Hindawi

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2023, Article ID 5503670, 10 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/5503670

Research Article
Comparative Study on LC3-50 with OPC Concrete Using Raw
Materials from Pakistan

Muhammad Danyal Sheikh ,1 Tariq Jamil ,1 Tehmina Ayub ,2

Asad-ur-Rehman Khan ,2 Syed Muhammad Bilal ,2 and Chuanlin Hu 3

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, University Road,
Karachi 75270, Pakistan
2
Department of Civil Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, University Road, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
3
State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Tariq Jamil; tariqjamil@neduet.edu.pk

Received 23 November 2022; Revised 19 January 2023; Accepted 21 January 2023; Published 6 February 2023

Academic Editor: Shengwen Tang

Copyright © 2023 Muhammad Danyal Sheikh et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Te cement industry is expanding rapidly around the globe, despite its signifcant contribution to global carbon dioxide emissions.
Likewise, in Pakistan, the cement industry produces million tons of cement and has a history of contributing as high as 10% of the
country’s carbon dioxide emissions annually. Te most efective technique for reducing carbon dioxide emissions is to use
supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3-50) is a recently developed cement blend
comprised of 50% clinker, 30% calcined clay, 15% raw limestone, and 5% gypsum by weight. Te focus of this research is to assess
the mechanical properties and durability performance of LC3-50 cement composition formulated using raw materials from
Pakistan. Te comprehensive case study would help advance the research and commercialization activities in the country. In this
study, compressive strength, split tensile, fexural, and pull-out tests were performed for evaluating the mechanical properties. For
the assessment of durability, water permeability, sorptivity, carbonation, and rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT) tests were
performed as per the available standards. It is concluded that the use of LC3-50 instead of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
improved the strength and durability of the end concrete.

1. Introduction levels as a result. Hence, we have to work aggressively in all

Te country’s economic development is the refection of
growth in infrastructure and an increase in cement pro-
duction. Globally, 10 billion cubic metres of concrete are
produced each year, and this fgure is unlikely to decrease.
However, it is crucial to look at diferent options for pro-
ducing cement because of environmental degradation.
Around 0.8 tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) are released into
the atmosphere for every ton of ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) produced. Due to the mass production of concrete, it
accounts for about 5–8% of the total carbon dioxide
emissions worldwide [1, 2]. Te world is on track to exceed
carbon dioxide emissions by 2028 because of which the
temperature may rise by up to 1.5°C above preindustrial
areas of life to slow down the temperature rise. Else, we will
have to spend in the future to address problems [3].
Ecologically sound (or eco-efcient) cement-based
materials have been developed and extensively researched
in recent years. Te most successful and cost-efective option
to attain green objectives in the development of cementitious
materials appears in the use of supplementary cementitious
materials (SCMs) partly replacing OPC [4, 5]. Subsequently,
the main concern is to explore abundant SCM resources to
meet the massive demand for cement and concrete pro-
duction. Te overall production of usual SCMs such as fy
ash and silica fumes is limited and nonpredictive. Calcined
clay plays an essential role in rendering as supplemental
material for cement because of its low-cost, widely available,
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
and less energy usage in grinding processes and among other
things. It is hard to reduce the clinker factor below 70%
without the combinations of SCMs [6].
Calcined clay together with raw limestone in 2 : 1 pro-
portion can reduce clinker as low as 50% or even more. Te
low carbon cement blend was named Limestone Calcined
Clay Cement (LC3-50). LC3-50 cement blend mixture of 30%
calcined clay, 15% limestone, 5% gypsum, and 50% clinkers.
LC3-50 has been tested using calcined clay containing dif-
ferent proportions of kaolinite content. However, the 40%–
75% kaolinite concentration in clay was determined to be
preferable to all other LC3-50 blends in compression and
durability testing. LC3-50 is the most efortless alternative to
replace clinkers in cement, resulting in a signifcantly lower
carbon dioxide emission. Te main goal of LC3-50 was to
lower clinker content to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
Clinker proportion in OPC was around 95%, LC3-50 low-
ered the clinker percentage to 50% due to replacements [6].
LC3-50 has numerous advantages, and it is more efective
than OPC in terms of durability. It gives subtle resistivity to
the intrusion of chloride, steel corrosion, alkali-silica re-
action (ASR), and sulphate attack. Te use of LC3-50 cement
can permanently eliminate these signifcant problems in
concrete [7].
Pakistan is rich in mineral resources. Pakistan has large
kaolin clay reserves in Shah Dehrai, Swat (34°53′30″N;
72°53′30″E), and Nagar Parkar District TarParkar, Sindh
(24°15′54″ to 24°30′28″N, 70°37′34″ to 71°07′50″E). Te
estimated kaolin clay reserves at Shah Dehrai and Nagar
Parkar are 2.7 million tons and 3.6 million tons, respectively
[8]. Te clay extracted from these resources is mainly used in
the ceramic and sanitary industry [9]. Tese deposits can be
utilized to produce LC3-50 cement and thus lower the
carbon dioxide footprint of the cement industry’s sector.
It is a systematic study conducted to evaluate the me-
chanical and long-term durability of the LC3-50 blend
prepared from Pakistani raw materials and to determine the
future scope of the research and the pros and cons of using it
as a structural building material in Pakistan. Te focus of this
study is to compare the mechanical properties of LC3-50 and
OPC concretes. Te mechanical tests which were conducted
in this research include compressive strength, splitting
tensile strength, fexural strength, and pull-out tests. In
addition to mechanical characterization, this study com-
pares the durability of LC3-50 cement concrete to that of
OPC concrete. Four tests have been conducted to ascertain
the durability of the LC3-50 blend and OPC. Tese tests
include water permeability, sorptivity, carbonation, and
rapid chloride penetration.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials. Te OPC used in this study was a gen-
eral-purpose Portland cement classifed as 53 grade, con-
sidering it has a higher strength. For the production of LC3-
50, clay containing 75% kaolinite content was utilized. Te
protocol for fnding the kaolinite content in clay is given by
[10]. In this method, take three crucibles and add 10 g of
kaolinitic clay. First, check the weight of empty crucibles and
then check the mass burn of clay at 200°C, 400°C, and 600°C
and put the acquired value in the following formula:
wt400˚C − wt600˚C
wt%kaolinite � × 7.17 × 100. (1)
wt200˚C − wti
An industrial factory in Nagarparkar, Tarparkar, and
Sindh provided calcined clay for this project. Studies show
that kaolinite is partially dehydroxylated at 600°C, and the
dehydroxylation is complete from 700°C onward. Hence, the
clay becomes reactive after calcining it at 800°C [11]. Te clay
calcined at 800°C for 1 hour in an electric furnace. Te main
component of limestone constitutes calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). Limestone that is not suitable for clinker pro-
duction can be used in LC3-50. LC3-50 can also prepare with
low-calcite limestone that contains impurities such as do-
lomite and quartz. Te content of limestone preserves 15%
in LC3-50. Te content of gypsum in the LC3-50 blend
sustains at 2.5%. Te chemical composition of the LC3-50
cement blend is presented in Table 1. Figure 1 shows the
particle size distribution of OPC and LC3-50. Te coarse
aggregate and fne aggregate used in this project were
extracted from a local source. Te mix design used a coarse
aggregate blend of 10 mm and 16 mm aggregates to cir-
cumvent voids in concrete. Te fne aggregate was sieved at
a size of 4.75 mm. Additional reactivity of the pozzolana
action occurs in calcined clay, requiring more water to create
the secondary gel phase [12]. A high-performance super-
plasticizer based on polycarboxylic ether (MasterGlenium
SKY8233) is used. It assists in the manufacturing of high-
performance concrete with improved workability and early
strength [13]. Because calcined clay fneness necessitates the
addition of water, the superplasticizer is required in the
correct proportions to fulfll the optimum hydration content
in concrete.
2.2. Mix Design. Concrete is with a target compressive
strength of 30 MPa after 28 days, as determined by a series of
mixed design trials. Te water-cement ratio retained at 0.416
throughout the casting. Te remaining amount is divided
into a 40 : 60 ratio of fne and coarse aggregate proportions,
respectively. Additionally, the coarse aggregate constituted
of a 30 : 70 mix of 10 mm and 16 mm aggregates, re-
spectively. Superplasticizer (SP) with dosage 1.5% by the
amount of cement was added to the mixture to improve
concrete workability and achieve a target slump of 180 mm
in the mix. Table 2 shows the mix design used in the project
to examine the testing properties of OPC and LC3-50
concrete. Te raw materials were carefully mixed in a pan
mixer at 25 revolutions per minute.
2.3. Experimental Method
2.3.1. Compressive Strength. For evaluating the evolution of
the compressive strength of the OPC and LC3-50 concrete
mixtures, 150 mm size concrete cubes were made as per BS
EN 12390 [14]. In addition, 100 mm diameter and 200 mm
height cylindrical specimens were tested as per ASTM C39-
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3

Table 1: Chemical composition of OPC and LC3-50. 2.3.2. Splitting Tensile Test. Te split tensile test was con-
Oxides content (%)
ducted according to the ASTM C496 [16]. Te cylindrical
Oxides samples were cast for split tensile strength dimensions
OPC LC3-50
(200 mm height and 100 mm diameter). After unmoulding,
Calcium oxide 61.17 43.09 the concrete specimens immersed in the curing tank for the
Silicon dioxide 18.47 27.36
split tensile strength test on 7 and 28 days. Te results from
Aluminium oxide 4.48 11.96
Iron(III) oxide 4.77 3.29
the three samples were summed. Te test was performed on
Magnesium oxide 1.51 3.5 the universal testing machine, having a limit of 500 kN.
Sodium oxide 0.10 0.13
Potassium oxide 0.54 0.4 2.3.3. Flexural Strength Test. Te fexural strength of LC3-50
Sulphur trioxide 2.60 3.64
cement concrete is determined by ASTM C78 [17]. Te load
Manganese(III) oxide — 0.034
Chlorides — 0.045 was applied to the specimen surface at the loading points to
Others 6.36 6.55 push the block. Tree concrete beams were used as the
specimen for this test and had a cross-section (150 mm
height and 150 mm width) with a span length of 500 mm.
Te test was carried out on the universal testing machine
100 (UTM) after 7 and 28 days of curing, and an average was
taken out from three beams. Tis UTM had a loading limit of
80
500 kN and a loading rate of 0.5 mm/min was used in this
experiment.

60
(%) Passing

2.3.4. Pull-Out Test. It measures the force required to pull an

embedded rod out of hardened concrete to evaluate its pull-
40 out strength. Concrete cylinders with dimensions of 100 mm
diameter and 200 mm height were used, with steel bars with
20 a rod length of 850 mm embedded 100 mm in the specimen.
Tree samples were cured for 7 and 28 days, and the results
were averaged. Te displacement control with a loading rate
0 of 0.5 mm/min was performed using the UTM having
1 10 100 1000
a capacity of 500 kN according to the ASTM C900 [18].
Particle Size (µm)

LC3-50
OPC 2.3.5. Water Permeability Test. Durability is the criterion for
3 making quality concrete. In terms of durability, water
Figure 1: Particle size distribution of LC -50 and OPC.
permeability is a concern. It is determined by the German
Standard DIN 1048 [19]. Tree concrete cylinders of di-
Table 2: Mix design of OPC and LC3-50 concrete sample con- mensions (100 mm diameter and 200 mm height) were as-
sidered in this study. sembled in the apparatus after 28 days of curing. Te water
pressure of 500 kPa (5 bar) was applied for 72 hours con-
Concrete stantly in the water permeability apparatus. Te test result
Materials (Kg/m3)
OPC LC3-50 was the average maximal penetration achieved from the
Total binder 370 370 three specimens examined.
OPC 370 185
Calcined clay 0 120.25
Limestone 0 55.5 2.3.6. Sorptivity Test. Te absorption rate was determined in
Gypsum 0 9.25 a homogeneous material using water as the test fuid and
Water-binder ratio 0.416 0.416 measuring the capillary rate of absorption. Te test was
Water 153.2 153.2 performed according to ASTM C1585 [20]. Tree cylindrical
Coarse aggregate∗ 1050 1050 specimens of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height were cast
Fine aggregate 780 780 and cured in a damp room for 28 days and calculated an
∗
Te coarse aggregate constituted of a 30 : 70 mixture of 10 mm aggregate average of three. After curing, the samples were split into
and 16 mm aggregates. 50 mm thick slices. To prevent the end of each specimen
from being exposed to water, epoxy was applied on the side
cylindrical surface of each slice. Tese slices were stored in
14 [15]. Te compression testing of cubes and cylinders was a pot at a height of no more than 5 mm above the specimen’s
conducted on a 2000 KN compression testing machine with base and submerged 2 mm in water. Te fow from the
a ±1% accuracy. Tree specimens for each day were kept in peripheral surface was stopped by adequately sealing it with
a damp room for 3, 7, 14, 28, and 90 days. Results were a nonabsorbent coating. Te quantity of water absorbed in
averaged from the three samples. the time period of 30 minutes was measured by weighting
4 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
the specimen on a balance weight, water on the sample
surface was wiped of with a dampened tissue, and each
weighting operation was completed within 30 seconds. After
vacuum saturation, the porosity was calculated by multi-
plying the diference between the starting and fnal dry
weights by the volume of the concrete cylinders. Te
sorptivity index was calculated by standardizing the plot
pitch of the capillary mass increase with the square root of
time to the cumulative water absorption by the specimen
unit thickness [21].
2.3.7. Carbonation. Te accelerated carbonation test was
performed in this investigation with a carbon dioxide
concentration of 5%; cylindrical specimens were placed in an
accelerated carbonation chamber for the desired exposure
period. Te temperature was 23°C, and the relative humidity
was 55 percent. It is reasonable to assume ffteen months of
natural exposure to the environment is equivalent to that
one week of accelerated exposure to concrete in the car-
bonation chamber [22]. Te efect of temperature is sig-
nifcant as the structure of hydration products lessens
detrimental pores [23]. Both OPC and LC3-50 concrete
samples were exposed for 34 hours and 68 hours in an
accelerated carbonation chamber, equivalent to 3 and
6 months of natural exposure, respectively. After the ex-
posure period was completed, three specimens were split
into two halves for each month in UTM, and their inner
portion was sprayed with a phenolphthalein indicator (0.2%)
to indicate the carbonation depth. Te part which was
colourless or light pink was considered as afected by
carbonation [24].
2.3.8. Rapid Chloride Penetrability Test. Te RCPTcalculates
the total charge transported through a saturated concrete
sample to determine its chloride resistance. Te penetration
of chloride ingress was assessed using ASTM C1202 [25].
Tree cylindrical specimens of 100 mm diameter and
200 mm height were cast and cured in the damp room for
28 days and calculated an average of three. Te samples were
sliced into 50 mm thick slices, and the cylinders were coated
with epoxy around the cylindrical surface. Te slices were
then conditioning for 24 hours in a dry vacuum consisting of
boiled water which was soaked in it. Te slices were then
placed in the apparatus. One side of the apparatus consists of
a 3% salt solution which was connected to the negative
terminal of the battery, whereas the other side consists of
0.3 N NaOH solution which was connected to the positive
terminal of the battery. Te potential diference of 30 V was
maintained across the two ends for 6 hours. Te test mea-
sures the total charge passed across the concrete sample.
Read and record the current after at least 30 min. Based on
the charge, a qualitative rating can be made of concrete’s
permeability.
3. Test Results and Discussion
3.1. Compressive Strength. Te compressive strength test was
performed on cubical and cylindrical samples (Figure 2(a)
and Figure 2(c)) of OPC and LC3-50. Te cubical and cy-
lindrical specimens of LC3-50 gain more strength than OPC
after 28 days and 14 days of curing, respectively. Early in the
curing process, OPC had higher compressive strength than
LC3-50. It could be related to the reasons that LC3-50 and
OPC contain diferent amounts of C3S and C2S. OPC has
a substantial proportion of C3S than mixed cement, and
these proportions are essential for increased early strength
OPC. However, after 28 days of curing and afterward, LC3-
50 had higher compressive strength than OPC because the
extended curing time can be attributable to pozzolana re-
action in LC3-50 [26]. Te targeted compressive strength for
the cylinder is 30 MPa for 28 days of curing that accom-
plished just in the curing period of 14 days, Figure 2(b),
which is slightly more than OPC. Furthermore, samples of
LC3-50 have more strength on 28 and 90 days of curing and
out powered OPC. Similarly, Figure 2(d) shows the same
results as obtained for cubes. Te compressive strength of
LC3-50 was less than OPC at 3, 7, and 14 days of curing.
However, LC3-50 cylinders showed greater strength than
OPC after 28 days of curing time and achieved targeted
strength, and there was a signifcant diference in the
compressive strength of LC3-50 and OPC after 90 days.
3.2. Splitting Tensile Test. Te split tensile test was performed
on OPC and LC3-50 cement in concrete for 7 and 28 days, as
shown in Figure 3(a). In one study, LC3-50 concrete spec-
imens have similar strength comparable to OPC-based
concrete. In split tensile strength, the OPC and LC3-50
concrete do not have much diference but vary slightly with
diferent binders [27]. Tis study also demonstrates that
LC3-50 concrete has a modest increase in split tensile
strength compared to OPC concrete. As shown in
Figure 3(b), the test outcomes presented that the percentage
improvement for LC3-50 varies from 3% to 8% compared to
OPC. Te LC3-50 samples have an 8% higher strength value
than the OPC specimens after seven days of curing. After
28 days of curing, LC3-50 concrete only demonstrated a 3%
increase in split tensile strength compared to OPC. It rep-
resents that OPC concrete gains split tensile strength
gradually.
3.3. Flexural Strength Test. A fexural strength test was also
conducted on both specimens, LC3-50 and OPC. LC3-50 and
OPC beams were tested for 7 and 28 days, as illustrated in
Figure 4(a). Two samples of the blend were acquired, as well
as an average fexure value. Te percentage improvement in
fexural strength of the LC3-50 cement blend is consistent
with previous research studies. Te preceding study shows
that the fexural strength of LC3-50 concrete performs better
than OPC and averages a 7 percent increase in fexural
strength. It happens because of the thick and compact
morphology of LC3-50. It forms silicon chains to produce
the crack bridge in the inside layer arrangement [27]. An-
other study demonstrates that adding calcined clay and
limestone powder to cementitious materials improved their
toughness, increasing fexural strength [28]. After curing of
7 days, the OPC and LC3-50 samples are nearly identical in
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 5

60
53.6

Comp. strength of cylinder (MPa)

50 46.4

40 37.8
34.7 34.7
32.4
30 25.9
19.4 21.2
20
13.6
10

0
3 7 14 28 90
Days

OPC
LC3-50
(a) (b)

60
51.1
Comp. strength of cube (MPa)

50
43.9

40 34.4
31.2
29.1
30 26.2
23.3
21.2
20 17.4
14.4

10

0
3 7 14 28 90
Days

OPC
LC3-50
(c) (d)

Figure 2: Results of compressive strength of OPC and LC3-50 cement-based concrete samples on 3, 7, 14, 28, and 90 days of curing. (a) Setup
for the determination of the compression test of concrete cylinders. (b) Compressive strength of cylinders cast from LC3-50 and OPC-based
concretes. (c) Setup for the determination of the compression test of concrete cube. (d) Compressive strength results of cubes cast from LC3-
50 and OPC-based concretes.

strength. However, from Figure 4(b), after the curing period
of 28 days, the fexural strength of the LC3-50 beam exceeds
the OPC sample.
3.4. Pull-Out Test. Both the LC3-50 and OPC concrete
samples were subjected to the pull-out test (Figure 5(a)).
Two specimens of each concrete type were collected, and the
average value is considered as the resultant. Te specimens
were cured for 28 days before testing. Previous research has
revealed that the microstructure of LC3-50 concrete is
thicker, with fewer pores and a better ratio of splitting to
compressive strength than OPC concrete. Among the
concrete and steel bar, it has a greater elastic modulus and
higher bond stress. LC3-50 concrete has a higher bond-slip
stifness than compared to OPC concrete [29]. Te UTM
(UH 500 KNI) was used to check the pull-out strength of the
28 days cured samples. Figure 5(b) shows that LC3-50 shows
greater reluctance to the applied load compared to OPC. All
the specimens of LC3-50 show greater strength.
3.5. Water Permeability Test. Te permeability test was
performed on three concrete specimens of dimensions
(100 mm diameter and 200 mm height) at 28 days of curing.
Ten, the sample was placed in a test machine (Figure 6(a)).
Te test result is the average of the highest penetration depth
acquired from three specimens. From Figure 6(b), the av-
erage depth of OPC is 62 mm, while the average penetration
of the LC3-50 is 15.5 mm from the three specimens con-
sidered. In comparison to the OPC, the LC3-50 cement
blend concrete exhibited a reduced water penetration depth
6 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

5
3.96 4.06

Split tensile strength (MPa)

4 3.43
3.16
3

0
7 Days 28 Days

OPC
LC3-50
(a) (b)

Figure 3: Results of the splitting tensile strength test of concrete samples cast from OPC and LC3-50. (a) Split tensile strength test of the
cylinder. (b) LC3-50 shows more split tensile strength than OPC on 7 and 28 days.

2.88 2.94
Flexural strength (MPa)

3 2.36
2.25

0
7 Days 28 Days
OPC
LC3-50
(a) (b)

Figure 4: Results of the fexural strength test on 7 and 28 days of curing. (a) Flexural strength test of the beam. (b) Results of fexural strength
of beam cast from LC3-50 and OPC concrete.

50.0
60
41.5
50
Pull-out strength (kN)

40

30
14.1
20 12.8

10

0
7 Days 28 Days

OPC
LC3-50
(a) (b)

Figure 5: Results of the pull-out strength test on 7 and 28 days of curing. (a) Pull-out strength test of the cylinder with an embedded rod. (b)
Results of pull-out strength cast from LC3-50 and OPC concrete.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 7

70
62.0

Water penetration depth (mm)

60

50

40

30

20 15.5

10

0
OPC LC3-50
(a) (b)

Figure 6: Results of the water penetration test. (a) Water permeability test of the cylinder in a test machine. (b) Results of the permeability
test cast from LC3-50 and OPC concrete.

Sorptivity Test For 30 Minutes

4.00E-05
Sorptivity Index (mm/√min)

3.25E-05
3.00E-05
2.67E-05

2.00E-05

1.00E-05

0.00E+00
OPC LC3-50
(a) (b)

Figure 7: Results of the water penetration test. (a) Water permeability test of the cylinder in a test machine. (b) Results of the permeability
test cast from LC3-50 and OPC concrete.

of about 75%. Keeping the water-to-cement ratio low OPC. Te rate of sorptivity in OPC is higher than LC3-50
resulted in a low porosity for the concrete [30]. Tese because the improvement of pores water absorption rate
fndings show that the LC3-50 blend can be used in other (sorptivity) is reduced due to the usage of limestone and
applications where the concrete is likely to come into contact calcined clay in LC3-50 samples.
with water or be laid underwater. Other materials used to
protect the concrete from water, such as crystalline water-
3.7. Carbonation. Te phenolphthalein indicator sprayed
proofng, will be used in smaller amounts than the OPC
over the split specimens that had previously been exposed to
cement, making the project more cost-efective.
5% carbon dioxide (CO2) were used to calculate the
accelerated carbonation depth. In general, the results de-
3.6. Sorptivity Test. Figure 7(a) shows the testing sample and termined that the resistance of LC3-50 concrete decreases
equipment of sorptivity for OPC and LC3-50 concrete. Te with the OPC replacement rate to carbonation. In supple-
test was carried out on LC3-50 and OPC cylindrical speci- mentary cementitious material (SCM), the rate of carbon-
mens after a 28-day curing time. Sorptivity measures in mm ation is often higher than OPC cement-based concrete. As
show the water absorption rates for the two samples. Te a result, this case also applies to LC3-50 cement-based
fewer values of sorptivity indicate better resistance to water concrete, which has a higher carbonation rate than OPC
absorption. An Indian study reveals that the combination of [11]. A Chinese study suggested that a low amount of cal-
pozzolanic and fller impact caused by SCM addition lowers cium in LC3-50 cement comparatively OPC can be the
the adsorption rate due to the contraction in pore diameter reason for the lower binding capacity of carbon dioxide and
that enhances the durability performance of LC3 concrete having more carbonation depth in the LC3-50 system [32].
[31]. Te following result from Figure 7(b) shows the ex- Figure 8(a) shows the LC3-50 and OPC samples kept in the
cellent performance of LC3-50 in sorptivity compared to carbonation chamber for exposure to 5% carbon dioxide up
8 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

35.00

30.00 27.0

Carbonation depth (mm)

25.00
15.0
20.00
15.0
15.00
6.00
10.00

5.00

0.00
3 Months 6 Months
OPC
LC3-50
(a) (b)

Figure 8: Results of the carbonation test. (a) Sample after exposure and spraying phenolphthalein. (b) Results of the carbonation test with 3
and 6 months of duration.

2500
2235.5
Charge passed (Coulombs)

2000

1500

1000

500 431.64

0
OPC LC3-50
(a) (b)

Figure 9: Results of the rapid chloride penetration test. (a) RCPT with 50 mm thick slices of concrete. (b) RCPT shows LC3-50 performed
better as compared to OPC.

to 24 weeks. Ultimately, the susceptibility of LC3-50 concrete size reduction, the concrete can achieve a reliable degree of
to carbonation is more than OPC. Figure 8(b) shows that durability without requiring more curing time [33]. Te
LC3-50 underperforms compared to OPC as the penetration greater the pore size in OPC samples (Figure 9(b)), the more
depth is higher than OPC. LC3-50 shows 60% and 45% more the current (charge) passes through them. Because of the
vulnerability than OPC at 3 and 6 months, respectively. increased pore diameter and a lower pore threshold radius
value, LC3-50 concrete has a higher resistance to chloride
incursion.
3.8. Rapid Chloride Penetration Test. ASTM Standard C 1202
[25] provides remarks regarding the passage of charge to 4. Conclusion
categorize concrete according to its permeability. Tis
standard is used to determine if the charged particles passes Te rapidly growing population of Pakistan causes expo-
from LC3-50 to OPC samples (Figure 9(a)). Te charged nential growth in urbanization which makes it the top
particles of chloride (measured in coulombs) indicate the concrete consuming country in the world. Pakistan can
penetrability of the concrete specimen. Te more the alone become an extensive polluter globally due to its use of
charged particles of chloride passed through the sample, the cement for concrete production. Pakistan urgently needs an
less durable it is. Te LC3-50 concrete specimen, in com- environmentally friendly building material to meet its
parison to OPC concrete, shows very little chloride pene- expanding demands. Tis comprehensive experimental
tration. Te quick reactivity of the limestone and calcined study on concrete concludes that LC3-50 performs similarly
clay benefaction in the LC3-50 systems, which boosts the to OPC, and in certain circumstances, it performs better
degree of hydration, causes the pore diameter to shrink than OPC. Te frst ever study on LC3 will be used as
immediately. Because of the better efect of this early pore a benchmark for advancing research and commercialization
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
activity in the country. Te following conclusions have been
reached after thorough experimental research into LC3-50
concrete with OPC-based concretes.
3 cluded within the article.
(i) LC -50 concrete specimens surpassed OPC con-
crete specimens in terms of mechanical properties.
In the early stages, LC3-50 achieves compressive
strength slowly compared to OPC. However, after
28 days, LC3-50 outperformed OPC concrete, and
after 90 days, LC3-50 had a 14 percent higher
compressive strength than OPC. Other mechanical
tests show that LC3-50 concrete performs better
than OPC concrete.
(ii) LC3-50 has a higher pull-out strength than OPC.
When compared to OPC, LC3-50 exhibits more
resistance to the imposed load. LC3-50 concrete has
a thicker microstructure than the OPC concrete,
with lower permeability and a better splitting to
compressive strength ratio.
(iii) Te performance against water absorption LC3-50
concrete specimen resulted in a low percentage
compared to OPC. Similarly, it also shows im-
proved performance for the sorptivity test. Con-
sequently, concretes using LC3-50 binder may be
suitable for use in the marine environment.
(iv) LC3-50 concrete could not perform better for the
carbonation test. Te concentration of CaO content
in LC3-50 concrete is the signifcant element that
binds carbon dioxide in concrete from the envi-
ronment, which controls the carbonation rate. Te
carbonation rate of blended cement concrete is
often more than the OPC concrete.
(v) In the chloride ion penetration test, LC3-50 con-
crete shows better resistance. It is clear from the
RCPT data that LC3-50 concrete specimens had less
chloride ion ingress than OPC concrete specimens.
(vi) According to the fndings, LC3-50 concrete speci-
mens had improved mechanical properties, and
LC3-50 outperformed OPC in all durability tests
except carbonation.
(vii) Tis study demonstrates that LC3-50 has the po-
tential to use as a substitute for OPC and lessen
carbon footprints. It is a new and extensive area of
research, and additional research needs to adapt to
the market.
Notations
wt%kaolinite: Kaolinite content in percentage present
in clay
wt200˚C: At 200 degrees Celsius, the weight of the
crucible and the clay
wt400˚C: At 400 degrees Celsius, the weight of the
crucible and the clay
wt600˚C: At 600 degrees Celsius, the weight of the
crucible and the clay
wti: Te weight of the empty crucible.
9
Data Availability
Te data used to support the fndings of this study are in-
Conflicts of Interest
Te authors declare that they have no conficts of interest.
Acknowledgments
Te authors are grateful and acknowledge the support from
the China National Key R&D Program-International Sci-
entifc and Technological Innovation Cooperation Key
Project (Grant no.: 2018YFE0106300). Te research was
mainly supported by the Higher Education Commission of
Pakistan, National Research Program for Universities
(NRPU) Project no. 14074 entitled “Development of Cost-
Efective Structural Concrete Formulation using Limestone
Calcined Clay-Based LC3 Cement Blend with Domestic
Resources and its Application in a Pilot Project.” Te authors
appreciate the helping hands of undergraduate students
Muhammad Sharjeel Afzal, Syed Ali Zamin, Zohaib Saleem,
Abdul Basit, and Muhammad Yahya in laboratories during
experimentations. Moreover, the authors are grateful for the
valuable inputs from Prof. Dr. Karen Scrivener, Head of
Laboratory of Construction Materials, Swiss Federal In-
stitute of Technology (EPFL) based in Lausanne,
Switzerland.
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