Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Quarter 3 - W E E K 3: Grade
Quarter 3 - W E E K 3: Grade
Quarter 3 - W E E K 3: Grade
• QUARTER 3 • W E E K 3
2|Page GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
INTRODUCTION
The properties of a solution are different from those of either the pure solute(s) or solvent. Many
solution properties are dependent upon the chemical identity of the solute. Compared to pure
water, a solution of hydrogen chloride is more acidic, a solution of ammonia is more basic, a
solution of sodium chloride is denser, and a solution of sucrose is more viscous. There are a few
solution properties, however, that depend only upon the total concentration of solute species,
.
regardless of their identities. These colligative properties include vapor pressure lowering, boiling
point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. This small set of properties is of
central importance to many natural phenomena and technological applications, as will be described
in this module.
Objectives
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: percent by mass, MELC Code
mole fraction, molarity, molality, percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm; STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111
Describe the effect of concentration on the colligative properties of solutions;STEM_ GC11PPIIId-f-115
Topics
This module discusses the following lesson;
Expressing Concentration of Solutions
Colligative Properties of Solutions
Pre-Assessment
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
a. molecular structure
b. boiling point
c. solubility
d. reactivity
a. physical
b. chemical
c. dynamic
d. kinetic
a. is slightly soluble
b. evaporates readily
c. is nonvolatile
3|Page GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
d. reacts with the solvent
6. What is a solute?
a. The material that is dissolved in a solution
b. The material used to dissolve another material in a solution
c. A specific number of atoms
d. A mixture of two or more compounds
TOPICS
Expressing Concentration of Solutions
Colligative Properties of Solutions
Let’s Recall
Directions: Identify the following statement below.
__________1. The point on a phase diagram at which the three states of matter: gas, liquid, and
solid coexist.
__________2. The point on a phase diagram at which the substance is indistinguishable between
liquid and gaseous states.
__________3. The curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between liquid and
solid states.
__________4. The curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between gaseous
and liquid states.
__________5. It occurs when a substance goes from a gas state to a solid state; it is the reverse
process of sublimation.
Let’s Explore
4|Page GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Activity 1: Concentrations!
Guide questions:
1. What is solute?
2. What is solvent?
3. What do you think will happen if solute is greater than solvent?
4. What do you think will happen if solvent is greater than solute?
Let’s Discuss
is a macroscopic property,
represents the amount of solute dissolved in a unit amount of solvent or of
solution, and
can be expressed in a variety of ways (qualitatively and quantitatively).
The solubility of a solute is the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of
solvent to produce a saturated solution. For example, at 0 oC, we can dissolve a
maximum of 35.7 g of solid NaCl in 100 mL of water (a saturated solution). Any
additional solid NaCl that we add to the saturated solution simply falls to the bottom of
the container and does not dissolve.
There are a number of ways to express the relative amounts of solute and solvent in a
solution. Which one we choose to use often depends on convenience. For example, it is
sometimes easier to measure the volume of a solution rather than the mass of the
solution.
Note that some expressions for concentration are temperature-dependent (i.e., the
concentration of the solution changes as the temperature changes), whereas others are
not. This is an important consideration for experiments in which the temperature does
not remain constant.
Concentrations of Solutions
There are a number of ways to express the relative amounts of solute and solvent in a
solution. This page describes calculations for four different units used to express
concentration:
•
Molarity
Molarity tells us the number of moles of solute in exactly one liter of a solution. (Note
that molarity is spelled with an "r" and is represented by a capital M.)
Molality
Molality, m, tells us the number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram of
solvent. (Note that molality is spelled with two "l"'s and represented by a lower case m.)
Mole Fraction
The mole fraction of A, XA, in a solution consisting of A, B, C, ... is calculated using the
equation:
The number 55.5 mol L –1 (= 1000 g L–1 ÷ 18 g mol–1) is a useful one to remember if you are dealing a
lot with aqueous solutions; this represents the concentration of water in pure water. (Strictly speaking, this
is the molal concentration of H2O; it is only the molar concentration at temperatures around 4° C, where
the density of water is closest to 1.000 g cm –1.)
Diagram 1 (above left) represents pure water whose concentration in the liquid is 55.5 M. A tiny fraction of
the H2O molecules will escape into the vapor space, and if the top of the container is closed, the pressure
of water vapor builds up until equilibrium is achieved. Once this happens, water molecules continue to pass
between the liquid and vapor in both directions, but at equal rates, so the partial pressure of H 2O in the
vapor remains constant at a value known as the vapor pressure of water at the particular temperature.
In the system on the right, we have replaced a fraction of the water molecules with a substance
that has zero or negligible vapor pressure — a nonvolatile solute such as salt or sugar. This has the effect of
diluting the water, reducing its escaping tendency and thus its vapor pressure.
What's important to remember is that the reduction in
the vapor pressure of a solution of this kind is directly
proportional to the fraction of the [volatile] solute
molecules in the liquid — that is, to the mole fraction of
the solvent. The reduced vapor pressure is given
by Raoult's law (1886):
From the definition of mole fraction (denoted by X), you should understand that in a two-component
solution (i.e., a solvent and a single solute),
Xsolvent = 1–Xsolute
Problem Example 1
Estimate the vapor pressure of a 40 percent (W/W) solution of ordinary cane sugar (C 22O11H22, 342 g mol–1)
in water. The vapor pressure of pure water at this particular temperature is 26.0 torr.
Solution: 100 g of solution contains (40 g) ÷ (342 g mol –1) = 0.12 mol of sugar and (60 g) ÷ (18 g mol –1) = 3.3
mol of water. The mole fraction of water in the solution is
and its vapor pressure will be 0.96 × 26.0 torr = 25.1 torr.
9|Page GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Since the sum of all mole fractions in a mixture must be unity, it follows that the more moles of
solute, the smaller will be the mole fraction of the solvent. Also, if the solute is a salt that dissociates into
ions, then the proportion of solvent molecules will be even smaller.
Problem Example 2
The vapor pressure of water at 10° C is 9.2 torr. Estimate the vapor pressure at this temperature of a
solution prepared by dissolving 1 mole of CaCl2 in 1 L of water.
Solution: Each mole of CaCl2 dissociates into one mole of Ca 2+ and two moles of Cl1–, giving a total of three
moles of solute particles. The mole fraction of water in the solution will be
Bear in mind that the proportionality constant KB is a property of the solvent because this is the only
component that contributes to the vapor pressure in the model we are considering in this section.
Suppose that a liquid solvent and its solid (water and ice, for example) are in equilibrium (
below), and we add a non-volatile solute (such as salt, sugar, or automotive antifreeze liquid) to the water.
This will have the effect of reducing the mole fraction of H 2O molecules in the liquid phase, and thus reduce
the tendency of these molecules to escape from it, not only into the vapor phase (as we saw above), but
also into the solid (ice) phase. This will have no effect on the rate at which H 2O molecules escape from the
ice into the water phase, so the system will no longer be in equilibrium and the ice will begin to melt .
If we wish to keep the solid from melting, the escaping tendency of molecules from the solid must
be reduced. This can be accomplished by reducing the temperature; this lowers the escaping tendency of
molecules from both phases, but it affects those in the solid more than those in the liquid, so we eventually
reach the new, lower freezing point where the two quantities are again in exact balance and both phases
can coexist .
If you prefer to think in terms of vapor pressures, you can use the same argument if you bear in
mind that the vapor pressures of the solid and liquid must be the same at the freezing point. Dilution of the
liquid (the solvent) by the nonvolatile solute reduces the vapor pressure of the solvent according to
Raoult’s law, thus reducing the temperature at which the vapor pressures of the liquid and frozen forms of
the solution will be equal.
As with boiling point elevation, in dilute solutions there is a simple linear relation between the
freezing point depression and the molality of the solute:
phenol 40 –7.3
The use of salt to de-ice roads is a common application of this principle. The solution formed when
some of the salt dissolves in the moist ice reduces the freezing point of the ice. If the freezing point falls
below the ambient temperature, the ice melts. In very cold weather, the ambient temperature may be
below the freezing point of the salt solution, and the salt will have no effect.
The effectiveness of a de-icing salt depends on the number of particles it releases on dissociation
and on its solubility in water:
ammonium
(NH4)2SO4 –7
sulfate
potassium
KCl –15
chloride
urea (NH2)2CO –7
Automotive radiator antifreezes are mostly based on ethylene glycol, (CH2OH)2. Owing to the
strong hydrogen-bonding properties of this double alcohol, this substance is miscible with water in all
proportions, and contributes only a very small vapor pressure of its own. Besides lowering the freezing
point, antifreeze also raises the boiling point, increasing the operating range of the cooling system. The
pure glycol freezes at –12.9°C and boils at 197°C, allowing water-glycol mixtures to be tailored to a wide
range of conditions.
Problem Example 4
Estimate the freezing point of an antifreeze mixture is made up by combining one volume of ethylene
glycol (MW = 62, density 1.11 g cm–3) with two volumes of water.
Solution: Assume that we use 1 L of glycol and 2 L of water (the actual volumes do not matter as long as
their ratios are as given.) The mass of the glycol will be 1.10 kg and that of the water will be 2.0 kg, so the
total mass of the solution is 3.11 kg. We then have:
number of moles of glycol: (1110 g) ÷ (62 g mol–1} = 17.9 mol
molality of glycol: (17.9 mol) ÷ (2.00 kg) = 8.95 mol kg–1
freezing point depression: ΔTF = (–1.86 K kg–1 mol) × (8.95 mol kg–1) = –16.6 K so the solution will freeze at
about –17°C.
Any ionic species formed by dissociation will also contribute to the freezing point depression. This can
serve as a useful means of determining the fraction of a solute that is dissociated.
12 | P a g e GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Problem Example 5
An aqueous solution of nitrous acid (HNO 2, MW = 47) freezes at –0.198 .C. If the solution was prepared by
adding 0.100 mole of the acid to 1000 g of water, what percentage of the HNO 2 is dissociated in the
solution?
Solution:
The nominal molality of the solution is (.001 mol) ÷ (1.00 kg) = 0.001 mol kg –1.
But the effective molality according to the observed ΔTF value is given by
ΔTF ÷ KF = (–.198 K) ÷(–1.86 K kg mol–1) = 0.106 mol kg–1; this is the total number of moles of species present
after the dissociation reaction
HNO2 → H+ + NO– has occurred. If we let x = [H+] = [NO2–], then by stoichiometry, [HNO2] = 0.100 - x
and .106 - x = 2x and x = .0355. The fraction of HNO2 that is dissociated is .0355 ÷ 0.100 = .355,
corresponding to 35.5% dissociation of the acid.
The relationships shown in these plots depend on the differing slopes of the lines representing the
free energies of the phases as the temperature changes. These slopes are proportional to the entropy of
each phase. Because gases have the highest entropies, the slope of the "gaseous solvent" line is much
greater than that of the others.
As we saw above, adding a solute to the liquid dilutes it, making its free energy more negative, with
the result that the freezing and boiling points are shifted to the left and right, respectively.
When a liquid is subjected to hydrostatic pressure— for example, by an inert, non-dissolving gas
that occupies the vapor space above the surface, the vapor pressure of the liquid is raised. The pressure
acts to compress the liquid very slightly, effectively narrowing the potential energy well in which the
individual molecules reside and thus increasing their tendency to escape from the liquid phase. (Because
liquids are not very compressible, the effect is quite small; a 100-atm applied pressure will raise the vapor
pressure of water at 25°C by only about 2 torr.) In terms of the entropy, we can say that the applied
pressure reduces the dimensions of the "box" within which the principal translational motions of the
molecules are confined within the liquid, thus reducing the density of energy states in the liquid phase.
Applying hydrostatic pressure to a liquid
increases the spacing of its microstates, so that
the number of energetically accessible states in
the gas, although unchanged, is relatively greater
— thus increasing the tendency of molecules to
escape into the vapor phase. In terms of free
energy, the higher pressure raises the free
energy of the liquid, but does not affect that of
the gas phase.
This phenomenon can explain osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure, students must be reminded, is
not what drives osmosis, but is rather the
hydrostatic pressure that must be applied to the more concentrated solution (more dilute solvent) in order
to stop osmotic flow of solvent into the solution. The effect of this pressure Π is to slightly increase the
spacing of solvent energy states on the high-pressure (dilute-solvent) side of the membrane to match that
of the pure solvent, restoring osmotic equilibrium.
15 | P a g e GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
1. A solution has a volume of 2.0 L and contains 36.0 g of glucose. If the molar mass of
glucose is 180 g/mol, what is the molarity of the solution?
2. How many moles of ammonium nitrate are in 335 mL of 0.425M NH4NO3?
3. How many milliliters of a stock solution of 4.00M KI would you need to prepare
250.0 mL of 0.760 KI?
4. How many grams of sodium fluoride are needed to prepare a 0.400m NaF solution
that contains 750.0g of water?
Application
Activity 2: HALITE!
Directions: Read and analyze the situation. Write your description on your answer sheet.
Reflection
WRITING A DIARY
Instructions:
1. Write your thoughts, ideas and feelings about the topic for the week.
2. Share the contents of the diary to your parent/guardian and friend.
3. Let your parent/guardian sign.
POST ASSESSMENT
8. What is a solute?
a. The material that is dissolved in a solution
b. The material used to dissolve another material in a solution
c. A specific number of atoms
d. A mixture of two or more compounds
Summary
The rate at which a solute dissolve in influenced by a number of factors, including the
temperature of the solvent, the particle size of the solute, and stirring of the solution.
Two liquids are said to be miscible if they dissolve in each other; immiscible if they do
not.
Changes in temperature and pressure of a system affect the solubility of a solute.
The relative amount of solute and solvent in a solution are described by molar
concentration, percent composition, molal concentration, and mole fraction.
Colligative properties include vapor-pressure, lowering, freezing-point depression, and
boiling-point elevation.
The magnitude of every colligative property is directly proportional to the number of
solute molecules or ions present.
Molality is moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. The mole fraction of a substance in
solution is equal to the number of moles of the substance divided by the total number
of moles of all substances in the solution.
References
https://www.rcboe.org/cms/lib/GA01903614/Centricity/Domain/1951/Heating%20and
18 | P a g e GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Name Date
Grade &
Section Teacher