= 0.289 m3 /sec
= 0.289 /0.018
= 16.06 m/sec
Volume required, V = v ∗ τ
= 0.289 ∗1.8
= 0.52 m3
𝑉
(π ∗ r2 )
0.52
=
(3.14 ∗ 0.52 )
= 0.7 m
Above Third Bed:

= 718.11 / 1.22
= 588.61 m3 /hour
= 0.163 m3 /sec
= 0.163 / 0.018
= 9.08 m/sec
= 0.163 ∗1.8 = 0.294 m3
42 | P a g e
𝑉
(π ∗ r2 )
0.294
=
(3.14 ∗ 0.52 )
= 0.4 m
Above Fourth Bed:

Volumetric flow rate, v = M / ρ

= 711.97 / 2.36
= 301.68 m3/hour
= 0.083 m3 /sec
= 0.083 /0.018
= 4.65 m/sec
= 0.083 ∗ 1.8 = 0.15 m3
𝑉
(π ∗ r2 )
0.15
= = 0.2 m
(3.14 ∗ 0.752 )
Below Fourth Bed:

Mass flow rate of gas mixture, M = 711.73 kg/hour
Density of gas mixture, ρ = 2.66 kg/m3
= 711.97 / 2.66
= 267.66 m3 /hour
= 0.074 m3 /sec
43 | P a g e
= 0.074 /0.018
= 4.13 m/sec
= 0.083 ∗ 1.8
= 0.134 m3
Height of the convertor required, H = V/ (π ∗ r2)
= 0.134 / (3.14 ∗ 0.352)
= 0.17 m
Sieve tray of 3 meshes is used to hold the catalyst

Diameter of opening = 6.73 mm (Tyler equivalent)
Area per openings = π (6.73)2 /4 = 35.6 mm2
Total cross section area of the column = 1.54m2
Area of openings per square inch = 3 ∗ 35.6 = 106.8mm2
Cross sectional area of the column in inches= (1.54 ∗ 106)/645 = 2388 in2
Total number of openings = 3 ∗ 2388 = 7164
openings Perforated area = 7164 ∗ 35.6 = 255038 mm2
Unperforated area = 1284962 mm2
Spacing between sieve trays = 0.15 m
TOTAL HEIGHT OF THE CONVERTOR:
Height of the catalysts = 2.8 m
Height of each gaseous section:
First bed = 1.03 m
Second bed = 0.7 m
Third bed = 0.4 m
Fourth bed = (0.2 + 0.17) m
Spacing between sieve trays = 0.15 m
Total height = 5.45 m
44 | P a g e
THICKNESS OF SHELL:
Pressure inside the convertor, P = 1.1 ∗105 N/m2
Permissible stress for carbon steel, f = 95 N/mm2
Inside diameter, Di = 1000 m
Joint efficiency, j = 0.7
P ∗ Di
Thickness of the convertor, t = (
2∗f∗j
)+C
0.11 ∗ 1000
=( )+3
2 ∗ 95 ∗ 0.7
= 3.75 mm.
HEAD THICKNESS:
Shallow dished and tori spherical head
P ∗ Rc ∗ W
th =
2∗f∗J
R c = Crown Radius = Di
1 R
W=
4
[3 + √Rc ]
k
R k = 6% R c = 0.06 ∗ 1000 = 60
1 1000
W=
4
[3 + √ 60
]
= 1.76
J=1
0.11 ∗ 1000 ∗ 1.77
th =
2 ∗ 95 ∗ 1
t h = 1.024 mm
45 | P a g e
6.3 DESIGN OF AGITATING TANK:
Since reaction between SO3 and LAB takes place and also mixing is done, we can assume
it to be CSTR for designing.
Reaction kinetics of reaction between SO3 and LAB can be given by:
−rA = 5.325 CA1.785 CB0.563
Where, CA = Concentration of SO3 (kg moles/m3)

CB = Concentration of LAB (kg moles/m3)
Table 12: Composition in Agitator Tank
SO3 LAB
Mass rate (kg/hour) 53.55 160.65
Molar rate F0 (kg moles/hour) 0.837 0.669
Density (kg/m3) 2.93 859
Volumetric rate (m3/hour) 18.276 0.187

Initial Concentration, C0(kg
0.0458 3.579
moles/m3)
Final Concentration, C (kg
0.0041 0.322
moles/m3)
Viscosity (kg/m s) 0.4 0.006
Mole fraction 0.25 0.75
ρmixture = 0.25 ∗ 2.93 + 0.75 ∗ 859 = 644.98 kg/m3

μmixture = 0.25 ∗ 0.4 + 0.75 ∗ 0.006 = 0.1045 kg/m s
from the performance equation of CSTR,

V XA
=
FA0 −rA
FA0 = Molar rate of SO3 = 0.837 kg moles/hour
46 | P a g e
V = Volume of reactor
XA = conversion = 0.91
−rA = 5.325 CA1.785 CB0.563 = 0.00156 kg moles/hr
Therefore, V = 4893.65 m3
MECHANICAL DESIGN:
Assuming L = Height of tank
d = Diameter of tank
L = 2d.
N = speed of agitator = 200 rpm = 3.33 rps
So, Volume, V = (π/4) ∗ d2 ∗ L = (π/16) ∗ L3
Therefore, L3 = 16 ∗ (V / π)
∴ L = 2.92 m
d = 1.46 m
Figure 9: Diagram of Agitator
d
D= = 0.487 m
3
d
H= = 0.487 m
3
47 | P a g e
d
a= = 0.292 m
5
d
r= = 0.365 m
4
d
b= = 0.146 m
10
HL = L = 2.92 m
Reynolds Number
ρ ∗ N ∗ D2
NRe =
μ
644.98 ∗ 3.33 ∗ 0.4872

=
0.1045
= 4876.24
So, there is transition flow.
Mixing Power:
Assuming we are using disc type turbine agitator.
From, Reynolds number, we have power number, Np = 4.
P = Np ∗ ρ ∗ D5 ∗ N3 = 2.613 kW
Tip speed:
v = π ∗ D ∗ N = 5.092 m/s
Shaft Design:
Assuming shaft material is commercial cold rolled steel.
Permissible shear stress in shaft, fs = 55 ∗ 106 N/m2
Modulus of elasticity = 19.5 ∗ 1010 N/m2
Shaft length between agitator and bearing, ls = 1.3 m
2613
P= = 3.55 hp
75 ∗ 9.81
Considering gland losses about 10%, Total Input = 3.55 + (3.55 ∗0.1) = 3.91 hp
Considering transmission loss about 20%, Total Power = 3.91 + (3.91 ∗ 0.2) = 4.69 hp
48 | P a g e
Continuous average rated torque on the agitator shaft,
hp ∗ 75 ∗ 60
Tc =
2∗π∗N
4.69 ∗ 75 ∗ 60
= = 168.03 N m
2 ∗ π ∗ 200
Maximum torque, Tm = 1.5 Tc = 252.04 N m
Polar modulus of shaft,
π ∗ d3 Tm
Zp = =
16 fs
16∗ Tm
∴ d3 =
fs ∗ π
16 ∗ 252.06
=
55 ∗ 106 ∗ π
Therefore, d = 4.185 cm
We are selecting 5 cm diameter shaft.
Maximum bending momentum,
Tm ∗ l
M=
0.75 ∗ Rb
252.04 ∗ 1.3
=
0.75 ∗ 0.244
= 1790.45 N m
Equivalent bending momentum,
Me = 0.5 [M + √M 2 + Tm 2 ]
= 1800 N m
Stress due to equivalent bending,
Me
f =
Z
Me ∗ 32
=
π ∗ d3
= 146.75 ∗ 106 N/m2
Stress is higher than the permissible stress limit. So, we use a 7 cm diameter shaft for
which stress will be
f = 53.48 * 106 N/m2
Maximum force,
Tm
Fm =
0.75 ∗ Rb
= 1377.27 N
49 | P a g e
Deflection of shaft,
𝐹𝑚 ∗ 𝑙 3
𝛿=
3∗𝐸∗𝐼
1377.27 ∗ 1.33
= π∗ 0.074
3∗E∗( )
64
= 0.4 cm
4.987 ∗ 60
Critical speed, Nc =
√δ
= 473.15 rpm
Actual speed is 42.3% of critical speed.
Thickness of vessel:
P = 1.1 atm
d = 1.46 m
f = 160 MN/m2
j = 0.8
C = 2 mm
Thickness of vessel can be obtained by following equation:

P ∗ Di
T=( )+C
2∗f∗j
1.1∗ 101325 ∗ 1.46
T=( )+2
2 ∗ 160 ∗ 106 ∗ 0.8
= 2.46 mm
50 | P a g e
7 CHAPTER 7. COST ESTIMATION
An estimate of the capital investment for a process may vary from a predesign estimate
based on little information except for the size of the proposed project to a detailed estimate
prepared from complete drawings and specifications. Between these two extremes of
capital-investment estimates, there can be numerous other estimates which vary in accuracy
depending upon the stage of development of the project. These estimates are called by a
variety of names, but the following five categories represent the accuracy range and
designation normally used for design purposes:
1. Order-of-magnitude estimate (ratio estimate) based on similar previous cost data;
probable accuracy of estimate over ± 30 percent.
2. Study estimate (factored estimate) based on knowledge of major items of equipment;
probable accuracy of the estimate up to ±30 percent.
3. Preliminary estimate (budget authorization estimate; scope estimate) based on
sufficient data to permit the estimate to be budgeted; probable accuracy of estimate
within ±20 percent.
4. Definitive estimate (project control estimate) based on almost complete data but before
completion of drawings and specifications; probable accuracy of estimate within ± 10
percent.
5. Detailed estimate (contractor’s estimate) based on complete engineering drawings,
specifications, and site surveys; probable accuracy of estimate within ±5 percent.
As we are on the initial stages of design, we can use first two techniques; however, for
study estimate, we will be requiring the capacity of each equipment which is possible only
after designing every equipment so we shall be using Order of magnitude here.
PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST:

The values used for purchased equipment cost are costs in 1998. So, we will use cost
index for finding current purchased equipment cost. We will use Marshall and Swift cost
index.
Cost Index in 2012 = 1061.8
51 | P a g e
Table 13: Purchased Equipment Cost
Equipment No. of units Cost (₹)

Compressor 1 60,00,000
Chiller 2 40,00,000
Cyclone Separator 2 12,00,000
Packed Bed Dryer 2 30,00,000
Steam Boilers 1 30,00,000
Shell and Tube Heat
9 70,00,000
Exchanger
Pump 2 30,00,000
Sulphur Melter 1 40,00,000
Burner 1 70,00,000
Catalyst Bed Converter 1 2,20,00,000
Falling Film Reactor 1 2,40,00,000
Scrubber 1 80,00,000
Demoisturizer 1 70,00,000
Storage Tank 10 90,00,000
Total 11,82,00,000
Taking purchased equipment cost as 30% of fixed capital investment.

So, Fixed Capital Investment = ₹ 38,68,23,350
The values used for purchased equipment cost are costs in 1998. So, we will use cost index
for finding current purchased equipment cost. We will use Marshall and Swift cost index.
Cost Index in 2022

Cost in 2022 = Cost in 2012 ∗ ( )
Cost Index in 2012
2121.1
= 38,68,23,350 ∗ (1536.5)
= ₹ 53,40,00,000
52 | P a g e
DIRECT COST
Table 14: Direct Cost
Sr. No. Item % Of Fixed Cost (₹)

Capital Investment
1 Purchased Equipment 30 16,02,00,000
2 Equipment Installation 7 3,73,80,000
3 Instrumentation and Control 2 1,06,80,000
4 Piping 5 2,67,00,000
5 Electrical 3 1,60,20,000
6 Yard Improvement 2 1,06,80,000
7 Facility Services 18 9,61,20,000
8 Land 2 1,06,80,000
9 Building 10 5,34,00,000
Total 42,18,60,000
INDIRECT COST
Table 15: Indirect Cost
Sr. No. Item % Of Fixed Cost (₹)

Capital Investment
1 Engineering and Supervision 5 2,67,00,000
2 Construction 6 3,20,40,000
3 Contractor 2 1,06,80,000
4 Contingency 8 4,27,20,000
Total 11,21,40,000
Fixed capital investment = ₹ 53,40,00,000.

Total Capital investment = 53,40,00,000/0.85 = ₹ 62,82,35,295
Working Capital Investment = Total Capital – Fixed Capital = ₹ 9,42,35,295.
53 | P a g e
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCT COST:
1) Manufacturing cost:
Manufacturing Cost = Fixed Charges + Total Production Costs + Plant Overhead Costs
1. Fixed Charges:
Table 16: Fixed Charges
Sr. No. Item % Of Fixed Capital Cost (₹)

Cost
1 Depreciation 12 6,40,80,000
2 Local Taxes 3 1,60,20,000
3 Insurance 0.8 42,72,000
Total 8,43,72,000
2. Total Production Cost:

Fixed charges are 10-20% of total production cost.
So, Total production cost (TPC) = 8,43,72,000/0.15 = ₹ 56,24,80,000
Table 17: Total Production Cost
Sr. No. Item Cost (₹)

1 Raw Material 25% of TPC 14,06,20,000
2 Operating Labour 15% of TPC 8,43,72,000
Direct Supervisory and 15% of Operating
3 1,26,55,800
Clerical Labour labour
4 Utilities 15% of TPC 8,43,72,000
5 Maintenance and Repair 5% of TPC 2,81,24,000
15% of
6 Operating Supplies Maintenance and 42,18,600
Repair
15% of Operating
7 Laboratory Charges 1,26,55,800
Labour
Total 36,70,18,200
54 | P a g e
3. Plant Overhead Cost:
Plant overhead cost includes costs for the following: general plant upkeep, overhead,
payroll,packaging, salvage, laboratories and storage facilities.
Plant overhead cost (5-15% of total production cost) = 0.1 ∗ 56,24,80,000 = ₹5,62,48,000
So, Manufacturing cost = 8,43,72,000 + 36,70,18,200 + 5,62,48,000 = 50,76,38,200
2) GENERAL EXPENSES:
Table 18: General Expenses
Sr. No. Item Cost (₹)

20% of Operating
1 Administrative Cost 1,68,74,400
Labour
2 Distribution and Selling Cost 12% of TPC 6,74,97,600
Research And
3 4% of TPC 2,24,99,200
Development Cost
Total 10,68,71,200
Total Product Cost = Manufacturing Cost + General Expenses

= 50,76,38,200 + 10,68,71,200
= ₹ 61,45,09,400
Total Income:
The selling price of LABSA = ₹ 95 / kg
Production of LABSA in one year = 1000 ∗ 24 ∗ 365 = 87,60,000 kg
Total Income = 87,60,000 ∗ 95 = ₹ 83,22,00,000
Gross Income = Total Income – Total Product Cost

= 83,22,00,000 – 61,45,09,400
= ₹ 21,76,90,600
Total income after 40% tax = ₹ 13,06,14,360
total capital investment
Pay-out Period = = 3.15 years
(net profit after taxes + depreciation)
net profit ∗ 100
Rate of Return = = 24.46 %
fixed capital investment
55 | P a g e
8 CHAPTER 8. PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
8.1 PLANT LOCATION:
The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the overall profitability of a project,
and the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a
suitable plant site.
The principal factors are:
1. Location, with respect to the marketing area.
2. Raw material supply.
3. Transport facilities.
4. Availability of labour.
5. Availability of suitable land.
6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
7. Local community consideration.
8. Climate.
9. Political and strategic consideration.
8.2 PLANT LAYOUT:

The economic construction and operation of a process unit will depend on how well the
Plant equipment specified on the process flow sheet and laid out. The principal factors to
be considered:
1. Economic consideration: construction and operation cost.
2. The process requirement.
3. Convenience of operation.
4. Safety.
5. Future expansion.
6. Modular construction.
8.3 COST:
The cost of construction can be maintained by adopting a layout that gives shortest run of
connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least amount of structural steel
work. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and
maintenance.
56 | P a g e
8.4 PROCESS ECONOMICS:
Economics plays an important role in any industry. The very purpose of an investor is to
put his capital into some venture so that he can earn a lot. Hence an economic analysis
plays of any project is inevitable. In most consideration, in the selection of the alternative
between equipment or process or anything, final decision is made by making an economics.
The process that has no commercial feasibility has no significance and hence chemical
engineers should have a thorough knowledge of fundamental economics. Since the cost of
the equipment is not accurately known, it is usually estimated by various methods from the
available data like the use of the cost indicates and also the Williamson 6/10th factor by
which the cost of equipment can be related to its size or capacity.
Since the exact determined of cost of equipment and various expenditures are difficult and
never perfect, we must use of the various pervious data available. In this project we have
made an effort to take care of various principles and steps involved in the economics
analysis of a chemical plant. The land costs, electrical costs, instrumentation costs, building
costs, piping costs, steel structure, service, building, construction expense, contact fee
contingency etc., were calculated from the empirical relations given in terms of Purchased
Equipment Cost (PEC), given in Peter and Timmerhaus.
8.5 PROCESS REQUIREMENT:

All the required equipment’s have to be placed properly within process. Even the
installation of the auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it’ll occupy the least space.
The plant has to be closely located to the raw material resources.
8.6 OPERATION:
As the plant handles toxic and inflammable materials the operation should be carried out
with full safety precautions. Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be
located convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be
located at convenient position and height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment.
57 | P a g e
8.7 MAINTENANCE:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tubes bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalysts or
packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling
for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be under cover.
8.8 RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY:

The location of the raw materials of an industry contributes more towards the choice of
plant site than any other factor. This is especially noticeable in those industries in which
the raw materials are inexpensive and bulky and is made more compact and obtains a high
bulk value.
8.9 MARKETS AND TRANSPORTAION:

The existence of transportation facilities has given rise to many of the greatest trade centres
of the world. A location should be chosen, if possible, which has several competitions will
help to maintain low rates and given better services.
8.10 POWER AND FUEL SUPPLY:

The fuel best plan is to locate near larger coal field if coal is the primary fuel or to tie up
by long term contracts sufficient gas/oil to ensure the continuity of operation over a long
term.
8.11 WATER SUPPLY:

Water for industrial purposes can be obtained from two general sources, the plants own
sources or principal supply if the demand s for water are large. It is more economical for
the industry to supply its own water such a supply may be obtained from drilled rivers,
lakes, damned streams before a company enters up on any project, it must ensure itself of
as insufficient supply of water for all industrial. Sanitary and fire demands both present and
future. Water nature quality is as diverse as the sites and regions from which it is. Water
temperature and chemical characteristic such as organic and inorganic contaminants, the
relative prices are of greatest economic importance in determining the value of water to the
58 | P a g e
chemical industry. The relative importance of each of these depends upon the service for
which the water is wanted.
8.12 LABOUR:
Before locating any particular location, a careful study of the supply of available labour
must be made. Factors to be considered in labour studies are supply. Kind, diversity,
intelligence, wage scale, regulations, efficiency and costs. The layout will be done by the
(unit areas) concept method which is particularly well adopted to large plant layout. Unite
areas are often delineated by means of distant process phase and operational producers by
reasons of contamination and by satisfy consideration requirement. Thus, the delineation
of the shape and extent of a unite area and of interrelation ships of each area in a master
plot plan is one of the first take of layout planning.
59 | P a g e
8.13 PLANT LAYOUT DIAGRAM:
Figure 10: Plant Layout
60 | P a g e
9 CHAPTER 9. PROCESS SAFETY
9.1 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION:
The major constituents that are considered as hazardous in Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonic
Acid plant are:
1. Sulphur
2. Sulphur dioxide
3. Sulphur trioxide
4. Vanadium pentoxide
SULPHUR
Elemental sulphur dust is an irritant to eyes mucous membrane and skin. It is called as
“NUISANCE DUST”. Sulphur when stored in bulk piles of doors, a wind may disseminate
sufficient dust to cause complaints of irritation. The use of dust tight eye protection and
dust respiration guards may be used to overcome this hazard.
SULPHUR DIOXIDE
It is colourless having characteristic odour and it has strong irritant effect on eyes, throat
and upper respiratory tract. Low concentration of SO2 cause eye irritation and coughing,
high concentrations are so irritation that voluntary exposure would not be endured. In
normal operation falling film sulphonation plant, only small SO2 escapes to atmosphere
through waste gas from the plant. But this quantity will be during start up and abnormal
operating condition. Except leak in dust, SO2 is not defected in the plant SO2 emission
during the start-up condition increases and proper operating and maintaining procedures
can effectively control it.
SULPHUR TRIOXIDE
Hazardous effect association with this are of two types respectively local effect on the skin
and eyes and irritation of respiratory tracts.
VANADIUM PENTOXIDE
It is used as a catalyst in contact process for the conversion of SO2 to SO3. Dust containing
V2O5 is toxic and must not be inhaled. Exposure to vanadium pent oxide dust also produces
irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract. personnel handling the catalyst are therefore
61 | P a g e
exposed to severe hazards. Catalyst cleaning is a serious problem and the catalyst is
removed and screened externally. Respiratory and safety glass must be used during catalyst
cleaning.
9.2 FIRST AID MEASURES:

EYES
Irrigate eyes with a heavy stream of water for at least 15 -20 minutes.
SKIN
Wash immediately with plenty of soap and water. Remove all contained clothes and
footwear immediately unless stuck to skin.
INHALATION
Remove causality from exposure ensuring one’s own safety whilst doing so, seek medical
attention. If symptoms persist.
INGESTION
Do not induce vomiting. Wash out mouth with water. If conscious, give half a litter of water
to drink immediately. If gastro – intestinal symptoms develop, consult medical Personnel.
(Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person).
9.3 FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES:

EXTINGUISHING MEDIA
Appropriate extinguishing media Dry chemical powder, alcohol resistant foam, halon (may
not be permission in some counter), CO2, water spray(fog) Unsuitable extinguishing media
Water stream may splash the burning liquid and spread fire.
SPECIAL HAZARDS ARISING FROM THE SUBSTANCE OR MIXTURE

In combustion emits toxic fumes of carbon dioxide /carbon monoxide. Biodiesel-soaked
rags or spill absorbents (i.e., oil dry, propylene socks, sand, etc.) can cause spontaneous
combustion if stored near combustibles and not handled properly.
62 | P a g e
ADVICE FOR FIRE FIGHTERS Fire -fighters should use self -contained breathing
apparatus to avoid exposure to smoke and vapour. Wear protective clothing to prevent
contact with skin and eyes.
PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Fire -resistant clothing, self – contained breathing apparatus.
9.4 ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES:

PERSONNEL PRECAUTIONS, PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES For non -emergency personnel
Prevent contamination of clothes and shoes, avoid contact with the skin and eyes. Eliminate
all sources of ignition. If outside do not approach from downwind. Evacuate all personnel
who do not take part in the cleaning/emergency procedure. Mark out the contaminated area
with signs and prevent access to unauthorized personnel.
For emergency responders
Wear self – contained breathing apparatus. Wear protective clothing to prevent contact
with skin and eyes.
9.5 ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS:

Prevent any leakage. Do not discharge into communal sewerage, drains or waters.
METHODS AND MATERIAL FOR CONTAINENT AND CLEANING UP

Spill clean-up:
Pick up small spills with absorbent materials and dispose of properly to avoid spontaneous
combustion. Disposal must be carried out according to valid legislation on wastes and
residues. Recover large spills for appropriate treatment and reutilization or for disposal
according to legislation. Wash hard surfaces with safety solvent or detergent to remove
remaining oil film. Greasy nature will result in a slippery surface.
HANDLING AND STORAGE

The corrosive behaviour of the anhydrous sulphonic acid is similar to that of concentrated
sulphuric acid (100%). It can be stored in mild steel vessels as long as there is no moisture
ingress. The use of mild steel tanks can result in a small pick-up of iron which can cause
63 | P a g e
discolouration of the final product; such tanks are therefore not preferred. Consequently,
the stainless steel 304 and 316 types are widely used for the storage of sulphonic acids.
Where stainless steel is not available, mild steel tanks, preferably coated with a suitable
stoving lacquer, e.g., epoxy phenolic stoved lacquer, may be used for storage. Since
sulphonic acid is a highly viscous material at ambient temperatures, it is recommended that,
to facilitate handling (e.g., pumping from bulk storage to neutralisation), it is maintained at
about 30-35°C for a time span not longer than 2 months. The recommended heating facility
for the storage tank is a warm water circulation system.
There are no problems with flow, pumping, pipe cleaning, etc. At temperatures between
40°C and 45°C, sulphonic acids can be handled with ordinary pumps (centrifugal, positive
displacement) in pipes of normal diameters and lengths. The flow will always be laminar
at the velocities applied (0.5 m/s -1.0 m/s) and pressure drops can be calculated from the
Poiseuille equation:
32 ∗ η ∗ L ∗ v
∆P =
D2
Where, ∆P = pressure drop, N/m2
η = dynamic viscosity, Ns/m2
L = pipe length, m
v = velocity, m/s
D = pipe diameter, m
Experience in handling the acid has shown that the lines should be stainless steel and that,
outside buildings in cold climates, they should be hot water trace-heated and lagged. The
recommended pump is a positive displacement type with stainless steel valves with PTFE
sealing.
9.6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT:

EYE PROTECTION:
Wear safety glasses with side-shields. Wear chemical safety goggles with a face shield to
protect against skin and eye contact when appropriate. Provide an emergency eye wash
fountain and quick drench shower in the immediate work area. Goggles Face shield.
64 | P a g e
SKIN AND BODY PROTECTION:
Wear appropriate chemical resistant clothing. When responding to accidental release of
unknown concentrations, wear one-piece, total encapsulating suit of Butyl coated nylon
or equivalent.
HAND PROTECTION:
Wear chemical resistant, insulated gloves such as Perfect Fit NL-56(TM) or Best
6781R(TM). Consult a glove supplier for assistance in selecting an appropriate chemical
resistant glove.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION:
Where vapour concentration exceeds or is likely to exceed applicable exposure limits, a
NIOSH approved respirator is required. When an air-purifying respirator is not adequate
or for spills and/or emergencies of unknown concentrations, a NIOSH approved self-
contained breathing apparatus or airline respirator with full-face piece is required. A
respiratory protection program that meets 29 CFR 1910.134 must be followed whenever
workplace conditions warrant use of a respirator.
65 | P a g e
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS:
➢ Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, Perry, R.H. and Elementary Chemical
Process,7thedition.
➢ Joshi M. V., “Process Equipment Design”, 2nd Ed., Mc-Millan India Ltd.
➢ Max S. Peters and Klaus Timmerhaus, “Process Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineers”, 3rd Ed., Mc-Graw Hill Book Company.
➢ R. K. Sinnott, “Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering”, Volume 6, 7th edition
➢ W. Herman de Groot, Sulphonation technology in detergent industry.
➢ Bhattacharya B.C., “ Introduction to chemical equipment design” , 1stedition, CBS
Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 1988
➢ Harry Silla, “Chemical Process Engineering Design and Economics” , Marcel Dekker
Publication.
WEB REFERENCES:
➢ Importance of Vanadium catalysed oxidation of SO2 to SO3 by Colom, Juan M.;
Alzeuta, Maria U.; Christensen, Jakob Munkholt; Glarborg, Peter; Cordtz, Rasmus
Faurskov; Schramm, Jesper
https://orbit.dtu.dk/en/publications/importance-of-vanadium-catalyzed-oxidation-of-
so2to-so3in-two-str
➢ Kinetics of sulfonation of dodecylbenzene by Sulphur Trioxide by Madhu Panchmia,
University of Windsor
https://scholar.unwindsor.ca/etd/6869
➢ http://chemithon.com/resources/pdfs/technical_papers
➢ https://www.entrepreneurindia.co/
➢ https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
➢ https://www.ucf.ae/Test/chemicals/linear-alkylbenzene-sulfonic-acid-labsa-linear-
alkylate-sulfonate-las
➢ Process Equipment Cost Estimation Final Report by H. P. Loh, Jennifer Lyons and
Charles W. White, 2002
https://www.osti.gov/797810
➢ https://www.exportgenius.in/
66 | P a g e
11 APPENDIX
Material Safety Data Sheet for Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid
Section 1: Chemical Product and Company Identification
Product Name: Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid
Common names/synonyms: LABSA, Dodecylbenzene Sulfonic Acid, Lauryl benzene

Sulfonic Acid, Lauryl benzene Sulfonate
Molecular Weight: 320 kg/kg moles
Chemical Formula: C18H29SO3H
Section 2: Composition and Information on Ingredients

Chemical Name: Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid
EC-No: 016-020-00-8
CAS No: 7664-93-9
Weight %: ≥ 96
R phases: R 35 (Causes severe burns)
Section 3: Hazards identification

Adverse Human Health Effects: The product is a corrosive substance. Contact with the
eyes may cause ocular lesions and contact with the skin may cause burns. It is seriously
irritating to the mucous if swallowed. The product is harmful if ingested.
Environmental Effects: The product is not classified as dangerous to environment. The
user is advised to use anyway good work practice and to avoid contamination of
environment.
Other Effects: The product is a strong acid which reacts exothermally with bases. Dilution
with water produces heat.
Section 4: first aid measures

Ingestion: The product may cause severe irritation of the mouth. If accidentally ingested,
administer water. Do not induce vomiting. Call a physician immediately.
67 | P a g e
Inhalation: The product is not volatile. If under particular conditions, such as in the case
of fire, fumes or aerosols are inhaled, remove the patient to a well-ventilated location and
call a physician.
Eye Contact: Flush eyes immediately with running water for a long time. Seek medical
assistance immediately.
Skin Contact: The product may cause burns. Remove the contaminated clothing and wash
with plenty of water and call a physician immediately.
Annotations To a Physician: The product is a high foaming anionic surfactant. If gastric
lavage is necessary, then use a silicone antifoam (dimethicone).
Section 5: Fire and Explosion Data

General Information: The product poses little risk of ignition. If it happens to be involved
in a Fire, keep the tank cooled by means of water spray in order to avoid the decomposition
of the product.
Suitable Extinguishing Media: Water spray, foam, carbon dioxide.
Not Suitable Extinguishing Media: None in particular.
Specific Hazards: Combustion produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxides of
Sulphur. When heated to decomposition, toxic fumes of SO2 and SO3 are emitted.
Special Equipment: For large fires, wear self-contained breathing apparatus.
Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

Personal Precautions: Avoid direct contact with the product. Wear rubber gloves, rubber
boots, face shield and keep close by a gas mask provided with filter for acid vapours.
Environmental Precautions: Surround the spill with earth or sand. Collect the spilled
material in suitable Containers, if necessary, absorb the spill onto inert materials. Dispose
of material according to the requirements of local law. In case of Leaking into sewer inform
the local authorities.
Methods For Cleaning Up: Neutralize the residue of the product with NaOH or with
caustic lime. Wash the contaminated area with plenty of water. If excessive foam is
produced, use a silicone-based antifoam to bring it down.
68 | P a g e
Section 7: Handling and Storage
Avoid contact with the product. While handling the product, wear a protective apron, rubber
or PVC gloves and a face shield. Handle the product in well ventilated areas. Neutralize with
base under controlled conditions. Do not heat above 50˚C.
Compatible materials: stainless steel, mild steel, plastic materials. Incompatible with
galvanized steel, aluminium, copper alloys.
Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Precautionary Measures: Installation of an eyewash fountain is recommended. Do not eat
or drink onto the work place, when handling the product use approved protective clothing,
rubber or PVC gloves, and a face shield.
Personal Protective Equipment: Wear safety goggles or a face shield and approved
protective clothing. Threshold Limit Value: Not established.
Requirements For Periodic Health Check Up: Specific measures are not foreseen.
Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

Appearance at 20°C: Brown viscous liquid
Odour: of sulphur
Average Molecular Mass: 320 ~ 326
Solubility At 20°C: Soluble in Water & Ethanol, Insoluble in Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Mass Density At 20°C: ~ 1.070 g/cm3
Vapour Pressure At 20°C: Below 0.15 (0.001 mm Hg).
Flash Point: >200°C.
Decomposition Temperature: > 100°C
pH: < 1 (Acid)
Section 10: Stability and Reactivity Data

Hazardous Decomposition Products: In case of overheating, sulphur oxides can be
emitted.
Conditions To Avoid: Do not heat above 80°C, 90°C.
Materials To Avoid: Neutralization with bases under uncontrolled conditions.
69 | P a g e
Intended Use and Transformation: The product maybe neutralized under controlled
conditions with the appropriate base to produce the corresponding salt.
Section 11: Toxicological Information

Possible Routes of Penetration: Ingestion and contact.
Ingestion: Corrosive substance, harmful for ingestion.
Oral Acute LD50: 2,000 mg/Kg
Eye Contact: Severe eye irritant (rabbit). It may cause irreversible dam age to the eyes.
Skin Contact: Contact may cause ulcerations.
Sensitization: Not sensitizing.
Inhalation: Inhalation is possible only as an aerosol. Strong irritant to respiratory
passages.
Section 12: Ecological Information

Environmental Distribution: Water is likely to be the main transport medium for the
chemical, to estimate its possible environmental distribution.
Primary Biodegradability: > 90% (OECD screening test (sodium salt)) The surfactant
fulfils the requisite minimum requirements of primary Biodegradability.
Ecotoxity: 2.49 mg
Section 13: Disposal Considerations

Dispose of product in authorized places/methods in observance with current laws. It may
be treated in a biological waste water treatment plant.
Section 14: Transport Information

UN Classification Number: 2586
Name of the Delivering Product: Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonic Acid/LABSA90%
Packing Instruction: P001
Packaging Group: III
Marine Pollutant: No
EMS NUMBER: F-A, S-B
70 | P a g e

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PROJECT REPORT ON

LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE SULFONIC ACID

KARTAVYA MAURYA Mrs. JANAKI TAILOR

PRN No.: 2018033800120584 DEPT. OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA

This is to certify that MR. MAURYA KARTAVYA, student of BE – IV Chemical

Guide Head of the Department

Mrs. Janaki Tailor Dr. Nitin V. Bhate

Table 1: Properties of LABSA ............................................................................................ 3

Figure 1: Structure of LABSA............................................................................................. 2

SR NO. SYMBOL TITLE

LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE SULFONIC ACID

LABSA is extensively applied anionic surfactant with molecules characterised by a

Chemical Formula C18H29SO3H

Linear alkylbenzene sulfonic acid (LABSA) is the largest-volume synthetic surfactant

Figure 3: Export data from India in 2017

Figure 4: Export from India to different countries

3. Process Flow Diagram

Figure 6: Block Flow Diagram

3.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

LABSA is produced by sulphonation of Linear Alkyl Benzene with reaction of SO3.

Raw materials required for LABSA production are as follows:

3.3 HEAT EXCHANGER:

3.5 ADSORPTION TOWER:

3.7 SULPHUR TRIOXIDE (SO3) PRODUCTION SECTION:

3.8 FALLING FILM SULPHONATING REACTOR:

Figure 7: Neutralization System

3.11 EFFLUENT TREATMENT:

Figure 8: Effluent Treatment Plant

4.1 RAW MATERIAL:

Molar rate of SO3 = 255 / 80 = 3.1875 kg moles/hour

4.2 AIR PRECOOLER:

Table 2: Material Balance around Heat Exchanger

Inlet Stream (kg/hour) Outlet Stream (kg/hour)

Table 3: Material Balance around Hydro cyclone

Inlet Stream (kg/hour) Outlet Stream (kg/hour)

4.5 ADSORPTION TOWER:

Here 99% of the remaining water in air gets absorbed.

Amount of sulphur at sulphur at inlet = 110.87 kg/hour

Table 4: Material Balance around Oven

Inlet Stream (kg/hour) Outlet Stream (kg/hour)

4.7 FIXED BED CATALYTIC REACTOR:

FIRST BED (75% Conversion):

Amount of air inlet = 762.74 kg/hour

Table 5: Material Balance around First bed of Catalytic Converter

Inlet Stream (kg/hour) Outlet Stream (kg/hour)

SECOND BED (90% Conversion):

Amount of air inlet = 724.49 kg/hour

Table 6: Material Balance around Second bed of Catalytic Converter

Inlet Stream (kg/hour) Outlet Stream (kg/hour)

Amount of air inlet = 713.02 kg/hour

Table 7: Material Balance around Third bed of Catalytic Converter

Inlet Stream (kg/hour) Outlet Stream (kg/hour)

FOURTH BED (98% Conversion):

Table 8: Material Balance around Fourth bed of Catalytic Converter