Materials Science & Engineering A 590 (2014) 323–328

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Materials Science & Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

High toughness in the intercritically reheated coarse-grained (ICRCG)

heat-affected zone (HAZ) of low carbon microalloyed steel
Jun Hu a,n, Lin-Xiu Du a, Jian-Jun Wang b, Hui Xie a, Cai-Ru Gao a, R.D.K. Misra c
a
The State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
b
Institute of Materials Research, School of Material and Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
c
Laboratory for Excellence in Advanced Steel Research, Center for Structural and Functional Materials, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette,
LA 70504-4130, USA

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Motivated by the small lattice mismatch between ferrite and vanadium nitride (VN), we describe here
Received 7 October 2013 the welding thermal cycle simulation that provides high toughness in the ICRCG HAZ of low carbon V–N
Accepted 21 October 2013 steel. This unique behavior is attributed to the formation of ultra-fine grained ferrite along prior austenite
Available online 26 October 2013
grain boundaries generated by the first pass welding thermal cycle with high misorientation boundaries,
Keywords: where V(C, N) precipitates provide potential nucleation sites for ferrite, leading to extraordinary
ICRCG HAZ refinement of martensite/austenite (M/A) constituent. Nitrogen stimulates the precipitation behavior
Peak temperature of V(C, N). The nucleation of high density of V(C, N) precipitates consumes carbon-content in the
Toughness austenite, leading to decrease in the carbon-content in the M/A constituent, with consequent decrease in
Ultra-fine grain
hardness. The increase in toughness is explained in terms of Griffith's crack propagation theory.
V–N microalloyed steel
& 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction austenite grain size, austenite preferentially nucleates and grows

The high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels are characterized by
high strength–high toughness combination. However, the high
strength–toughness combination can be deteriorated by welding
thermal cycles leading to poor toughness in the heat affected zone
(HAZ) [1]. In single-pass welding, the low toughness region is
generally associated with the coarse-grained HAZ (CG HAZ)
because of the formation of undesirable microstructure, such as
coarse ferrite side-plates (upper bainite and Widmanstatten fer-
rite) [2,3]. In the case of two overlaying beads, the CG HAZ of the
first pass is reheated at different peak temperatures (Tp2) depend-
ing on its distance from the fusion line of the second bead and can
be appropriately characterized as follows [4,5]: (1) a subcritically
reheated CG HAZ (SRCG HAZ) region reheated above 500 1C and
below Ac1, (2) an intercritically reheated CG HAZ (ICRCG HAZ)
region reheated between Ac1 and Ac3, (3) a supercritically
reheated CG HAZ (SCRCG HAZ) region reheated between Ac3 and
1100 1C, and (4) an unaltered CG HAZ (UACG HAZ) region that is
not reheated or reheated above 1100 1C.
In the ICRCG HAZ, formed by multipass welding, parts of the
microstructure are transformed into austenite because second-
weld bead reheats the CG HAZ structure into the austenite/ferrite
two-phase field. On reheating a CG HAZ with a large prior
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 86 24 83680250; fax: þ86 24 23906472.
E-mail address: hujunral@163.com (J. Hu).
along the prior austenite grain boundaries formed by the first pass
welding thermal cycle (PAGB) and to some extent, along the
bainite lath boundaries. These austenite islands are enriched in
carbon because of high diffusivity of carbon and higher solubility
in austenite, and are transformed to hard and brittle M/A con-
stituents during the subsequent cooling, leaving a necklace type of
M/A constituent along the PAGB. The carbon content in M/A
particles was experimentally observed to be
1.07–1.32 wt% even
if the overall carbon content of steel was
0.06 wt% [1,3]. The
ICRCG HAZ is generally characterized by lower toughness and is
inferior to UACG HAZ in low carbon steel. It was proposed that
M/A constituent along the PAGB is the primary reason for the loss
in toughness [1,3,5–7].
The increase in the strength of HSLA steels is primarily
obtained through precipitation hardening and refinement of grain
size by microalloying with Nb, V, and Ti, individually or in
combination. The Nb, V, and Ti atoms in solution suppress the
transformation of austenite to ferrite, while the microalloyed
precipitates and inclusions decrease the stability of austenite [8].
It is proposed that in comparison to Nb(C, N) and Ti(C, N), Ti oxide
and V carbonitride have relatively greater potential in nucleating
ferrite. The small lattice mismatch of VN (lattice parame-
ters ¼0.4139 nm) with ferrite (lattice parameters ¼0.2865 nm)
between (100)VN//(100)α planes facilitates ferrite nucleation
[9–15]. V coupled with N is considered to be effective in stimulat-
ing precipitation and enhancing grain refinement. The addition of
N to the V-microalloyed steels decreases the incubation period for

0921-5093/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2013.10.062
324 J. Hu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 590 (2014) 323–328
the precipitation of V carbonitride and increases the volume
fraction because of higher solubility product of V and N [16]. With
this in mind, we describe the effect of V(C, N) precipitates on
microstructural evolution and toughness in ICRCG HAZ, an aspect
that does not seem to have been documented or explored.
We have studied the microstructure, toughness, and hardness
in reheated CG HAZ of low carbon V–N steel under different Tp2
conditions to elucidate the determining role of V(C, N) precipitates
on austenite transformation behavior.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
The nominal chemical composition of the steel (in weight%)
was 0.058 C–0.15 Si–1.8 Mn–0.002S–0.03 Al–0.12–0.18V, and
0.015–0.02N, balance was Fe. The experimental steel was melted
in vacuum induction furnace and cast as 150 kg ingot. The steel
was controlled-rolled and subjected to two stages of continuous
cooling [17].
Thermocalc calculations combined with TCFE6 database indi-
cated the volume fraction of V(C, N) precipitates in equilibrium to
be 0.16% at 800 1C. The start and end temperatures of transforma-
tion of ferrite to austenite are 654 1C (Ae1) and 840 1C (Ae3).
Therefore, Tp2 of 600 1C, 800 1C, 1000 1C, and 1300 1C are within
the SRCG HAZ, ICRCG HAZ, SCRCG HAZ, and UACG HAZ,
respectively.
2.2. Weld simulation procedure
The welding thermal cycle simulation was conducted using a
thermo-mechanical simulator. The simulated specimens were cut
from the middle of as-rolled steel plate along the transverse
direction and then machined to dimensions of 11 mm  11 mm 
55 mm. The temperature of welding thermal cycle was controlled
by closed-loop control system using the 2-dimensional Rykalin
mathematical model to simulate the welding process of plates
with 20 mm thickness. The mechanism of heating was ohmic
heating and the mechanism of cooling was combined with natural
cooling and nitrogen cooling. In the first cycle, the pre-heating
temperature was chosen as 20 1C. The specimens were heated
at the rate of 100 1C/s to 1300 1C, and then held for 1 s. The t8/5
(time taken to cool from 800 1C to 500 1C) was 20 s with the
interpass temperature of 150 1C, and the welding input was
equivalent to that of in-service welding of 38.1 kJ/cm. In the
second cycle, the specimens were heated to 600 1C, 800 1C,
Fig. 1. Experimentally measured welding thermal cycle curves for HAZ simulations: (a) two passes welding and (b) enlarged image of the second pass welding.
1000 1C, and 1300 1C at the rate of 100 1C/s, and then held for
1 s. The t8/5 was 20 s with the finish controlled temperature of
250 1C, and the welding input was equivalent to that in-service
welding of 26.0 kJ/cm. The experimentally measured welding
thermal cycle curves for HAZ simulations are shown in Fig. 1. Each
condition was studied five times. The temperature was controlled
with an R-type thermocouple wire welded in the middle of the
specimen and the accuracy was 71 1C during isothermal holding
and 73 1C during the non-isothermal process. There was no
temperature gradient within the 5 mm radius. Therefore, the
microstructural observations and mechanical properties were
studied in this range.
2.3. Mechanical properties
The specimens subjected to welding thermal cycle were
machined to standard Charpy v-notch samples with the dimen-
sions of 10 mm  10 mm  55 mm. The impact tests were con-
ducted at  20 1C using Instron Dynatup 9200 series instrumented
drop weight impact tester, consistent with ASTM E23 specification.
The samples were cooled to  5 1C below the temperature of
 20 1C to take into consideration the rise in temperature during
the transfer of sample to the Charpy v-notch impact tester. The
Vickers microhardness was measured utilizing an FM700
hardness-testing machine employing a load of 500 g and the
indentation area covered the typical microstructural constituent.
The toughness and hardness values data presented here are an
average of five measurements.
2.4. Microstructural characterization
The specimens for microstructural studies were polished using
standard metallographic procedure and etched with a 4 vol% nital
solution and observed using a Leica DMIRM optical microscope
(OM) and Zeiss Ultra 55 scanning electron microscope (SEM). The
chemical composition of the precipitates was determined by
energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). For EBSD, the sample
was electrolytically polished in a solution of perchloric acid and
ethyl alcohol. The EBSD maps were scanned by Flamenco software
with the step size of 0.3 μm, and analyzed by HKL-Channel 5 soft-
ware. The element analysis was studied by JEOL JXA-8230F type
EPMA equipped with wavelength dispersive X-ray spectrometer
(WDX). The carbon concentration map is a relative distribution
rather than the actual distribution. The analysis of microcracks in
impact toughness tested samples was conducted near the fracture
surface. The polished samples were etched with a 4 vol% nital
solution and observed by using a FEI Quanta 600 SEM.
 J. Hu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 590 (2014) 323–328 325

PAGB
Few ferrite at PAGB

Acicular ferrite

Granular bainite
10μm 10μm

Ferrite along PAGB

A large amount of
Ferrite along PAGB

Tempered granular bainite

Tempered acicular ferrite 10μm 10μm

Ferrite

Pearlite

10μm 10μm

Fig. 2. OM micrographs and EBSD image quality maps with grain boundary misorientation distribution: (a) OM micrograph at Tp2 150 1C; (b) EBSD map at Tp2 150 1C; (c) OM
micrograph at Tp2 800 1C; (d) EBSD map at Tp2 800 1C; (e) OM micrograph at Tp2 1000 1C; and (f) EBSD map at Tp2 1000 1C (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Microstructural evolution

Optical micrograph and EBSD image quality maps with grain

boundary misorientation distribution are presented in Fig. 2. In the
image quality map, the red lines represent the low misorientation
boundaries of 2–151 between two adjacent grains and the black
lines correspond to the high misorientation boundaries of 151 and
ICRCG HAZ larger than 151. The high misorientation grain/packet boundaries
can efficiently deflect or even arrest the propagation of cleavage
microcracks, whereas the low misorientation boundaries have less
ability to deflect the crack. As shown in Fig. 2a and b, the
microstructure consists of acicular ferrite, granular bainite, and a
small amount of polygonal ferrite along PAGB after first pass
Fig. 3. Impact absorbed energy at different Tp2 for simulated HAZ specimens. welding cycle with the interpass temperature of 150 1C, which is
326 J. Hu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 590 (2014) 323–328
M/A along PAGB
Ferrite along PAGB
M/A inside PAGB
Acicular ferrite inside PAGB
5μm
Fig. 4. SEM micrograph and EPMA C distribution map for ICRCG HAZ specimen: (a) SEM micrograph and (b) EPMA C distribution map (For interpretation of the references to
color in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.).
Ferrite along PAGB
2μm
Fig. 5. SEM micrograph and precipitate morphology for ICRCG HAZ specimen: (a) SEM micrograph and (b) precipitate morphology and chemical composition.
described as Tp2 of 150 1C without reheating. At Tp2 of 800 1C, the
acicular ferrite and granular bainite distributed inside PAGB are
tempered, and the granular bainite along the PAGB is re-
austenized and transformed to the
1–3 μm ultra-fine grain
ferrite with high angle grain boundaries. Moreover, the fraction
of high angle grain boundaries in unit area of ultra-fine grain
ferrite is higher than the nearby acicular ferrite, as shown in Fig. 2c
and d. At Tp2 of 1000 1C, the austenization is nearly completed and
fine austenite nucleates at PAGB and bainite laths. Furthermore,
the prior austenite grain size is further refined by recrystallization.
On the subsequent cooling process, the polygonal ferrite, small
degenerated pearlite, and M/A constituents are formed, as shown
in Fig. 2e and f.
3.2. Mechanical properties
Fig. 3 shows the impact energy at different Tp2 for simulated
HAZ specimens. The impact absorbed energy is 51.6, 56.5, 60.8,
111.0, and 48.6 J at Tp2 of 150 1C, 600 1C, 800 1C, 1000 1C, and
1300 1C. The hardness is 260.17, 245.07, 257.13, 267.19, and
253.2 HV, respectively, with the error in the range of 76 HV.
Compared to UACG HAZ, the hardness decreases and toughness
increases in SRCG HAZ because of the tempering effect, while the
toughness improvement in ICRCG HAZ is abnormal. The hardness
increases in ICRCG HAZ and further enhances in SCRCG HAZ
because of the strengthening mechanism from the high angle
grain boundaries of fine ferrite.
3.3. Microstructural characteristic-toughness relationship
Fig. 4 shows the SEM micrograph and EPMA carbon-
distribution map for ICRCG HAZ specimen. The M/A constituents
are smaller than 1 μm and are uniformly distributed along
PAGB and in the vicinity of fine ferrite. In the EPMA map, the
blue regions represent the low carbon content, yellow the medium
carbon content, and red represents high carbon content. The ferrite
Similar C content
5μm
V(C, N)
500nm
and acicular ferrite plates are in blue. The M/A constituents both
along PAGB and interior PAGB are in yellow, thus the C-contents of
M/A constituent at and inside PAGB are similar. A very small area of
M/A constituent are in red. Therefore, the carbon concentration is
low at PAGB. Fig. 5 shows the
20–30 nm V(C, N) precipitates are
present within the ferrite grain along PAGB and act as nucleation
sites for fine ferrite. In our case, to the fine prior austenite grain size
and high density of ferrite nucleation sites in ICRCG HAZ, ultra-fine
ferrite is nucleated along the PAGB.
SEM micrographs showing impact fracture surface morphology
and secondary cracks propagation paths underneath the fracture
surface of specimen's radial zone at different Tp2 are presented in
Fig. 6. The microstructure consists of acicular ferrite, granular
bainite, and a small amount of polygonal ferrite at Tp2 of 150 1C.
The acicular ferrite intragranularly nucleates on V(C, N) precipi-
tates, and the granular bainite nucleates and grows from the PAGB
[18,19]. Compared to acicular ferrite, granular bainite contains
lower density of high angle grain boundaries. Therefore, the
microcrack propagates straight in granular bainite and leads to
relatively large cleavage facet size of the fracture surface, while the
propagation of the microcrack is deflected and finally arrested by
acicular ferrite, resulting in small cleavage facet size, as shown in
Fig. 6a and b. At Tp2 of 800 1C, the granular bainite along the PAGB
is re-austenized and transformed to the
1–3 μm ultra-fine grain
ferrite with high angle grain boundaries. As a consequence, the
microcracks are arrested by ultra-fine grain ferrite, and the
dimples and small cleavage facets of the fracture surface are
formed. Furthermore, the transgranular fracture characteristic
demonstrates high toughness of ultra-fine grain ferrite along
PAGB, as shown in Fig. 6c and d. It is proposed that the cleavage
fracture initiation can be dominated both by the size of crack
initiators and by the fracture facet size, since the fracture facet size
dominates the critical condition for the propagation of micro-
cracks. The microstructure for a finer fracture facet size can
prevent unstable cleavage fracture, even if relatively large crack
initiators exist. Crack arrestability is the principal factor in the
 J. Hu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 590 (2014) 323–328 327

Large cleavage facet size

Microcrack propagating straightly

in granular bainite
20μm 5μm

Small cleavage facet size

Microcrack arrested by
ultra-fine grain ferrite at PAGB

Dimples

20μm 5μm

20μm 5μm
Fig. 6. SEM micrographs showing impact fracture surface morphologies and secondary cracks propagation paths underneath the fracture surface of specimens' radial zone at
different Tp2: (a) fracture surface at Tp2 of 150 1C; (b) propagation path at Tp2 of 150 1C; (c) fracture surface at Tp2 of 800 1C; (d) propagation path at Tp2 of 800 1C; (e) fracture
surface at Tp2 of 1000 1C; and (f) propagation path at Tp2 of 1000 1C.

process of cleavage fracture to failure [20]. It is also known that the
formation of ultra-fine ferrite can enhance the impact toughness
significantly [21]. Therefore, the improved toughness in ICRCG
HAZ is predominately attributed to the formation of the ultra-fine
grain ferrite along PAGB in place of original granular bainite. At Tp2
of 1000 1C, the fine polygonal ferrite provides high cleavage
fracture resistance as exhibiting the zig zag-shaped microcrack
propagating path, and then the ductile dimples, tear ridges, and
very small cleavage facets dominate the entire radial zone of the
fracture surface (Fig. 6e and f). The welding thermal cycle para-
meters that provide maximum hardness-toughness combination
in SCRCG HAZ, can be considered to represent the optimal
schedule for heat treatment of low carbon V–N steel.
The M/A constituent and V(C, N) precipitates are crack initia-
tors because of higher hardness than the surrounding substrate.
According to the Griffith crack propagation theory, the coarse hard
phase assists microcrack initiation by reducing the initiation
energy, especially when they are aggregated. For the dispersive
and granular phase, the microcrack size can be roughly regarded
as the maximum diameter, and the microcrack initiation energy
decreases with increase in diameter [22]. The
20–30 nm V(C, N)
precipitates are not detrimental to impact toughness because of
328 J. Hu et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 590 (2014) 323–328
their small size. The M/A constituents, as the voids initiation sites,
their hardness, size, and area fraction are three important factors
that determine the impact toughness. The size and distribution of
M/A constituents at PAGB are partially influenced by the stability
of the under-cooled austenite. During the cooling process, under-
cooled austenite with high carbon concentration and Nb–Ti
soluble microalloy content stabilizes austenite until the martensite
transformation start temperature, such that the coarse M/A con-
stituents are formed. In contrast, in the low C austenite with
effective V(C, N) ferrite nucleation sites, the ferrite that is first
nucleated divides the undercooled austenite into small segments
leading to refinement of M/A constituent. It is also suggested that
the hardness of M/A constituent increases monotonously with
increase in C content [23]. High N-content stimulates the pre-
cipitation behavior of V(C, N). The formation of large amount of V
(C, N) precipitates consumes C-content in the austenite, and then
the hardness of M/A constituent along PAGB decreases due to the
low C concentration.
In summary, the impact toughness depends on the microcrack
initiation energy and microcrack propagation energy. For the crack
initiation energy, we have interestingly observed that the V(C, N)
precipitates significantly contribute to impact toughness in the
ICRCG HAZ through their beneficial effect of high density of ferrite
nucleation sites that divides the undercooled austenite into fine
segments, as a consequence of which M/A constituent is refined.
Furthermore, the V(C, N) precipitates lower the C-concentration in
M/A constituent and decrease its hardness. The crack propagation
energy is determined by the density of the high angle grain
boundaries. In this regard, the acicular ferrite and polygonal ferrite
have high angle grain boundaries, while the packets of granular
bainite consist of low angle grain boundaries. Furthermore, the
microcracks can be arrested by fine-grained ferrite (Fig. 6d and f),
which has significantly high density of high angle grain bound-
aries in relation to acicular ferrite (Fig. 2d and f). Thus, the
toughness is expected to follow the sequence: ultrafine ferrite4
acicular ferrite4granular bainite because of the difference in the
density of high angle grain boundaries.
4. Conclusions
The effect of peak temperature on the microstructural evolu-
tion and resultant impact toughness in simulated reheated coarse-
grained heat affected zone of low carbon V–N microalloyed steel
was studied. The major conclusions are summarized as follows:
(1) In the UACG HAZ at Tp2 of 150 1C, the microstructure consists
of acicular ferrite, granular bainite, and a small amount of
polygonal ferrite. In the ICRCG HAZ at Tp2 of 800 1C, the
acicular ferrite and granular bainite distributed inside PAGB
are tempered, and part of the granular bainite along the PAGB
is re-austenized and transformed to the
1–3 μm ultra-fine
grain ferrite. In the SCRCG HAZ at Tp2 of 1000 1C, the micro-
structure consists of the polygonal ferrite, small degenerated
pearlite, and M/A constituents.
(2) The maximum hardness-toughness combination is obtained at
Tp2 of 1000 1C due to the fine polygonal ferrite grain size.
These welding thermal cycle parameters can also provide
optimal schedule for hot-treatment of low carbon V–N steel.
(3) The large size and necklace type of M/A constituent along the
PAGB is hardly observable in the ICRCG HAZ. The
20–30 nm
V(C, N) precipitates are the nucleation sites of the fine ferrite
along PAGB, and leading to extraordinary refinement of M/A
constituent to smaller than 1 μm. N stimulates the precipita-
tion behavior of V(C, N). The nucleation of high density of V(C,
N) precipitates consumes the C-content in the austenite,
leading to decrease in the hardness of M/A constituent due
to weak C concentration.
(4) Compared to the low carbon Nb–Ti steel with lowest tough-
ness in ICRCG HAZ, the toughness in ICRCG HAZ is improved in
low carbon V–N steel. This unique behavior is attributed to the
formation of ultra-fine grained ferrite along PAGB with high
misorientation boundaries in place of granular bainite with
low misorientation boundaries, and the crack propagation
energy is increased. Furthermore, crack initiation energy is
enhanced because the generation of large and hard M/A
constituent is avoided.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully appreciate the financial support by the
National Key Technology Research and Development Program of
the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (Grant no.
2011BAE13B03).
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