THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE 211 – INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURES

Experiment No. 1
Forces in Members of a Frame

GROUP 4 Participants:

Eddie BOWOKU 22300334

Jessy ATUARA 22300036
Jeremiah HONDENE 22300074
Collin CHRIS 19302159

Date of experiment: 09/03/2023 BECV – 2

Due date: 23/03/2023

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction…………………………………………………...…………………(3)
Theory………………………………………………………..………………….(4)
Methods…………………………………………………….……………………(8)
Results…………………………………………………………………………..(10)
Discussion of results……………………………………….……………………(13)
Conclusion………………………………………………..……………………..(14)
Reference………………………………………………………………………..(15)
Appendix……………………………………………….………………………..(16)

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Experiment 01: Forces in Members of a Frame

Introduction:
Trusses basically are triangular structures that are made of three or more members connected at
pinned joints that distribute external loads to each connected member. Trusses are mainly used in
the construction of both normal and megastructures such as bridges, towers, cranes, satellites, and
industrial warehouse roofing, just to name a few. In the experiment of testing forces in members of
a truss system, the main objective of the experiment is to determine how much weight each member
in the truss system is taking as per the distribution of forces in each respective joint.
In order to precisely measure the forces in each member, spring gauges were installed into each of
the four members of the truss, and weights were added at each joint of the truss in ascending
increments of a set weight. The idea behind the experiment is to distinguish between each member
and the joints as well as the angles at which the members meet at each joint to see how well the
external load is distributed within the system.
The forces at each joint are to be taken note of as well as the cross-sectional area of each member
involved. The type of material will be considered later on to test the strength. The lengths and other
dimensions of the members are considered in calculations of angles which will be used in theory to
calculate the forces when compared to the experiment. The main idea behind the experiment is to
check to see if a proposed structure can hold certain loads under certain conditions over long
periods of time before rupture, and how many members would satisfy the safety requirements of
each increment of load.

Figure 1. Sketch of truss experiment

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Theory:
The main idea or concept behind the lab experiment is to grasp the idea of loads being applied to
trusses and how these loads are distributed among each of the members that make up the truss. The
load distribution mainly coincides with the placement or position of each member in terms of angle
size and length as well as the material of the member itself. The observer also takes note of the
zero-force members present in the truss by taking readings for each member. The member that reads
the same or remains constant when load increments increase is most likely to be a zero-force
member. Such members are discouraged from the truss design as they are a waste of space and
money for the designer and pose no real value in the overall truss strength.
In the experiment, another important feature of the truss is the cross-sectional area of the individual
members themselves. As this feature is considered after all loads are calculated for the entire
structure, because, using the loads found acting across each member, the individual stresses are then
calculated to determine the overall strength of the truss. When the strength is determined, the
designer can estimate the life or how long the members will last under the maxim allowable load.
The equation for calculating stress is as follows:

F
σ= 2
A N /mm

where σ =Stress (Pascals)

F= Applied force∨load ( N)
2 2
A=cross sectional area( m ∨mm )

Another important feature of the structure is the placement of the supports as well as the type of
support that is being used. This also contributes to how well the truss can support the loads being
applied. The position of the supports play a part in balancing out the external loads imposed and
bringing them to reach equilibrium conditions. The truss type observed in the experiment was a
cantilever truss supported by two pin joints. This structure represents or resembles the cantilever
bridges, overhangs or balconies in buildings, ancient pulley systems, and modern cranes.

The positioning of the structure helps

the observer to see how the pin joints
will support all the members and how
the moments will be taken when finding
the reaction forces.
First, the moments are
calculated about each
support point to find their
reaction forces on the

Figure 2. Sketch showing cantilever pin supports

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 truss. This is done by using the external forces as well as the measured lengths of
included truss members.

The steps on how to theoretically calculate the member forces in the truss are discussed and
an example of how the first load increment of 10 N was distributed among the members and
calculated is shown. The other increments are calculated using the same methods and rough
calculations are in the appendix of the report, however, the results are presented in the results
section of the report and can be referenced in the appendix for further clarification.
Then after the reactions are found, the individual force in each member is calculated using the
method of joints. the steps are as follows:
Finding moments about (a).

Ʃ M A ↺+ ¿ ( F 1∗d 1 ) + ( F 2∗d 2 )− ( FC∗d 3 )

( F 1∗d 1 )+(F 2∗d 2)

FC = …
d3
(1)

Finding moments about (b).

Ʃ M B ↺+¿ ( F 1∗d 1 ) + ( F 2∗d 2 ) −( FB∗d 3 )

FB=F 1∗d 1¿+( F 2∗d 2) ¿ …

d3
(2)

Now find the angles for individual members using sine rule and Pythagoras theorem.

Solving for the unknown angles using the

given lengths that were measured during the
experiment in the lab we have:

ϴ=tan −1 ( 97.5
102 )
ϴ=43.708 °

α =180−( 90+ 43.708 )

α =46.292°

Figure 3. Truss system showing member lengths and angles

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β=sin−1 ( 97.575sinα )
−1 97.5sin 46.292
β=sin ( ) b=180−( β +α )
75
β=70 ° b=180−(70+109.993)
b=63.708 °
γ=180−β
γ=180−70 a=90−b
γ=109.993 ° a=90−63.708
a=26.292°

After the angles have been calculated then the appropriate reactions at the supports are then
calculated.

The value of (x) is calculated and found first

using the existing angles.
To find (x) we use the sine rule of Pythagoras
theorem:
x
sinα=
h
h . sinα =x
x=78.5 sin ( 46.292 )
x=56.745 cm

In finding X, the value of reactions can be

calculated from the equation of moments about
Figure 4. Truss system used for calculating x value
the points of the supports B and C.

Solving for moments:

Ʃ M B ↺+¿ 0

¿ ( 10∗102 )+ (10∗56.745 )−97.5C

C=16.282 N (C)

Ʃ M C ↺+¿ 0

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 ¿ ( 10∗56.745 )+ ( 10∗102 )−97.5 B
B=16.282 N (T)

Now calculating member forces of joint A.

Ʃ F y =0

¿−10− AD sinϴ
AD=14.472 N ( C )

Ʃ F X =0

¿ 14.472 cos ϴ+ AB
AB=10.461 N (T )

Figure 5. FBD of forces in Joint A

Now calculating member forces in joint D:

Ʃ F y =0

Figure 6. Forces acting on Joint D

¿−10+ ( 14.472sin 43.708° ) + DB sin 26.292°−DC sin 43.708°

¿−8.896∗10−5−0.691 DC +0.443 DB

0.443 DB−8.896∗10−5
DC= …(1)
0.691

Ʃ F x =0

¿ 14.472 cos 43.708 ° +BD cos 26.292 °+ CD cos 43.715°

¿ 0.897 DB+ 10.66+0.723 DC

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 −10.66+0.723 DC
¿ …(2)
0.897

Solve simultaneously using substitution method

0.443 DB−8.896∗10−5
DC= …(1)
0.691
−10.66+0.723 DC
DB= …(2)
0.897

DC=
0.443 ( −10.66+0.897
0.723 DC
)−8.896∗10 −5

0.691

−5
0.443 (−11.884 +0.806 DC )−8.896∗10
¿
0.691

−5
¿−5.265−0.357 DC−8.896∗10
¿
0.691

¿−7.691−0.517 DC −1.287∗10−4
¿−7.619−0.517 DC
DC=−5.022 N

10.66−0.723(−5.022)
DB=
0.897
DB=7.836 N

Member Force (N) Sense Stress in member ¿

AD 14.472 Compression 0.809
AB 10.461 Tension 0.147
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 DB 7.838 Tension 0.110
DC 5.022 Compression 0.072
Table 1. The experimental member forces of first 10N

Measurement Methods
In this lab, a triangular pin-jointed plane frame also known as a truss is composed of four
members with the fifth member (connected to the two pinned support) taken as a support.
Thus, only the four internal members were considered and the two attached weight loads
were measured. However, their length measurement was taken for all five members in order
to correctly place forces and distances later on in the theoretical calculations.

Measurement techniques
- The lengths of the members of the frame were measured individually at the distance
between the center of the pin joints using a tape measure. The diameter of the rod was first
measured using a 15cm ruler, then a Vernier caliper was later used to improve the accuracy
and precision of the measurement. All unit measurements are in the metric system and were
in mm (for the member diameter) and cm (for the member lengths).
- Member forces were read from the spring gauge and recorded as the load increments were
added. Units in Newton’s (N).
- The angles enclosed between members of the frame were later calculated using the
measured length of the respective members.

Equipment used
-Weight loads (10 X 10N)
-Load hanger x2
-Triangular pin-jointed frame
-Tape measure, 15cm ruler, and Vernier caliper

Procedures employed
- The truss model was set up prior to the lab time for convenience.

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-The length of each member of the frame was measured using the tape measure from pin joint
center to center. The perpendicular height was also measured for the sake of the accuracy of
the measurement.
-Initial force at each member was recorded before adding the weights.
-The weight loads (10N to 50N) were then attached to the two load hangers starting from the
10N weight.
-The forces produced by the members were recorded individually for different weights added.
It is for the purpose of comparison with the theoretical values attained through calculation.
-Reaction forces were calculated and a graph was plotted for reactions versus applied weight.
The recorded member forces were also compared to the applied weight with a graph plotted
to show the relationship. Both graphs of reactions versus applied weight and member load
versus applied weight are shown in the result section.
-The results obtained through the experiment were then compared with the values derived
from the graphical analysis of the frame. The detailed data is found in the result section.
-From the triangular pin-jointed frame along with the weight loads given, the member forces
were derived by calculations through the method of joints and the results were then compared
to the results obtained in the experiment to check the accuracy of the measurement of the
member forces.

ANALYSING RESULTS

102 cm B
A

69
cm
D
97.5 cm

14
7.5
cm 78
.5
cm

Figure 7. Initial diagram of the truss system

The results are given in tables and illustrated by graphs. These results have been calculated
using the sample calculation steps mentioned earlier in the theory section of this report. The
rest of the calculation of the load increments from 10N to 50N can be found in the appendix
for reference.

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 Given in table 1 below are the results for member forces obtained while conducting the
experiment and when calculating it theoretically.

Experimental (Exp.) and Calculated (Cal.) Results for member forces

MEMBER APPLIED LAOD (N)

10 20 30 40 50
Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal.
AB 14 14.472 17 28.944 29 43.416 43 57.889 47 72.361
(C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C)
AD 35 10.462 43 20.923 59 31.385 73 41.846 85 52.308
(T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T)
BD 14 15.932 20 29.463 27 46.906 35 70.337 40 106.682
(T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T)
CD 3 5.022 3 7.615 3 14.787 3 29.386 3 51.701
(C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C)
Table 7. Experimental and calculated results for member forces

Note that for each member force the nature of its calculated values is the same as the nature
of its experimental values.
(C) indicates compression and (T) indicates tension.
Graph 1 and 2 plotted below illustrates the relationship in table 1 above.

Calculated force members vs Experimental member forces

Applied Loads vs Applied Loads
150 100
80
Member forces (N)

Member forces (N)

100
60
50 40
20
0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
-50 -20
-40
-100 -60
Applied Loads (N) Applied Loads (N)

AB AD BD CD AB AD BD CD

Graph 1. Trend between calculated force members Graph 2. Trend between the experimental
and applied loads member forces and the applied loads

Noted that the positive member forces are in tension (T), while the negative member forces
are in compression (C).
Table 2 below shows the experimental and calculated results for stress in each member,
caused by its member force respectively.

Experimental and Calculated Results for stress in each member

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MEMBER APPLIED LOAD (N)

10 20 30 40 50

Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal. Exp. Cal.
AB 0.198 0.204 0.240 0.408 0.409 0.613 0.607 0.817 0.663 1.021
(C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C)
AD 0.494 0.148 0.607 0.295’ 0.832 0.443 1.030 0.590 0.988 0.738
(T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T)
BD 0.198 0.225 0.282 0.416 0.381 0.662 0.494 0.992 0.564 1.505
(T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T) (T)
CD 0.042 0.071 0.042 0.107 0.042 0.209 0.042 0.414 0.042 0.729
(C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C) (C)
Figure 8. Experimental and calculated results for stress in each member

Note that (C) indicates compressive stress and (T) indicates tensile stress.
According to Betsy Chestnut, engineering stress is defined as the force applied to an object
divided by its cross-sectional area.

F
That is: σ= ; where: σ =¿ internal stress in a member
A
(N/mm2)

F = applied force (N)

A = cross-sectional area
In this case, all members are circular, so we use the cross-sectional area of a circle (i.e. A =
πr2)

SAMPLE CALCULATION OF INTERNAL STRESS IN MEMBERS

When a 10N load is applied to the plane frame, the member AB experience a compressive
force of 14N (experimental value) as given in table 1. Given that the diameter for all
members is 9.5mm, then the stress experienced by member AB is:

F F
σ= = 2
A πr

−14
= 9.5 2 = - 0.198N/mm2 ∴ , σ AB=0.198 N /mm 2 (C)
π( )
2

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In like manner, both the experimental and calculated stress values for all other members are
calculated and tabulated in table 2 above, using the experimental and calculated member
forces in table 1 respectively.

Graph 3 and 4 plotted below illustrates the relationship in table 2 above.

Experimental Stress vs Applied Calculated Stress vs Applied

Loads Loads
1.2 Note 2
1
0.8
that 1.5

Stress (N/mm2)
the
Stress (N/mm2)

0.6 1
0.4 0.5
0.2
0
0
-0.2 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 -0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
-0.4 -1
-0.6
-0.8 -1.5

Applied Loads (N) Applied Loads (N)

AB AD BD CD AB AD BD CD

Graph 3. Trend between experimental stress Graph 4. Trend between calculated stress and
and applied loads applied loads

positive stresses are tensile stresses (T) while the negative stresses are compressive
stresses(C).
The table 3 below shows the reactions at the two pin jointed supports as loads are added with
an increment of 10N.

Reactions at Supports
REACTIONS APPLIED
LOAD (N)
10 20 30 40 50
R1 16.282 32.563 48.845 65.126 81.408
R2 3.718 7.437 11.155 14.874 18.592
Table 4. Calculated reactions at supports

Graph 5 below shows the relationship tabulated above in table 3.

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 Reactions vs Applied Loads
90
80
70
60
Reactions (N) 50
40
30
20
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Applied Loads (N)

R1 R2

Graph 5. Trend between found reactions and applied loads

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
According to Megson, the loads applied are distributed to the members of the truss via the
joints. The force members can be either in tension or compression to support the applied
loads. As commonly shown in table 1 and Graphs 1 & 2, the force experienced by each
member both experimentally and theoretically is directly proportional to the loads applied.
This means that; as the load increases with an increment of 10N, the forces in the members
experiencing both tension and compression proportionally increase. Each member experience
different magnitude of force and the nature of the force, depending on its position in the truss
and applied load.
By comparing the calculated and experimental results for member forces, the results do not
correspond. The error obtained or the difference between the two results was greater as
shown in table 1.
The following factors may affect the values of the experimental results or the theoretical
results:

 Faulty pin jointed triangular frame

- Because initially when no load was added, member AD experiences a tensile force
of 15N.
 Inaccuracy in measurement of the member lengths
- The ruler we used could have been bent couple of centimeters, leading to errors.
- No standard lengths proven by Pythagoras Theorem was given for the theoretical
calculations.
 Inaccuracy in taking the results. This may be due to zero error/parallax error or the
person taking the results.

Similarly, as the member forces, both experimental and calculated stress values increase as
the applies load increases. Because it is the member force that causes internal stress in
members. Furthermore, force is in direct proportion to stress, as given by the equation (

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 F
σ= ). So, member forces in tension experience tensile stress, while member forces in
A
compression experience compressive stress. In addition, member with the greater force
experience greater stress, while member with the least force experience the least stress.
From table 3 and graph 5, it vividly shows that also the two reactions at the supports are in
direct proportion to the applied load. As the load increases, the reactions also increase in
proportion. Reaction 1(R1) is greater than Reaction 2(R2) in all increments because R1
support much load than R2. But their sum will give the applied load.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the member forces stress in members and reactions of the structure are all
proportional to the applied loads. They are all dependent on applied loads. As the loads
increase, they all increase, depending on their position on the structure respectively and the
position of the applied load. In real life, it is significant that the stiffness and strength of the
structure are known before applying any load. Because, if greater loads are applied, the
stresses in the members will be greater for the members to withstand and consequently it may
lead to fracture members and deformation of the structure.
Although, the results are obtained but the errors between the experimental and theoretical
results are significant. These errors can be reduced if standard theoretical lengths for the
theoretical calculations are given. And human and systematic errors obtained during the
experiment are reduced.

REFERENCES

1. T.H.G Megson, Structural Analysis

2. Betsy Chestnut, Stress Analysis

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 APPENDICES

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