STRUCTURES and FUNCTIONS : FOCUS ON THE Water

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- helps in digestion and a big help in
Food preventing constipation; acts as lubricant of
the membranes that surround the body
- is a substance that consists of chemical
organs; up to 60% of the human adult body
substances used by any living organisms to
is water , the brain and heart are composed
sustain growth, repair, reproduction, and
of 73% water, and the lungs are about 83%
maintenance of vital processes.
water. The skin contains 64% water,
- We need food to maintain health, to
muscles and kidneys are 79%, and even the
prevent diseases, and most importantly, to
bones are watery: 31%
sustain life.
- Without water, a person can die within days
Nutrients but can survive for a long time without
food.
- provide energy, promote growth and
development, and regulate body functions. The Structures and Functions of the Digestive System

The six (6) major classes of nutrients are:

-carbohydrates

-proteins

-fats

-vitamins

-minerals

-water

Carbohydrates
- main source of energy; important in
maintaining of the digestive system (fiber)
and needed for the production of lubricant
called mucus.
Proteins
- essential part of all living cell, tissues, and
body organs; a source of energy and a
necessary component in the formation of
antibodies.
Fats
- supply energy; acts as insulator and aids in
the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Vitamins and Minerals
- are important for various metabolic
processes in the body, in maintaining the
body’s biological function; cannot be
manufactured by the body.
Digestive System
- is to break down food to facilitate effective
transport of nutrients to different parts of
the body.
- is a tube running from mouth to anus.
- Its chief goal is to break down huge
macromolecules (proteins, fats and starch),
which cannot be absorbed intact, into
smaller molecules (amino acids, fatty acids
and glucose) that can be absorbed across
the wall of the tube, and into the circulatory
system for dissemination throughout the
body.
Digestive tract
- is also called the alimentary canal.
Digestive system can be divided into two main parts: Stomach

-alimentary tract - the principal organ of digestion; protein

digestion occurs here
-accessory organs
- The enlarged saclike portion of the digestive
Alimentary tract tract.
- Peristaltic movement and churning action of
- composed of the mouth, pharynx, the stomach muscles crushes , mashes the
esophagus, stomach, small and large food and mixed it with gastric
intestines, rectum and anus. enzymes/juices.
Accessory organs Components of gastric juice produced in the stomach:
- composed of salivary glands, liver, Pepsinogen
gallbladder, and pancreas.
- Acid in the stomach changes pepsinogen to
Mouth (and teeth) pepsin, which breaks down proteins into its
- mechanical and chemical digestion of food smaller units, peptides, during digestion.
occurs here. Rennin
Teeth - converts liquid milk into solid particles
- break or tear food into several smaller Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
pieces to facilitate easy digestion.
- the stomach acid ; activates pepsinogen and
Mastication is essential in destroying microorganisms
- is the chewing or grinding of food into left in the food.
smaller pieces. Mucin (mucus)
Saliva glands - protects the lining from the action of its
- secrete saliva that softens the food. It own acid ; is produced by the mucus cells
contains enzyme, salivary amylase, that and also present in the esophagus to
helps in the initial digestion of starch in lubricate the food that is being pushed to
carbohydrates into simple sugar, maltose. the stomach.

Pharynx Chyme

- known as the throat - is the food that is thoroughly digested

- partially broken food in the mouth, goes mechanically and chemically in the
down through the act of swallowing. stomach.

Esophagus Small Intestine

- acts as conveyor of food and transport food - it measures as long as 20 to 30 feet.

from the pharynx to the stomach. Intestinal villi
- peristalsis, the rhythmic, wavelike
contractions help in the transport of the - are hair-like projections of the walls of the
food down to the stomach. intestine, increases the surface area for
absorption of nutrients from the food.

Duodenum
 - receives the partially digested food from
the stomach.
Jejunum
- the second longest section, is where
absorption mainly takes place.
Ileum
- is where vitamin B12 and bile salts are
absorbed.
Large Intestine
- also known as colon
- It mainly function as the site for water
absorption from the undigested food;
some vitamins and electrolytes are also
absorbed.
Feces
- refers to the waste material from
undigested food, including digestive juices,
bacteria and fiber.
Rectum and Anus
- Waste materials from the large intestine
travels to the rectum, the storage for feces
before it is expelled from the body. The
expulsion of feces through the anus is
called bowel movement.
Anus
- is the external opening through which the
feces passes out from the body.
Pancreas
- found behind the stomach; storehouse of
digestive enzymes; it is both an exocrine
and endocrine gland.
- As an exocrine gland, it secretes digestive
enzymes that aid in the breakdown of fats,
carbohydrates, and proteins, and
bicarbonate ions that neutralize stomach
acid.
- Its endocrine function is performed by the
islets of Langerhans and release hormones
Hormones
– glucagon (alpha cells) insulin ( beta cells),
somatostatin ( delta cells)
Insulin
- controls the blood sugar by lowering the
amount of glucose in the blood.
Glucagon
- raises the amount of glucose in blood
when needed by the body.
Somatostatin
- inhibits or suppresses the further
production of digestive enzymes in the
pancreas.
Liver
- contains up to 13% -14% of our body’s
blood supply.
- Regulation of amino acids in the blood
It is involved in the:
Production of bile
- bile acts as fat emulsifier, breaking down
fats into simpler forms in the small
intestine.
Storage of glycogen
- glycogen is converted into sugar if needed
by the body
Production of cholesterol
- cholesterol is converted into bile and is
stored in the gallbladder
Storage of iron
- it processes hemoglobin for use of its iron
Most of the food is digested between three to
five hours. After the food has broken down into its
simplest form, and is absorbed by the small intestine
then into the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream,
nutrients are transported to the different parts of the
body.
 Our body is affected by lack of certain nutrient
and or by ingesting harmful food. How can we
maintain a healthy digestive system?
WHAT IS NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY?
The body requires many different vitamins and
minerals that are crucial for both body development
and preventing disease. These vitamins and minerals
are often referred to as micronutrients. They aren’t
produced naturally in the body, so you have to get
them from your diet.
Nutrients in foods provide the necessary
energy for the proper functioning of the different parts
of the body. Proper nutrition is very important. A
nutritional deficiency occurs when the body doesn’t
absorb or get from food the necessary amount of a
nutrient. Deficiencies can lead to a variety of health
problems.
These can include digestion problems, skin
disorders, stunted or defective bone growth, and even
dementia.
 
Nutrient deficiencies alter bodily functions and
processes at the most basic cellular level. These
processes include water balance, enzyme function,
nerve signaling, digestion, and metabolism. Resolving
these deficiencies is important for optimal growth,
development, and function. It can also lead to
diseases. For example, calcium and vitamin D
deficiencies can cause osteopenia or osteoporosis, two
conditions marked by brittle bones. And inadequate
iron can cause anemia, which zaps your energy.
5 Common Nutrient Deficiencies
- Iron deficiency
- Iodine deficiency
- Vitamin D deficiency
- Calcium deficiency
- Vitamin A deficiency
Iron deficiency
- The most common consequence of iron
deficiency is anemia, in which the number
of your red blood cells and your blood’s
ability to carry oxygen drops. Symptoms
usually include tiredness, weakness, a
weakened immune system, and impaired
brain function. The best dietary sources are
the red and organ meat, shellfish, canned
sardines, dark, green leafy vegetables,
beans.
Iodine deficiency
- The most common symptom of iodine
deficiency is an enlarged thyroid gland,
also known as a goiter. It may also cause
an increase in heart rate, shortness of
breath, and weight gain. Severe iodine
deficiency can cause mental retardation
and developmental abnormalities in
children. Good dietary sources of iodine
are : seaweeds,fish dairy and eggs.
Vitamin D deficiency
- It promotes stronger bones and teeth,
regulates phosphorus level in the body.
Adults who are deficient in vitamin D may
experience muscle weakness, bone loss,
and an increased risk of fractures. In
children, it may cause growth delays and
soft bones (rickets). Foods rich in vitamin D
include salmon, herring, sardines, canned
tuna, oysters, shrimp and mushrooms. Or,
choose cow's milk, soy milk, orange juice,
oatmeal and cereals that are fortified with
vitamin D. You can also get your daily dose
by going out into the sunshine for 10
minutes without sunscreen.
Calcium deficiency
 - Calcium regulates your heartbeat. A the acid aggravates the lining of the
deficiency could cause an arrhythmia, or esophagus causing regurgitation of sour
irregular heartbeat, and even lead to chest liquid or food.
pains. Other signs you might not be getting
enough calcium: twitches around your face
and mouth; muscle cramps; fractures. The
main symptom of calcium deficiency is an
increased risk of osteoporosis later in life.
Calcium-rich foods include as salmon and Ways to reduce your acid reflux and heartburn:
sardines (both of which are also excellent
sources of heart-healthy omega-3 fatty
acids), dairy products — including skim 1. Avoid eating large meals.
milk, and nonfat or lowfat yogurt. 2. Limit Your Alcohol Intake
Vitamin A deficiency 3. Don’t Drink Too Much Coffee.
- It helps form and maintain healthy skin, 4. Don’t Drink Too Much Coffee
teeth, bones, and cell membranes. Vitamin
A deficiency can cause both temporary and 5. Chew Gum
permanent eye damage and may even lead
6. Limit Your Intake of Carbonated Beverages
to blindness, xeropthalmia and suppress
immune function and increase mortality 7. Don’t Drink Too Much Citrus Juice
among women and children. Dietary
8. Consider Eating Less Chocolate
sources include : Sweet potatoes, Carrots,
Dark green, leafy vegetables, fish liver 9. Elevate the Head of Your Bed
oil,organ meat.
10. Don’t Eat Within Three Hours of Going to
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DISEASES and PREVENTION Bed
A healthy digestive system and eating the right 11. Don’t Sleep on Your Right Side.
food, enables an effective distribution of nutrients to
Constipation
the different parts of the body. If any part of the body
is impaired, no amount of healthy food will be enough. - This disorder refers to the absence of
An imbalance in the digestive process can lead to regular bowel movements or difficulty in
several digestive disorders. bowel movement because of dry, hard
stool. Constipation is usually caused by
All diseases that pertain to the gastrointestinal
inadequate "roughage" or fiber in your
tract are called digestive diseases. This includes
diet, or a disruption of your regular routine
diseases of the esophagus, stomach, duodenum,
or diet.
jejunum, ileum, the ileocecal complex, large intestine
- Constipation can be treated by: Increasing
(ascending, transverse, and descending colon), sigmoid
the amount of fiber and water to your diet;
colon, and rectum.
Exercising regularly and increasing the
intensity of your exercises as tolerated;
Moving your bowels when you have the
A few of the different diseases associated with the
urge (resisting the urge causes
digestive system:
constipation).
Heartburn or GERD
Diarrhea
- This is a chronic digestive disease, which
- This is a very common condition,
occurs when the stomach acid or bile flows
characterized by loose and watery stools,
back into the food pipe. This backwash of
which occur more frequently than normal.
 - If the case is mild, you may not need to
take anything. Adults can take an over-the-
counter medicine. You also need to stay
hydrated. You should drink at least six 8-
ounce glasses of fluids each day. Choose
electrolyte replacement drinks or soda
without caffeine. Chicken broth (without
the fat), tea with honey, and sports drinks
are also good choices. Instead of drinking
liquids with your meals, drink liquids
between meals. Sip small amounts of fluids
often.
Gastric Ulcers/Duodenal Ulcers
- These are painful, open lesions in the
stomach and the duodenum. It can be
caused by stress, lifestyle and diet.
Prevention:
1. Be Careful When You Take Pain
Relievers
2. Don’t Smoke, and Limit Alcohol
3. Manage Stress
4. Consider Probiotics
5. Prevent H. pylori Infection
Stomach Cancer
- also known as gastric cancer, and one of its
risk factors include having a diet that
contains nitrites and nitrates.
- Stomach cancer may be treated with
surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy,
targeted therapy, or immunotherapy
Colon Cancer/Colorectal Cancer
- A malignancy in the area of the colon and
rectum, again , it may be diet-induced.
- Treatment for colon cancer usually
involves surgery to remove the cancer.
Other treatments, such as radiation
therapy and chemotherapy, might also be
recommended.
Flatulence
- The medical term for farting. Different
gases expelled from the rectum and are by-
product of digestion. It becomes a problem
only when the gas is too excessive and
uncomfortable.
- As we all react to certain foods differently,
sometimes a diet change is needed to
prevent flatulence.
- Some foods that are less likely to cause gas
include: meat, poultry, and fish, eggs ;
vegetables such as lettuce, tomatoes,
zucchini, and okra; fruits such as
cantaloupe, grapes, berries, cherries,
avocado, and olives; carbohydrates such as
gluten-free bread, rice bread, and rice. t’s
important to maintain a healthy diet and
to see your doctor if the problem begins to
negatively affect your life.
OTHER TYPES OF GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES:
There are many other gastrointestinal
diseases. Some are discussed, but others are not
covered here. Other functional and structural diseases
include peptic ulcer disease, gastritis, gastroenteritis,
celiac disease, Crohn's disease, gallstones, fecal
incontinence, lactose intolerance, Hirschsprung
disease, abdominal adhesions, Barrett's esophagus,
appendicitis, indigestion (dyspepsia), intestinal
pseudo-obstruction, pancreatitis, short bowel
syndrome, Whipple’s disease, Zollinger-Ellison
syndrome, malabsorption syndromes and hepatitis.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND OTHER ORGAN SYSTEMS
- Digestive system is very important for
digestion, absorption and assimilation of
food. No matter what you eat, everything
that goes into your mouth is processed by
your body’s digestive system.
Three main processes occur within the
digestive system:
-digestion
-absorption
-elimination.
Digestion
- is the breakdown of food into nutrients,
which are molecules that your body’s cells
can use.
Absorption
 - is the movement of nutrients from the
digestive system into the bloodstream,
where they can be carried to all parts of
the body.

Elimination

- is the removal of undigested material from

the body.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Digestive system is closely connected to

your respiratory system. Oxygen, which enters
your body through the respiratory system, is
required for the process your cells use to
release energy from food molecules. Oxygen is
the gas that cells used for cellular respiration.
Through cellular respiration, organic molecules
from the food you eat are broken down, and
energy and carbon-dioxide gas are released.
The released energy is used by body cells for
all the cells’ activities.

The circulatory system transports blood

through the human body. Blood delivers water
and nutrients from the digestive system, and
oxygen from the respiratory system, to all cells
in the body. Blood also carries wastes from
body cells to the organs that remove wastes.

Processes within your cells result in waste

products. These waste products must be
removed from your body to keep your body
systems in balance. The excretory system is the
system that removes liquid, solid, and gas
wastes from the body.

Digestive, Excretory, Respiratory, and Circulatory

Systems
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

MAMMARY GLANDS