Table of Contents

List of Figures ................................................................................................................ v

List of Tables ................................................................................................................ vi

Nomenclature ............................................................................................................... vii

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... ix

Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................ 1

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................ 5

2. Basic Definitions .................................................................................................... 5

2.1 Fluid ................................................................................................................ 5

2.2 Fluid mechanics............................................................................................... 5

2.2.1 Fluid static ................................................................................................ 5

2.2.2 Fluid kinematics ....................................................................................... 5

2.2.3 Fluid dynamics ......................................................................................... 5

2.3 Classification of fluids .................................................................................... 5

2.3.1 Compressible fluid ................................................................................... 6

2.3.2 Incompressible fluid................................................................................. 6

2.3.3 Non-viscous fluid ..................................................................................... 6

2.3.4 Viscous fluid ............................................................................................ 6

2.3.4.1 Newtonian fluid ................................................................................ 6

2.3.4.2 Non-Newtonian fluid ........................................................................ 7

2.4 Second grade fluid ........................................................................................... 7

2.5 Properties of fluid ............................................................................................ 7

2.5.1 Pressure .................................................................................................... 7

2.5.2 Density ..................................................................................................... 8

2.5.3 Compressibility ........................................................................................ 8

2.5.4 Stress ........................................................................................................ 8

i
 2.5.4.1 Sheer Stress....................................................................................... 8

2.5.4.2 Normal Stress ................................................................................... 8

2.5.5 Viscosity .................................................................................................. 8

2.5.5.1 Kinematic viscosity .......................................................................... 9

2.5.5.2 Dynamic viscosity ............................................................................ 9

2.6 Flow and its types ............................................................................................ 9

2.7 Heat Transfer ................................................................................................... 9

2.7.1 Conduction ............................................................................................... 9

2.7.2 Convection ............................................................................................... 9

2.7.3 Radiation .................................................................................................. 9

2.8 Thermophysical Properties of Heat ............................................................... 10

2.8.1 Thermal Conductivity ............................................................................ 10

2.8.2 Specific Heat .......................................................................................... 10

2.8.3 Thermal Diffusivity ............................................................................... 10

2.9 Dimensionless numbers................................................................................. 10

2.9.1 Prandtl number ....................................................................................... 10

2.9.2 Reynold number ..................................................................................... 10

2.9.3 Nusselt Number ..................................................................................... 11

2.9.4 Skin Friction........................................................................................... 11

2.9.5 Hartmann number .................................................................................. 11

2.9.6 Radiation parameter ............................................................................... 12

2.9.7 Porosity parameter ................................................................................. 12

2.9.8 Schmidt number ..................................................................................... 13

2.9.9 Euler’s number ....................................................................................... 13

2.9.10 Sherwood number .................................................................................. 14

2.9.11 Lewis number......................................................................................... 14

2.9.12 Mach number ......................................................................................... 15

ii
 2.9.13 Grashof number ..................................................................................... 15

2.9.14 Weissenberg number .............................................................................. 15

2.10 Conservation laws ......................................................................................... 15

2.10.1 Law of conservation of mass ................................................................. 15

2.10.2 Law of conservation of momentum ....................................................... 16

2.10.3 Law of conservation of energy .............................................................. 16

2.11 Basic equations .............................................................................................. 16

2.11.1 Continuity equation ................................................................................ 16

2.11.2 Momentum equation .............................................................................. 16

2.11.3 Poisson’s equation ................................................................................. 17

2.11.4 Laplace’s equation ................................................................................. 17

2.12 Nanofluid ....................................................................................................... 18

2.12.1 Micropolar Nanofluid ............................................................................ 18

2.12.2 Hybrid Nanofluid ................................................................................... 18

2.12.3 Casson Nanofluid ................................................................................... 18

2.13 Rosseland radiative heat flux ........................................................................ 18

Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................................... 20

3. Theoretical Analysis of inclined MHD flow over an exponentially stretching

surface .......................................................................................................................... 20

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 20

3.2 Mathematical Formulation ............................................................................ 20

3.3 Procedure of method ..................................................................................... 23

3.4 Results and Discussion .................................................................................. 24

Chapter 4 ...................................................................................................................... 28

4. Theoretical Analysis of hybrid nanofluid over an exponentially stretching

surface .......................................................................................................................... 28

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 28

4.2 Mathematical Formulation ............................................................................ 28

iii
 4.3 Procedure of method ..................................................................................... 31

4.4 Models of hybrid nanofluids ......................................................................... 32

4.5 Results and Discussion .................................................................................. 33

Chapter 5 ...................................................................................................................... 42

5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 42

References .................................................................................................................... 44

iv
 List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Main fields of applications of hybrid nanofluid [36] ................................. 3
Figure 2.1: Microscopic view of porous medium ....................................................... 13
Figure 3.1: Exponentially stretching sheet ................................................................. 21
Figure 3.2: Effect of magnetic parameter γ on velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜆 =
1.5, 𝐾 = 0.5, 𝑃𝑟 = 2.0. ................................................................................................ 25
Figure 3.3: Effect of variation parameter λ on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) with 𝛾 =
0.5, 𝐾 = 0.5, 𝑃𝑟 = 2.0. ................................................................................................ 25
Figure 3.4: Effect of chemical reaction K on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) with 𝛾 =
0.5, 𝜆 = 1.5, 𝑃𝑟 = 2.0. ................................................................................................. 26
Figure 3.5: Effect of Prandtl number Pr on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) with ................ 26
Figure 4.1: Effect of T on velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) ........................................................ 34
Figure 4.2: Effect of U on velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂)........................................................ 35
Figure 4.3: Effect of ϕ2 on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) ......................................... 35
Figure 4.4: Effect of γ on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) ........................................... 36
Figure 4.5: Effect of S on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂)........................................... 36
Figure 4.6: Effect of Radiation Rd on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) ................................ 37
Figure 4.7: Effect of chemical reaction K on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) ..................... 37

v
 List of Tables
Table 3.1: Numerical values of skin friction and Nusselt number .............................. 27
Table 4.1: Numerical results of Hybrid Nanofluid For velocity profile 𝑓’(ɳ) with ... 39
Table 4.2: Numerical results of Hybrid Nano-fluid For Induced magnetic profile 𝑔’(ɳ)
with 𝑷𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟐 & 𝝋𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏........................................................................................ 40
Table 4.3: Numerical results of Hybrid Nano-fluid For Temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) with
𝑷𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟐 & 𝝋𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏 ............................................................................................... 41

vi
 Nomenclature
(𝑢, 𝑣) Velocity Components in x (𝐻1 , 𝐻2 ) Magnetic field Components
and y directions in x and y direction

𝜇 Magnetic Permeability 𝑝 Pressure

𝑈𝑒 Free Stream velocity 𝐻𝑒 Free Stream magnetic

velocity

𝜇𝑒 Dynamic Viscosity of 𝛼 Thermal Diffusivity

magnetic field

𝑇 Temperature 𝑇∞ Ambient Temperature

𝑄 Chemical Reaction 𝜓 Stream Function

υ Kinematics Viscosity 𝑈𝜊 Constant Velocity on Surface

𝐿 Reference Length 𝜓1 Stream Function for magnetic

field

𝐻𝜊 Constant Velocity of surface 𝛾 Magnetic Parameter

𝜆 Variation Parameter Pr Prandtl Number

𝐾 Chemical Reaction 𝑇𝑤 Wall Temperature

𝑓′(𝜂) Velocity Profile 𝑔′(𝜂) Induce Magnetic Profile

𝜃(𝜂) Temperature Profile Nu Nusselt Number

∁𝑓 Skin Friction 𝜂 dimensionless variable

𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 Density of Hybrid nanofluid 𝜑1 Solid Nanoparticle

𝛽 Casson fluid parameter 𝜑2 Nano Concentration

Parameter

𝛾 Modified Hartmann Number 𝜆1 Induced Magnetic Field

Parameter

vii
 𝐾ℎ𝑛𝑓 Thermal Conductivity of 𝐾𝑓 Thermal Conductivity of fluid
Hybrid nanofluid

(𝜌𝐶𝑝 )𝑓 Heat Capicity of fluid (𝜌𝐶𝑝 )ℎ𝑛𝑓 Heat Capicity of Hybrid

Nanofluid

𝑅𝑑 Radiation Parameter 𝑈 Magnetic Field Parameter

𝐾1 Poroisity Parameter 𝑘𝑏𝑓 Thermal Conductivity of

basic Fluid

viii
 Abstract
In this dissertation, inclined MHD flow of two-dimensional Hybrid Nanofluid over an
exponentially stretching surface is considered. Hybrid nanofluid is also taken into
account and three different fluid models, which are Yamada-Ota model, Xue model and
Tiwari-Das model, are also presented. The governing mathematical model in terms of
the partial differential equations is reduced into ordinary differential equations by using
the similarity transformation. These ordinary differential equations are solved by a
numerical technique bvp4c methods. The numerical results of involved physical
parameters are shown in graphical format and tabular format. Three different fluid
models Yamada-Ota model, Xue model and Tiwari-Das model are also taken into
consideration for the calculation of dimensionless parameters. Lastly, concluding
remarks are added and described it briefly..

ix
 Chapter 1

1. Introduction
In our work, we considered the second grade fluid which is one of the most important
model of Non-Newtonian fluid. Dunn and Fosdick [6] completed an investigation of
second grade liquids dependent on thermodynamics. Bandelli et al. [13] examined the
unsteady motion of time dependent second grade fluid. Zierep and Fetecau 9] studied
the motion of second grade fluid and computed their exact solutions. Maneschy and
Massoudi [23] considered the movement of second grade fluid through stretching
surface to get the results for velocity and shear stress. Massoudi [24] determine the
solution of the natural convection flow of generalized second grade fluid between two
vertical walls. Khan et al. [18] used the second grade nanofluid to observe the
consequences of phenomena like Thermophoresis, MHD, thermal radiation and
Brownian motion on heat transfer. Many other researchers have also worked on second
grade fluids (see Refs [4,16,17]).

Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) concerns with the study of dynamics of electrically

conducting fluids in the presence of magnetic field. Liquid metals, plasmas and
electrolyte are the examples of MHD fluid. MHD fluids have captured a great deal of
attention of researchers because of its wide span of applications in engineering. Swedish
physicist Hannes Alfvén discovered this field and receive Noble prize in 1970 for his
discovery and exploring various application in plasma physics. Frisch et al. [10] studied
the dynamics of two-dimensional ideal MHD. Helmy [12] solved a boundary layer
problem of power law fluid in MHD. Because of the impulsive motion of a stretching
sheet, Takhar et al. [29] computed the 3D MHD boundary layer flow. Ishak et al. [14]
investigated MHD flow and its heat transfer on stretching vertical sheet. Ishak [13]
considered the radiation effect to analyze the MHD boundary layer fluid because of
exponentially stretching surfaces. Raju et al. [26] worked to compute the dual solution
for 3D MHD nanofluid on a nonlinear stretching surface which is permeable. Recently,
Asjad et al. [2] analysed the MHD viscous flow over a permeable medium by using the
power law.

1
The values of thermal conductivity are very low for conventional fluids like water,
blood and ethylene glycol. Nanofluids, which were discovered by Choi [5], and are
formed by the addition of nanoparticles show extraordinary thermophysical properties,
because nanofluids have very large values of thermal conductivity as compared to
conventional fluids. There is another advance class of nanofluids called hybrid
nanofluids which portray better thermophysical properties than conventional
nanofluids. In hybrid nanofluids, two different nanoparticles are mixed in base fluid.
Hybrid nanofluids have higher Brownian motion of particles and high surface are than
conventional nanofluids by Sidik,N.A et al. [27]. These fluids have higher rate of heat
transfer between particles and fluid. Their dispersion stability is also more than simple
fluids. By changing the concentration of nanoparticles, significant gain in thermal
conductivity is observed. These are the few properties which make hybrid nanofluids
better than the conventional fluid by Choi [5]. Hybrid nanofluids were initially formed
by Turcu et al. [30]. Many researchers did various experiments on hybrid nanofluids
and more than 90% of the studies showed that hybrid nanofluids have high values of
heat transfer than conventional fluids and it is because of the higher values of thermal
conductivity of working fluids [7,20,21,25,31]. Fig. 1 shows the major fields of the
appliacations of hybrid nanofluid [15]. Han et al. [11] also discussed the applications
of hybrid nanotube particles. Suresh et al. [28] elucidated the effect of Al2O3-Cu, which
is a hybrid nanofluid in heat transfer. Labib et al. [19] studied the effects of base fluid
and hybrid nanofluid in forced convective heat transfer. Madhesh, Kalaisevam [40].
experimentally studied the hybrid nanofluid as coolant. Esfe, et al. [8]. predicted the
thermal conductivity of hybrid nanofluid of carbon nanotubes. Abbasi and Farooq [1].
numerically simulate the transportation of hybrid nanofluid.

2
 Figure 1.1: Main fields of applications of hybrid nanofluid [36]
Second chapter which defines some basic terminologies, properties, phenomena and
principles on which our work is based. Furthermore, several dimensionless numbers
have also been briefly elaborated which are used as tools in equations of our problems.
Some basic equations and conservation laws have also been stated. Few kinds of
nanofluids are also discussed on which our problems are based.

The purpose of third chapter is to study the inclined MHD flow over an exponentially
stretching surface and numerically computed the values of skin friction and Nusselt
number. The driven mathematical partial differential equation converted into ordinary
differential equations through similarity transformations and then solved these ordinary
differential equations by bvp4c technique. The obtained results are presented in
graphical format and tabular format and end the chapter by adding some concluding
remarks.

3
In chapter four, hybrid nanofluid is considered over an exponentially stretching surface.
The numerical values of skin friction and Nusselt number for Yamada-Ota model, Xue
model and Tiwari-Das model against various physical parameters like Prandtl number
Pr, solid nanoparticle 𝜙1 , nano concentration parameter 𝜙2 , Casson fluid parameter 𝑇,
magnetic field parameter 𝑈, modified Hartmann number 𝛾, induce magnetic field
parameter 𝑆, radiation parameter 𝑅𝑑 and chemical reaction 𝐾 for different profiles,
which are velocity profile, induce magnetic profile and temperature profile are
computed. The partial differential equations are converted into ordinary differential
equations through similarity transformations. Numerical technique, bvp4c method, is
applied to solve these equations. The obtained outcomes of involved variables are
presented in the form of graphs as well as in tabular form.

In chapter five final remarks are discussed.

4
 Chapter 2

2. Basic Definitions
2.1 Fluid

Any substance that can continually flow and deform or change its shape under the
application of external force or shear stress is defined as fluid. Except solids, all other
forms of matter, i.e. gas, liquid and plasma are fluids.

2.2 Fluid mechanics

It is the branch of science which concerns with the study of properties and conduct of
fluid at rest or in moving state. Fluid mechanics has three main classes.

 Fluid static
 Fluid kinematics
 Fluid dynamics

2.2.1 Fluid static

This class of fluid mechanics is concerned with the properties and behaviour of
stationary fluid.

2.2.2 Fluid kinematics

This branch of fluid mechanics deals with the moving fluids but do not study the causes
of motion like external forces and pressure.

2.2.3 Fluid dynamics

Fluid dynamics study the moving fluids and the forces which put the fluids into motion.

2.3 Classification of fluids

Fluids are classified as follow:

 Compressible fluids
 Incompressible fluid
 Non-viscous fluid
 Viscous fluid

5
2.3.1 Compressible fluid

The fluid in which by applying external forces or pressure, density of the fluid varies is
known as compressible fluid. As the density of gases changes under the action of
external force so all gases are compressible fluids.

2.3.2 Incompressible fluid

If the density of a fluid remains constant by applying external forces, such fluids are
called incompressible fluids. Liquids are incompressible fluid.

2.3.3 Non-viscous fluid

A fluid which has no viscosity or whose coefficient of viscosity is zero is called non-
viscous fluid. In addition to zero viscosity, if fluid has constant density, such type of
fluids is called ideal fluids. Practically, no ideal fluid exists as all fluids have some
viscosity.

2.3.4 Viscous fluid

Viscous fluids are the fluids which have a certain value of viscosity. These fluids are
also known as Real fluids. Viscous fluids resist the motion because of the high friction
among different layers of fluid. Water, air, oil and honey all are examples of viscous
fluid. Real fluid or viscous fluid is further categorized as

 Newtonian fluid
 Non Newtonian fluid

2.3.4.1 Newtonian fluid

The branch of fluids which follow Newton’s linear law of viscosity, which is stated as,
“a rectilinear relationship exists between shear stress and shear rate while fluid’s
viscosity remains constant”.

Mathematically, the expression of Newton’s linear law of viscosity is stated as:

𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 , (2.1)

𝑑𝑢
where τ is the shear stress, 𝑑𝑦 is shear rate and 𝜇 is proportionality constant (also known

as fluid’s viscosity).

Alcohol, gasoline, water, etc all are examples of Newtonian fluids.

6
2.3.4.2 Non-Newtonian fluid

The branch of fluids which do not follow Newton’s linear law of viscosity and follow
Newton’s power law are called non-Newtonian fluids. Fluid’s viscosity does not remain
constant by applying shear for these fluids. Mathematical form of Newton’s power law
is given as

𝑑𝑢 𝑛
𝜏 = 𝑘 (𝑑𝑦 ) , 𝑛 ≠ 1. (2.2)

And,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 , (2.3)

this implies,

𝑑𝑢 𝑛−1
 = 𝑘 (𝑑𝑦) , (2.4)

𝑑𝑢
where τ is known as the shear stress, 𝑘 is the flow behaviour index, 𝑑𝑦 is shear rate, 𝑛

is the consistency index and 𝜇 is the viscosity of fluid.

Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are ketchup, ghee, gels, etc.

2.4 Second grade fluid

It is a subclass of non-Newtonian fluid. In this type of fluid, derivative of velocity field
is up to second order in stress strain tensor. But in Newtonian fluid, velocity field has
derivative up to order one.

2.5 Properties of fluid

Properties of fluids are as follow

2.5.1 Pressure

Pressure is the proportion of the force exerted normal to the surface of body per unit
area.
𝐹
𝑃 = 𝐴. (2.5)

7
2.5.2 Density

The ratio of the fluid mass to the unit volume is called mass density of fluid.
Mathematically can be written as
𝑚
𝜌 = 𝑣. (2.6)

2.5.3 Compressibility

Compressibility measures the relative change in volume of a fluid with the application
of some external force. If there is no change in the volume of fluid by applying external
force or pressure, then the fluid is said to be incompressible.

2.5.4 Stress

Stress is a force per unit area of surface and it has tendency to deform an object. It has
two types.

 Sheer Stress
 Normal Stress

2.5.4.1 Sheer Stress

Stress components that always applied on a surface in parallel direction is called sheer
stress. Mathematically, it is expressed as
𝐹
𝜏 = 𝐴, (2.7)

where F is applied force, A is surface area and τ is sheer stress.

2.5.4.2 Normal Stress

Stress components that applied on surface in normal direction is called normal stress.
Mathematically it is expressed as
𝑃
𝜎 = 𝐴, (2.8)

where P is axial Pressure, A is surface area and 𝜎 is normal stress.

2.5.5 Viscosity

Viscosity is the measured of resistance of fluid flow. There are two types of viscosity.

8
2.5.5.1 Kinematic viscosity

The ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the density is known as kinematic viscosity.
Mathematically, it is written as
ɳ
𝝂 = 𝝆. (2.9)

2.5.5.2 Dynamic viscosity

Dynamic Viscosity is absolute viscosity of fluid. When Temperature increases dynamic

viscosity ɳ is also increase for gases.

2.6 Flow and its types

Flow is generally known as the motion of fluids and it is caused when unbalanced forces
are applied from different directions. As these unbalanced forces die out or become
balanced, fluid ceases to flow. It deals with the mechanics of fluid.

There are different types of flow. Few of them are discussed below, like compressible,
incompressible, uniform, nonuniform, steady, unsteady, laminar, turbulent, viscous,
non-viscous, rotational, irrotational, ideal and real flows.

2.7 Heat Transfer

The process in which heat/thermal energy transmit from a system of high temperature
to a lower temperature system. Heat transfer has three different modes.

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

2.7.1 Conduction

The process in which heat transfer through medium by direct contact.

2.7.2 Convection

In this mode, heat transfer in fluid by movement of the molecules from one place to
another place. It occurs in liquids and gases.

2.7.3 Radiation

It is the process in which heat transfer through electromagnetic waves.

9
2.8 Thermophysical Properties of Heat

2.8.1 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is ability of a substance to transfer the heat. It is generally denoted

by 𝐾 or 𝜆 and its unit is W/m.K. Materials having high thermal conductivity can easily
conduct heat than materials having low thermal conductivity.

2.8.2 Specific Heat

The amount of the heat needed to increase the temperature by 1 Celsius degree of 1
gram substance is called specific heat which denoted as 𝐶𝑝.

2.8.3 Thermal Diffusivity

It is the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the product of density and specific heat of
fluid.
𝑘
𝛼 = 𝜌∁ , (2.10)
𝑝

where, k is thermal conductivity, 𝜌 is density and ∁𝑝 is specific heat.

2.9 Dimensionless numbers

2.9.1 Prandtl number

It is a dimensionless number and it is defined as the ratio of kinematic and thermal

diffusivity.
𝜇
𝜈 ⁄𝜌 𝜇∁𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = 𝛼 =𝐾 = , (2.11)
⁄𝜌∁𝑝 𝑘

where

𝜈 = kinematic diffusivity, 𝛼 = thermal diffusivity, 𝜇= dynamic viscosity

𝜌 = fluid density, 𝐾 = thermal conductivity, 𝐶𝑝 = specific heat.

2.9.2 Reynold number

It is another dimensionless number and is used in fluid mechanics. The ratio of inertial
forces to the viscous forces are known as Reynold number.
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = . (2.12)
𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

10
To check fluid is laminar, transient or turbulent, Reynold number is used. If the value
of 𝑅𝑒 is less than 2000, flow is said to be laminar. If its value lies between 2000and
4000, fluid would be transient and if 𝑅𝑒 is greater than 4000, flow will be turbulent.

2.9.3 Nusselt Number

It is dimensionless number and it is used in heat transfer calculation between a moving

fluid and a solid body. It is the ratio of convective to the conductive heat transfer. It is
represented by Nu.
𝒉𝒍𝒄
𝐍𝐮 = . (2.13)
𝒌

lc = characterstic length

h = coefficient of heat transfer

k= thermal conductivity.

2.9.4 Skin Friction

It is frictional force and exert on object moving in fluid and caused of fluid viscosity. It
is formulated as
𝜏𝑤
𝐶= 1𝜌 . (2.14)
2 𝑓𝑈2 𝑤

𝜏𝑤= Sheer Stress

𝜌𝑓 =fluid density

Uw =velocity.

2.9.5 Hartmann number

Hartmann number was initially presented by Julius Hartmann from Denmark. The ratio
of the electromagnetic forces to the viscous forces is known as Hartmann number. This
dimensionless parameter is usually used for the fluids which flow through magnetic
field.

𝜎
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐵𝐿√𝜇 , (2.15)

where,

𝐻𝑎 =Hartmann number

11
𝐵 =magnetic field intensity

𝐿 =characterstic length

𝜎 = electrical conductivity

𝜇 = viscous force.

2.9.6 Radiation parameter

Radiation parameter is the ratio of heat transfer by radiation to the heat transfer by
convection. It is represented by 𝑅𝑑. Mathematically,
3
16𝜎∗ 𝑇∞
𝑅𝑑 = , (2.16)
3𝑘𝑓 𝐾∗

where,

𝑅𝑑 =Radiation parameter

𝜎 ∗ = Stephan Boltzman constant

𝑇∞ = Ambient temperature

𝑘𝑓 = thermal conductivity of fluid

𝐾 ∗ = mean proportion constant.

2.9.7 Porosity parameter

It is defined as the ratio of volume of the void spaces to the total volume of the material.
It actually measures the emptiness of any material. It is represented by 𝜑.

𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜑= , (2.17)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚

where 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚 = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 + 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, this implies

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝜑 =1− , (2.18)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚

12
 Figure 2.1: Microscopic view of porous medium

2.9.8 Schmidt number

Schmidt number is the ratio of kinematic viscosity and the molecular diffusivity.
Schmidt number can be expressed as
𝑣
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐷𝑚, (2.19)

where,

𝑆𝑐 =Schmidt number

𝑣 =kinematic viscosity or momentum diffusivity

𝐷𝑚 =molecular diffusivity.

2.9.9 Euler’s number

The square root of the ratio of the inertial forces and the pressure forces is said to be
Euler’s number and it is applicable to the moving fluid.
1⁄
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 2
𝐸𝑢 = (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) , (2.20)

1⁄
𝜌 2
𝐸𝑢 = 𝑣 (𝑃) , (2.21)

where,

𝐸𝑢 = Euler’s number

𝑣 = fluid flow velocity

13
𝜌 = density of fluid

𝑃 = pressure force.

2.9.10 Sherwood number

Sherwood number is named after the scientist Thomas Kilgore Sherwood.This

dimensionless number is the ratio of the mass transfer by the convection to the mass
transfer by diffusion.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑆ℎ = , (2.22)
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟

𝑘𝑚 𝐿
𝑆ℎ = , (2.23)
𝐷

where,

𝑆ℎ = Sherwood number

𝑘𝑚 = convective mass transfer coefficient

𝐿 = characteristic length

𝐷 = mass diffusivity.

2.9.11 Lewis number

Lewis number is obtained by dividing the thermal diffusion rate with the mass diffusion
rate. It is a characteristic feature of fluids which have heat transfer and mass transfer at
the same time. Mathematical equation this dimensionless number is given below
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐿𝑒 = , (2.24)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝛼
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐷 , (2.25)
𝑐

where,

𝐿𝑒 = Lewis number

𝛼 = thermal diffusion rate

𝐷𝑐 = mass diffusion rate.

14
2.9.12 Mach number

Mach number is a dimensionless quantity which describes the ratio of the velocity of
the fluid behind the boundaries to the speed of the sound in the medium.

Mathematically,
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑀= , (2.26)
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

𝑣
𝑀 = 𝑐, (2.27)

where,

𝑀 = Mach number

𝑣 = flow velocity

𝑐 = speed of the sound in the medium.

2.9.13 Grashof number

The dimensionless number, Grashof number, estimate the ratio of forces acting on a
fluid called buoyancy force and viscous force. It is equivalent to Reynold number and
is named after the Germen engineer Franz Grashof. It is denoted by Gr.

2.9.14 Weissenberg number

Weissenberg number is used to study the fluids which exhibit the characteristics of
viscosity and elasticity simultaneously. It approximates the ratio of elastic forces and
viscous forces. The Weissenberg number exhibits the level of anisotropy or shows that
upto what extent, orientation is produced by deformation. It is denoted by Wi.

2.10 Conservation laws

2.10.1 Law of conservation of mass

Law of conservation of energy can be traced back to 1789 and was discovered by
Antoine Lavoisier. It is stated that mass can never be created nor destroyed in an
isolated system but it can be move from one spot to other. This is the law of
conservation of mass.

15
2.10.2 Law of conservation of momentum

Conservation of momentum is the basic law of physics and according to this law; a
quantity which is called momentum, which characterizes the movement, does not
change in an isolated system until and unless external forces are applied. One can say
that total momentum of an isolated system remains conserved.

2.10.3 Law of conservation of energy

Conservation of energy is another basic law of physics which states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; it can just be transformed from one form to other or
can be transformed from one system to other. Law of conservation of energy is a
universal law which means total energy of the universe is constant.

2.11 Basic equations

2.11.1 Continuity equation

Mathematical statement of law of conservation of mass gives us the Continuity

equation. It states that the rate at which the mass enters the system is equal to the rate
at which it leaves the system.
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛁. (𝜌𝒗) = 0, (2.28)
𝜕𝑡

where, 𝜌 is the density and 𝑣 is the velocity of the fluid. We know that, for
incompressible fluid 𝜌 = 0, equation of continuity will become

𝛁. 𝒗 = 0. (2.29)

2.11.2 Momentum equation

Momentum equation is the mathematical version of law of conservation of momentum

which states that the rate of change of momentum of a particular volume of a moving
fluid is equivalent to the two forces acting on the fluid; one is surface forces and other
is body forces.

Mathematically,
𝑑𝒗
𝜌 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛁. 𝒔 + 𝜌𝒃, (2.30)

where, 𝜌 is the density of the fluid, 𝒗 is the velocity, 𝒔 is the Cauchy stress tensor and
𝒃 is the body force. Cauchy stress tensor is given as

16
𝒔 = −𝑝𝑰 + 𝜇 𝑨𝟏 , (2.31)

here, 𝑨𝟏 = Rivlin Erickson tensor.

𝑨𝟏 = (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝒗) + (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝒗)𝑇 , (2.32)

with
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝒗 = ∂x ∂y ∂z
. (2.33)
∂w ∂w ∂w
( ∂x ∂y ∂z )

2.11.3 Poisson’s equation

Poisson’s equation is a second order inhomogeneous partial differential equation and

inhomogeneous part shows the source of the potential field. The potential field
produced by any charge distribution can be found out by the solution of Poisson’s
equation which is mathematically given as

∇2 𝜑 = 𝜌, (2.34)

where, ∇2 is the Laplacian operator, 𝜑 is the potential field and 𝜌 is the source of the
field. Alternatively, this equation can be rewritten as

𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑
+ 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 = 𝜌. (2.35)
𝜕𝑥 2

2.11.4 Laplace’s equation

Laplace’s equation is a second order homogeneous partial differential equation and is

widely used in many physical and engineering applications. Laplace equation is a
special case of Poisson’s equation. If we consider Poisson’s equation in source free
region, the resulting equation will be Laplace’s equation

∇2 𝜑 = 0. (2.36)

Or,

𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑 𝜕2 𝜑
+ 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 = 0. (2.37)
𝜕𝑥 2

17
2.12 Nanofluid

Nanofluid was first proposed by Choi in early 1990s and is designed by steadily
suspending small particles, tubes and fibers of the order of 1-50 nm. [1] The remarkable
property of nanofluids is to increase the convection heat transfer coefficients otherwise
which is impossible to achieve. Heat transfer can be enhanced by using the thermal
conductivity of nanofluids.

2.12.1 Micropolar Nanofluid

The,micropolar. nanofluids .are the potential liquids that increase the thermophysical
characteristics and capability of heat transit rather than base liquids. Nanoparticles like
Alumina and Titania are mixed in a micropolar fluid.

2.12.2 Hybrid Nanofluid

Hybrid nanofluids are formed when metallic, non-metallic or polymeric nanoparticles

are mixed with base liquids. These fluids exhibit the higher heat transfer rate and
thermal conductivity than conventional nanofluids.

2.12.3 Casson Nanofluid

Casson nanofluid characterizes the conduct of non-Newtonian fluid. Viscosity of this

fluid decreased by applying shear stress, that is, it has zero viscosity at infinite shear
stress and has infinite viscosity at minimum shear stress below which fluid cannot flow.
Examples of casson fluid are jelly, soup, honey, ketchup and shampoo etc.

2.13 Rosseland radiative heat flux

If the flux of any body is dependent on temperature, then the corresponding quantity is
said to be radiative heat flux. And the radiative heat flux is normal to the surface of the
body.

According to the Rosseland theory, radiative heat flux takes the form

4𝜎 ∗ 𝜕𝑇 4
𝑞𝑟 = − 3𝑘 ∗ , (2.38)
𝜕𝑦

where

𝜎 ∗ = Stephen Boltzman constant,

18
𝑇 = ambient temperature,

𝑘 ∗ = mean absorption coefficient.

19
 Chapter 3

3. Theoretical Analysis of inclined MHD flow over an

exponentially stretching surface
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, inclined MHD flow over an exponentially stretching surface is
considered. The MHD is applied to the flow to compute the skin friction and Nusselt
number over an exponentially stretching surface. The boundary layer approximation is
used to reduce governing mathematical equations in terms of the partial differential
equation. The ordinary differential equations are obtained from partial differential
equations by using transformations which are defined in the next section. Numerical
technique, bvp4c method, is applied to solve these equations. The obtained results of
involved physical parameters are presented in the form of graphs as well as in tabular
form.

3.2 Mathematical Formulation

A two-dimensional steady flow of a viscous and incompressible fluid due to a stretching
sheet is taken into account and also assume that sheet has surface temperature 𝑇𝑤 and
ambient temperature is 𝑇∞ as shown in Fig. 2. By using boundary layer approximation,
the governing equations for the system under consideration become

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ = 0, (3.1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻2
+ = 0, (3.2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜇 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻1
𝑢 +𝑣 − (𝐻1 + 𝐻2 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 4𝜋𝑝 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
(3.3)
𝑑𝑈𝑒 𝜇 𝑑𝐻𝑒 𝜕 2𝑢
= 𝑈𝑒 − 𝐻𝑒 + 𝜐 2,
𝑑𝑥 4𝜋𝑝 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑦

20
 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 2 𝐻1
𝑢 + 𝑣 − 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 = 𝜇𝑒 , (3.4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝛼 2 + 𝑄(𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ). (3.5)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are the velocity components in x and y-direction respectively. Similarly,
𝐻1 and 𝐻2 are magnetic field component in x and y-direction. Ue and He is free stream
velocity and free stream magnetic velocity respectively. 𝜇 is the magnetic permeability.
𝜐 and 𝜇𝑒 is kinematics viscosity and dynamic viscosity of magnetic field. T is
temperature, T͚ is ambient temperature, Tw is wall temperature, 𝛼 is thermal diffusivity
and Q is chemical reaction.

Figure 3.1: Exponentially stretching sheet

Associated Boundary Conditions of equations (3.1) to (3.5) are

𝑣 = 0, 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑤 , 𝐻2 = 𝐻1 = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 → 0,
(3.6)
𝑢 = 0, 𝐻2 = 𝐻𝑒 , 𝑇 = 𝑇∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑦 → ∞,

21
To reduce these PDE’s into ODE’s, we use the following similarity transformations

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= , 𝑣 = − 𝜕𝑥 , , (3.6)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝜓1 𝜕𝜓1
𝐻1 = , 𝐻2 = − , (3.7)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑇 = 𝑇∞ + (𝑇𝑊 − 𝑇∞ )𝜃(𝜂). (3.8)

𝑥
Where 𝜓 is the stream function for velocity and is defined as, 𝜓 = √2𝑢𝜊 𝜐𝐿𝑒 2𝐿𝑓(𝜂) and
𝑈𝜊
𝑓(𝜂) is velocity profile, 𝜂 is dimensionless variable which is equal to √2𝜐𝐿 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿 𝑦 with

𝑈𝜊 as constant velocity on surface and 𝐿 as reference length. 𝜓1 is the stream function

𝜐
for magnetic field and is given as, 𝜓1 = 𝐻𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿 √𝑈 g(𝜂) where 𝐻𝜊 is constant velocity
𝜊

of surface and g(𝜂) is induce magnetic profile. In equation (3.8), 𝜃(𝜂) is temperature
profile. By using these values, similarity transformations can be rewritten as

𝜕𝜓
𝑢= = 𝑢𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄𝐿 𝑓 ′ (𝜂), (3.9)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝜓 𝑢𝜊 𝜐 𝑥⁄2𝐿
𝑣= − = −√ 𝑒 (𝑓 + 𝜂𝑓 ′ ), (3.10)
𝜕𝑥 2𝐿

𝜕𝜓1 𝐻𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿 ′
𝐻1 = = 𝑔 (𝜂), (3.11)
𝜕𝑦 √2𝐿

𝜕𝜓1 𝐻𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿 𝜐
𝐻2 = − =− √ (𝑔 + 𝜂𝑔′ ). (3.12)
𝜕𝑥 2𝐿 𝑈𝜊

Reduced ordinary differential equations are

2
𝑓 ′′′ + 𝑓 ′′ 𝑓 + 2(1 − 𝑓) + 𝛾[2(𝑔′ − 1) − 𝑔𝑔′ ] = 0, (3.13)

1
𝑔′′′ = 𝜆 [𝑔𝑓 ′′ − 𝑔′ 𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′′(𝜂𝑓 ′ − 𝑓)], (3.14)

𝜃 ′′ = −Pr[𝑓𝜃 ′ + 𝐾𝜃]. (3.15)

Corresponding Boundary Conditions now become as

22
 𝑓(0) = 0, 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1, 𝑓 ′ (∞) = 0,

𝑔(0) = 0, 𝑔′ (0) = 0, 𝑔′ (∞) = 1, (3.17)

𝜃(0) = 1, 𝜃 ′ (∞) = 0.

The values of dimensionless variables given in these equations are defined as

𝜇𝐻𝑜2 𝜇𝑒
𝛾= 2
,𝜆 = , (3.16)
8𝜋𝑃𝐿𝑈𝑜 𝜈

𝜈 2𝐿𝑄
𝑃𝑟 = , K= 𝑥⁄ . (3.17)
𝛼 𝑈𝑜 𝑒 𝐿

Where 𝛾 is the ratio of magnetic to dynamic pressure, called magnetic parameter, 𝜆 is

the variation parameter which is the ratio of magnetic dynamic viscosity to kinematic
viscosity, 𝑃𝑟 is the ratio of kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity known as Prandtl
number and K is the chemical reaction.

3.3 Procedure of method

The numerical method to convert the higher order nonlinear partial differential into the
initial value problem is given below:

𝑦(1) = 𝑓(𝜂), (3.18)

𝑦(2) = 𝑓 ′ (𝜂), (3.19)

𝑦(3) = 𝑓′′(𝜂), (3.20)

𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑓′′′(𝜂), (3.21)

𝑦𝑦1 = −𝑦(3) ∗ 𝑦(1) − 2[1 − 𝑦(2)] + 𝛾[2{𝑦(5)2 − 1} − 𝑦(4) ∗ 𝑦(6)], (3.22)

𝑦(4) = 𝑔(𝜂), (3.23)

𝑦(5) = 𝑔′(𝜂), (3.24)

𝑦(6) = 𝑔′′(𝜂), (3.25)

𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑔′′′(𝜂), (3.26)

23
 1
𝑦𝑦2 = 𝜆 [𝑦(4) ∗ 𝑦(3) − 𝑦(5) ∗ 𝑦(2) + 𝑦(6){𝜂. 𝑦(2) − 𝑦(1)}, (3.27)

𝑦(7) = 𝜃(𝜂), (3.28)

𝑦(8) = 𝜃 ′ (𝜂), (3.29)

𝑦𝑦3 = 𝜃′′(𝜂), (3.30)

𝑦𝑦3 = − Pr[𝑦(1) ∗ 𝑦(8) + 𝐾. 𝑦(7)]. (3.31)

3.4 Results and Discussion

Figs. (3.2-3.5) show the consequences of different physical parameters like velocity
profile 𝑓 ′ (𝜂), induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂), temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂), magnetic
parameter 𝛾, variation parameter 𝜆, chemical reaction 𝐾 and Prandtl number Pr. Fig.
(3.2) shows the behavior of magnetic parameter 𝛾 on velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂). The
velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) increases by increasing the values of magnetic parameter 𝛾. Fig.
(3.3) depicts the effect of variation parameter 𝜆 and induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂). In
this graph, the induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) narrowed by gradually increasing the
values of variation parameter 𝜆. Figs. (3.4-3.5) portray the impact of temperature profile
𝜃(𝜂). In Fig. (3.4), by raising the values of chemical reaction 𝐾, temperature profile
𝜃(𝜂) shows increasing behavior. In Fig. (3.5), temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) decreases by
escalating the values of Prandtl number Pr.

The impact of different physical quantities like skin friction and Nusselt number by the
variation of different parameters such as Prandtl number Pr, magnetic parameter 𝛾,
variation parameter 𝜆 and chemical reaction K is shown in Table 3.1. By enhancing the
values of Prandtl number Pr, skin friction remains constant while Nusselt number
shows increasing behavior. For increasing values of magnetic parameter 𝛾 and variation
parameter 𝜆, both skin friction and Nusselt number continue to decline. Again for
increment in the value of chemical reaction 𝐾, skin friction does not vary its value while
value of Nusselt number declines by raising the value of chemical reaction 𝐾.

24
 Figure 3.2: Effect of magnetic parameter γ on velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜆 =
1.5, 𝐾 = 0.5, 𝑃𝑟 = 2.0.

Figure 3.3: Effect of variation parameter λ on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) with
𝛾 = 0.5, 𝐾 = 0.5, 𝑃𝑟 = 2.0.
25
Figure 3.4: Effect of chemical reaction K on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) with 𝛾 =
0.5, 𝜆 = 1.5, 𝑃𝑟 = 2.0.

Figure 3.5: Effect of Prandtl number Pr on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) with

𝛾 = 0.5, 𝜆 = 1.5, 𝐾 = 0.5.

26
 Table 3.1: Numerical values of skin friction and Nusselt number

Prandtl Magnetic Variation Chemical Skin Nusselt

number parameter parameter reaction friction number
𝟏 𝟏
(𝑷𝒓) (𝜸) (𝝀) (𝑲) (𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 ) (𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 )

2.0 0.5 1.5 0.5 -0.7978 0.46553

2.2 -0.7978 0.47744

2.4 -0.7978 0.49139

2.6 -0.7978 0.50709

2.0 0.5 -0.7978 0.46553

0.7 -1.0112 0.42178

0.9 -1.2302 0.35861

1.1 -1.4547 0.28665

0.5 1.3 -0.78314 0.47216

1.5 -0.7978 0.46553

1.7 -0.80736 0.46115

1.9 -0.81409 0.45805

1.5 0.3 -0.7978 0.70962

0.5 -0.7978 0.46553

0.7 -0.7978 0.16371

0.9 -0.7978 -0.23352

27
 Chapter 4

4. Theoretical Analysis of hybrid nanofluid over an

exponentially stretching surface
4.1 Introduction
In the following chapter, hybrid nanofluid over an exponentially stretching surface is
considered. Skin friction and Nusselt number are computed for three different models,
that is Yamada-Ota model, Xue model and Tiwari-Das model, over an exponentially
stretching surface. The boundary layer approximation is used to reduce governing
mathematical equations in terms of the partial differential equation. The ordinary
differential equations are obtained from partial differential equations by using
transformations which are defined in the next section. Numerical technique, bvp4c
method, is applied to solve these equations. The obtained results of involved physical
parameters are presented in the form of graphs as well as in tabular form.

4.2 Mathematical Formulation

By using boundary layer approximation, the governing equations for the system under
consideration become

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ = 0, (4.1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻2
+ = 0, (4.2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜇 1 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻1
𝑢 +𝑣 − (𝐻1 + 𝐻2 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 4𝜋𝑝 𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑈𝑒 𝜇 𝑑𝐻𝑒
= 𝑈𝑒 − 𝐻𝑒 (4.3)
𝑑𝑥 4𝜋𝑝 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1 𝜕 2𝑢 k
+ ( 2.5 2.5
+ ) 2− 𝑢,
𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 (1 − 𝜑1 ) (1 − 𝜑2 ) 𝛽 𝜕𝑦 (𝜌𝐶𝑝 ) ℎ𝑛𝑓

28
 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝐻1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑢 + 𝑣 − 𝐻1 − 𝐻2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
(4.4)
1 1 𝜕 2 𝐻1
= 𝜇𝑒 ,
(1 − 𝜑1 )2.5 (1 − 𝜑2 )2.5 𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 1 1 𝜕𝑞𝑟
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝛼ℎ𝑛𝑓 2 + 𝑄 (𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) − . (4.5)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 (𝜌𝐶𝑝 ) (𝜌𝐶𝑝 )ℎ𝑛𝑓 𝜕𝑦
ℎ𝑛𝑓

The associated Boundary conditions of equations (4.1) to (4.2) are

𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑣 = 0, 𝐻1 = 0, 𝐻2 = 0 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 → 0, (4.6)

𝑢 → 0, 𝐻1 → 𝐻𝑒 , 𝑇 → 𝑇∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑦 → ∞. (4.7)

Where, 𝑢 and 𝑣 are the velocity components in x and y-direction respectively.

Similarly, 𝐻1 and 𝐻2 are magnetic field component in x and y-direction. 𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 is density
of hybrid nanofluid, 𝜑1 is solid nano particle, 𝜑2 is nano concentration parameter, β is
Casson fluid parameter 𝑈𝑒 and 𝐻𝑒 is free stream velocity and free stream magnetic
velocity respectively. 𝜇 is the magnetic permeability. 𝜐 and 𝜇𝑒 is kinematics viscosity
and dynamic viscosity of magnetic field. T is temperature, T͚ is ambient temperature,
Tw is wall temperature, (𝜌𝐶𝑝 )ℎ𝑛𝑓 is heat capacity of hybrid nanofluid, 𝛼ℎ𝑛𝑓 is thermal

diffusivity of hybrid nanofluid and Q is chemical reaction.

To reduce these PDE’s into ODE’s, we use the following similarity transformations

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑢= ,𝑣 = − , (4.8)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜓1 𝜕𝜓1
𝐻1 = , 𝐻2 = − , (4.9)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑇 = 𝑇∞ + (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇∞ )𝜃(𝜂). (4.10)

𝑥
Where 𝜓 is the stream function for velocity and is defined as, 𝜓 = √2𝑢𝜊 𝜐𝐿𝑒 2𝐿𝑓(𝜂) and
𝑈
𝜊
𝑓(𝜂) is velocity profile, 𝜂 is dimensionless variable which is equal to √2𝜐𝐿 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿 𝑦 with

𝑈𝜊 as constant velocity on surface and 𝐿 as reference length. 𝜓1 is the stream function

29
 𝜐
for magnetic field and is given as, 𝜓1 = 𝐻𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿 √𝑈 g(𝜂) where 𝐻𝜊 is constant velocity
𝜊

of surface and g(𝜂) is velocity profile for magnetic field. In equation (4.8), 𝜃(𝜂) is
temperature profile. By using these values, similarity transformations can be rewritten
as

𝜕𝜓
𝑢= = 𝑢𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄𝐿 𝑓 ′ (𝜂), (4.11)
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝜓 𝑢𝜊 𝜐 𝑥⁄2𝐿
𝑣= − = −√ 𝑒 (𝑓 + 𝜂𝑓 ′ ), (4.12)
𝜕𝑥 2𝐿

𝜕𝜓1 𝐻𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿
𝐻1 = = 𝑔′(𝜂), (4.13)
𝜕𝑦 √2𝐿

𝜕𝜓1 𝐻𝜊 𝑒 𝑥⁄2𝐿 𝜐
𝐻2 = − =− √ (𝑔 + 𝜂𝑔′ ). (4.14)
𝜕𝑥 2𝐿 𝑈𝜊

Reduced ordinary differential equations are

1 1 1 𝛾 2
( + 𝛽) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝜂) + 𝑓 ′′ 𝑓 + 2(1 − 𝑓 ′ ) + 𝜌 [2(𝑔′ (𝜂) −
𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 (1−𝜑1 )2.5 (1−𝜑2 )2.5 ℎ𝑛𝑓
(4.15)
′′ 1
1) − 𝑔𝑔 ] − 𝐾1 (𝜌𝐶 (𝑓 ′ (𝜂) − 1) = 0,
𝑝 )ℎ𝑛𝑓

1 1
( ) 𝜆 𝑔′′′ (𝜂) − 𝑔𝑓 ′′ + 𝑔′ 𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′′ (𝜂𝑓 ′ − 1)
𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 (1 − 𝜑1 ) (1 − 𝜑2 )2.5 1
2.5
(4.16)
= 0,

𝐾ℎ𝑛𝑓 (𝜌𝑐𝑝 )𝑓 1 4 𝐾
(1 + 𝑅𝑑) 𝜃 ′′ + 𝑓𝜃 ′ + 𝜃 = 0, (4.17)
𝐾𝑓 (𝜌𝑐𝑝 ) 𝑃𝑟 3 𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓
ℎ𝑛𝑓

𝑓(0) = 0; 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1; 𝑓 ′ (∞) = 0, (4.18)

𝑔(0) = 0; 𝑔′ (0) = 0; 𝑔′ (∞) = 1, (4.19)

𝜃(0) = 1; 𝜃(∞) = 0. (4.20)

The values of dimensionless variables given in these equations are defined as

30
 𝜇𝐻𝑜2 𝜇𝑒
𝛾= , 𝜆1 = , (4.21)
8𝜋𝑃𝐿𝑈𝑜2 𝜈

𝜈 2𝐿𝑄
𝑃𝑟 = 𝛼 , K = 𝑥 . (4.22)
𝑈𝑜 𝑒 ⁄𝐿

Where β is casson fluid parameter, 𝐾1 is poroisity parameter, 𝛾 is the ratio of magnetic

to dynamic pressure, called magnetic parameter, 𝜆1 is the variation parameter which is
the ratio of magnetic dynamic viscosity to kinematic viscosity, 𝑃𝑟 is the ratio of
kinematic viscosity to thermal diffusivity known as Prandtl number, Rd is radiation
parameter and K is the chemical reaction.

4.3 Procedure of method

The numerical method to convert the higher order nonlinear partial differential into the
initial value problem is given below:

𝑦(1) = 𝑓(𝜂), (4.23)

𝑦(2) = 𝑓 ′ (𝜂), (4.24)

𝑦(3) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝜂), (4.25)

𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑓 ′′′ (𝜂), (4.26)

𝛾
𝑦𝑦1 = [k{y(2) − 1} − {2(𝑦 2 (5) − 1) − y(4). y(6)}
𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓
− 2(1 − 𝑦(2) (4.27)
1 1
− 𝑦(3). 𝑦(1)]. 𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 . [ + )−1 ],
(1 − 𝜑1 )2.5 (1 − 𝜑2 )2.5 𝛽

𝑦(4) = 𝑔(𝜂), (4.28)

𝑦(5) = 𝑔′ (𝜂), (4.29)

𝑦(6) = 𝑔′′ (𝜂), (4.30)

𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑔′′′ (𝜂), (4.31)

31
 𝑦𝑦2 = [𝑦(4). 𝑦(3) − 𝑦(5). 𝑦(2) (4.32)
𝜌ℎ𝑛𝑓 1
+ 𝑦(6){𝜂. 𝑦(2) − 1}]. [ ]−1 ,
𝜆1 (1 − 𝜑1 ) (1 − 𝜑2 )2.5
2.5

𝑦(7) = 𝜃(𝜂), (4.33)

𝑦(8) = 𝜃 ′ (𝜂), (4.34)

𝑦𝑦3 = 𝜃 ′′ (𝜂), (4.35)

𝐾 𝐾𝑓 (𝜌𝑐𝑝 ) 4 (4.36)
ℎ𝑛𝑓
𝑦𝑦3 = −[y(1). y(8) − 𝜌 y(7)]. 𝐾 . (𝜌𝑐𝑝 )
. 𝑃𝑟. [1 + 3 𝑅𝑑]−1 .
ℎ𝑛𝑓 ℎ𝑛𝑓 𝑓

4.4 Models of hybrid nanofluids

For nanofluids, three types of models are well known, that are Yamada-Ota model, Xue
model and Tiwari-Das model. We extended these three models to hybrid nanofluids.
Yamada-Ota model equations for simple nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid are given
below

𝑘𝑏𝑓
𝑘𝑓
𝑘𝑓 𝐿 0.2 𝑘𝑓 𝐿 0.2 𝑘𝑠1 𝑘𝑠1 + 𝑘𝑓 (4.32)
1+ 𝜙1 + (1 − ) 𝜙1 𝜙 1 + 2𝜙 1 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑠1 𝑅 𝑘𝑠1 𝑅 𝑘𝑠1 − 𝑘𝑓 2𝑘𝑠1
= ,
𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑠 + 𝑘𝑓
1 − 𝜙1 + 2𝜙1 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 )
𝑘𝑠1 − 𝑘𝑓 2𝑘𝑓

𝑘ℎ𝑛𝑓
𝑘𝑏𝑓
𝑘𝑏𝑓 𝐿 0.2 𝑘𝑏𝑓 𝐿 0.2 𝑘𝑠2 𝑘𝑠2 + 𝑘𝑏𝑓 (4.33)
1+ 𝜙2 + (1 − ) 𝜙2 𝜙 2 + 2𝜙 2 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑠2 𝑅 𝑘𝑠2 𝑅 𝑘𝑠2 − 𝑘𝑏𝑓 2𝑘𝑠2
= ,
𝑘𝑏𝑓 𝑘𝑠2 + 𝑘𝑏𝑓
1 − 𝜙2 + 2𝜙2 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑠2 − 𝑘𝑏𝑓 2𝑘𝑏𝑓

Now, for Xue model, equations for simple nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid are

32
 𝑘𝑠1 𝑘𝑠 + 𝑘𝑓 (4.34)
1 − 𝜙1 + 2𝜙1 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( 1 )
𝑘𝑏𝑓 𝑘𝑠1 − 𝑘𝑓 2𝑘𝑓
= ,
𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑠1 + 𝑘𝑓
1 − 𝜙1 + 2𝜙1 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑠1 − 𝑘𝑓 2𝑘𝑓

𝑘𝑠2 𝑘𝑠 + 𝑘𝑏𝑓 (4.35)

1 − 𝜙2 + 2𝜙2 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
𝑘ℎ𝑛𝑓 𝑘𝑠2 − 𝑘𝑏𝑓 2𝑘𝑏𝑓
= .
𝑘𝑏𝑓 𝑘𝑏𝑓 𝑘𝑠 + 𝑘𝑏𝑓
1 − 𝜙2 + 2𝜙2 ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
𝑘𝑠2 − 𝑘𝑏𝑓 2𝑘𝑏𝑓

For Tiwari-Das model, equations for both fluids are

𝑘𝑏𝑓 (𝑛 − 1)𝑘𝑓 − (𝑘𝑓 − 𝑘𝑠1 )𝜙1 (𝑛 − 1) + 𝑘𝑠1 (4.36)

= ,
𝑘𝑓 (𝑘𝑓 − 𝑘𝑠1 )𝜙1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑘𝑓 + 𝑘𝑠1

𝑘ℎ𝑛𝑓 (𝑛 − 1)𝑘𝑏𝑓 − (𝑘𝑏𝑓 − 𝑘𝑠2 )𝜙2 (𝑛 − 1) + 𝑘𝑠2 (4.37)

= .
𝑘𝑏𝑓 (𝑘𝑏𝑓 − 𝑘𝑠2 )𝜙2 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑘𝑏𝑓 + 𝑘𝑠2

4.5 Results and Discussion

The impact of different non-dimensional physical parameters like velocity profile

𝑓 ′ (𝜂), induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂), temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂), Prandtl number Pr,
solid nanoparticle 𝜙1 , nano concentration parameter 𝜙2 , Casson fluid parameter 𝜷𝟐 ,
magnetic field parameter 𝑈, modified Hartmann number 𝛾, induce magnetic field
parameter 𝑆, radiation parameter 𝑅𝑑 and chemical reaction 𝐾 is shown for three
different models, that is Yamada-Ota model, Xue model and Tiwari-Das model, by
graphical visualization and by tabular formulation. The values of Prandtl number (Pr =
6.2) and solid nanoparticle (𝜙1 =0.1) kept constant throughout the whole problem and
the value of nano concentration parameter 𝜙2 should also must lie in the range of
0.005 < 𝜙2 < 0.08. Fig. 5 depicts the behaviour of Casson fluid parameter 𝜷𝟐 on
velocity profile 𝑓 ′ (𝜂). The velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) kept on increasing by increasing the
values of Casson fluid parameter 𝜷𝟐 for all three models. Same behaviour is noticed
while observing the impact of magnetic field parameter 𝑈 on velocity profile 𝑓 ′ (𝜂) in
Fig. 6. Fig. 7-9 portray the effect of nano concentration parameter 𝜙2 , modified
Hartmann number 𝛾 and induce magnetic field parameter 𝑆 on induce magnetic profile
𝑔′(𝜂). In Fig. 7, as the value of nano concentration parameter rises 𝜙2 , induce magnetic

33
profile 𝑔′(𝜂) declines for all three models. While in Fig. 8, by increasing the value of
modified Hartmann number 𝛾, induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) shows increasing
behaviour in all models. But again in Fig. 9, the induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) narrowed
in all the above mentioned models by gradually increasing the values of induce
magnetic field parameter 𝑆.

Figure 4.1: Effect of T on velocity profile 𝑓 ′ (𝜂).

34
 Figure 4.2: Effect of U on velocity profile 𝑓 ′ (𝜂).

Figure 4.3: Effect of ϕ2 on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′ (𝜂).

35
Figure 4.4: Effect of γ on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′ (𝜂).

Figure 4.5: Effect of S on induce magnetic profile 𝑔′ (𝜂).

36
 Figure 4.6: Effect of Radiation Rd on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂).

Figure 4.7: Effect of chemical reaction K on temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂).

37
The effect of Nusselt number and skin friction on different dimensionless parameters
Prandtl number Pr, solid nanoparticle 𝜙1 , nano concentration parameter 𝜙2 , Casson
fluid parameter 𝜷𝟐 , magnetic field parameter 𝑈, modified Hartmann number 𝛾, induce
magnetic field parameter 𝑆, radiation parameter 𝑅𝑑 and chemical reaction 𝐾 is shown
numerically for Yamada-Ota Model, Xue-Model and Tiwari-Das Model separately. In
Table 2, numerical results for velocity profile f'(η) is presented. In all three models, that
is Yamada-Ota Model, Xue Model and Tiwari-Das Model, by raising the values of
Casson fluid parameter 𝑇, skin friction decrease while Nusselt number shows
increasing behaviour. The increment in the values of magnetic field parameter 𝑈
portray the inclination in the values of skin friction and Nusselt number for all three
models. In Table 3, presented values are numerical results for induce magnetic profile
g'(η). By increasing the values of solid nanoparticle 𝜙1 , the values of skin friction and
Nusselt number decreases gradually in all three models. It is also observed that the
values of skin friction has very very small difference in all the models but the small
variation in the values of Nusselt number are maintained in Yamada-Ota model and
Xue model but has very large very difference in Tiwari-Das model by varying the
values of solid nanoparticle 𝜙1 . While we see from table that, by rising the values of
modified Hartmann number 𝛾, skin friction shows inclined behaviour and Nusselt
number carries opposite behaviour in Yamada-Ota model, Xue model and Tiwari-Das
model. The increment in the values of induce magnetic field parameter 𝑆 results in the
gain of skin friction and the reduction of Nusselt number. This trend is observed in all
three models by the variation of induce magnetic field parameter 𝑆. In Table 4,
numerical results are presented for temperature profile θ(η) by varying the values of
radiation parameter 𝑅𝑑 and chemical reaction 𝐾. Skin friction does not vary its value
by increasing the radiation parameter 𝑅𝑑 and chemical reaction 𝐾 in Yamada-Ota
Model, Xue Model and Tiwari-Das Model. While Nusselt number shows increasing
behaviour when chemical reaction 𝐾 increases and it kept on decreasing by increasing
the value of radiation parameter 𝑅𝑑 in all three models.

38
 Table 4.1: Numerical results of Hybrid Nanofluid For velocity profile 𝑓’(ɳ) with
𝑷𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟐 & 𝝋𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏
𝝋𝟐 𝜷𝟐 U 𝜸 S Rd 𝑲 Yamada-Ota Model Xue-Model Tiwari-Das Model

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
0.005 0.3 1.2 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 (𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 ) (𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 ) (𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 )
(𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 ) (𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 ) (𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 )

0.3 3.6980 0.5001 3.6980 0.5086 3.6980 1.0730

0.6 2.9515 0.5064 2.9515 0.5151 2.9515 1.0918

0.9 2.6607 0.5097 2.6607 0.5185 2.6607 1.1013

1.2 3.6980 0.5001 3.6980 0.5086 3.6980 1.0730

2.0 4.0563 0.5026 4.0563 0.5112 4.0563 1.0803

2.8 4.3878 0.5048 4.3878 0.5135 4.3878 1.0868

39
Table 4.2: Numerical results of Hybrid Nano-fluid For Induced magnetic profile 𝑔’(ɳ) with 𝑷𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟐 & 𝝋𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏

𝝓𝟐 𝜷𝟐 U 𝜸 𝑺 Rd 𝑲 Yamada-Ota Xue Model Tiwari-Das

Model Model

0.005 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.2 0.4 1.5 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙

0.005 -27.4138 0.0509 -27.4136 0.0525 -27.4097 0.1524

0.04 -29.0936 0.0218 -29.0934 0.0229 -29.0884 0.1024

0.08 -30.8970 0.0117 -30.8967 0.0124 -30.8924 0.0579

0.2 -29.0936 0.0218 -29.0934 0.0229 -29.0884 0.1024

0.3 -21.1706 0.0175 -21.1706 0.0181 -21.1840 -0.1500

0.4 -16.8789 0.0144 -16.8792 0.0145 -16.9076 -0.3659

0.25 -29.2515 0.0361 -29.2511 0.0383 -29.2315 0.3721

0.29 -29.1732 0.0290 -29.1727 0.0306 -29.1600 0.2373

0.31 -29.0936 0.0218 -29.0934 0.0229 -29.0884 0.1024

40
 Table 4.3: Numerical results of Hybrid Nano-fluid For Temperature profile 𝜃(𝜂) with
𝑷𝒓 = 𝟔. 𝟐 & 𝝋𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏

𝝋𝟐 𝜷𝟐 U 𝜸 S Rd 𝑲 Yamada-Ota Model Xue-Model Tiwari-Das Model

0.005 0.5 0.2 0.5 1.4 0.4 0.5 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑪𝒇 𝑹𝒆𝟐 𝑵𝒖𝒙

0.4 2.5889 0.5178 2.5889 0.5266 2.5889 1.1053

1.0 2.5889 0.4243 2.5889 0.4316 2.5889 0.9102

1.6 2.5889 0.3692 2.5889 0.3756 2.5889 0.7950

0.5 2.5889 0.5178 2.5889 0.5266 2.5889 1.1053

1.2 2.5889 0.7682 2.5889 0.7809 2.5889 1.5966

1.9 2.5889 0.9579 2.5889 0.9736 2.5889 1.9770

41
 Chapter 5

5. Conclusion
In this thesis, we have considered the two different problems, one is inclined MHD flow
and the other is a hybrid nanofluid. Both the systems are two dimensionless systems
and passing over an exponentially stretching surface. Governing mathematical partial
differential equations of both the systems are converted into ordinary differential
equation using the appropriate similarity transformation. The obtained results are
presented in graphical and tabulated form and for hybrid nanofluid flowing over an
exponentially stretching surface, obtained results are presented for three different
models, that are, for Yamada-Ota model, Xue model and Tiwari-Das model. The main
points of end results of above mentioned problem are given below

 Velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) increases by raising the value of dimensionless parameter

which is magnetic parameter 𝛾
 Induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) decreases by raising the value of variation
parameter λ
 Temperature profile θ(η) shows increasing behaviour by increasing the value of
chemical reaction K
 Velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) increases by raising the value of dimensionless parameter
which is magnetic parameter 𝛾

Similarly, the principle features of the concluding results of hybrid nanofluid flowing
over an exponentially stretching surface are

 Velocity profile 𝑓′(𝜂) increases by increasing the value of dimensionless

parameters which are casson fluid parameter 𝑇 and magnetic field parameter 𝑈
for all the models.
 Induce magnetic profile 𝑔′(𝜂) decreases by increasing the value of nano
concentration parameter ϕ2 and induce magnetic field parameter 𝑆 while it
increases by increasing the values of modified Hartmann number 𝛾.
 Temperature profile θ(η) shows increasing behaviour by increasing the value of
radiation parameter 𝑅𝑑.

42
 The value of temperature profile θ(η) declines by increasing the value of
chemical reaction 𝐾.

43
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