What I Have Learned: Do this in a ½ crosswise sheet of paper

Assessment: Do this in a ¼ sheet of paper.

What’s More: Activity 1.1 to 1.2 (To be done in 8.5 x 13 coupon)

Assessment: Do this in a ¼ sheet of paper.

What’s More: Activity 1.2 (To be done in 8.5 x 13 coupon)

Assessment: Write TRUE or FALSE in each number in a ¼ sheet of paper.

What I Can Do: (To be done in 1 whole sheet of paper)

Assessment: Choose the letter of the correct answer in each number. Do this in a ¼ sheet of
paper.

What’s More: To be done in 1 whole sheet of paper

What I Have Learned: To be done in 1 whole sheet of paper
Assessment: Do this in a ¼ sheet of paper.

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 8
Proton Concept and Its Practical Application
In your junior high school science, you learned about nature, types and characteristics of waves,
particularly electromagnetic waves. The previous module focused on the theories that explain the wave-
particle duality of light and how light behaves as it is reflected, refracted, interfered, scattered, dispersed,
absorbed and filtered.
Now you will know more about the nature of light as a particle. You will also understand how light
affects our daily activities. I know you are already excited for another fruitful journey that will surely LIGHT
up your life. But before you move on, do the activity below for you to find out how much you have learned
about transverse wave
What’s Is It
A.Particle Nature of Light
The concept of light as a quantized form of energy emerged during 1900s when Max Planck
postulated the blackbody radiation. This marks the beginning of quantum theory, which believes that
energy comes in discrete units called quanta. Later on, Albert Einstein supported this idea of Planck and
suggested that light is composed of tiny particles called photon and each photon possesses energy.
1. Blackbody Radiation
A blackbody is a surface or object that is capable of absorbing all incoming radiation falling on it
and reflects no radiation, thus appears black at room temperature. However, when exposed to certain
amount of temperature, the blackbody radiates certain amount of energy with associated wavelength. For
example, a visible light is being emitted when the blackbody is heated to about 1000K, but the light
becomes brighter and orange when the temperature is increased to 1500K. Increasing the temperature
further up to 200K, the light being emitted becomes white. This phenomenon is known as blackbody
radiation.
Based on the above example, we can infer that the nature of spectrum emitted by the blackbody is
dependent on the temperature and not on the material the object is made of. This means that, as the
temperature increases, the average wavelength emitted decreases and radiation becomes invisible. On the
other hand, as the temperature decreases, the wavelength increases, and the radiation becomes visible as
red to glowing white.
In order to explain the blackbody radiation, Planck came up with an equation to explain the
distribution of wavelengths that are emitted from a heated blackbody. It is given as E=hf
where
E is the energy of radiation;
h is the Planck’s constant (6.626 X 10-34Js)
f is the frequency (in Hertz)
 Planck also proposed the Quantum Theory which states that energy is radiated or absorbed in the
form of packets or bundles, called quanta (singular, quantum) and each quantum is equal to hf.
2. Photoelectric Effect
Albert Einstein used the quantized energy idea of Planck to come up with the Photon Theory which
proposes that light is composed of photons. According to this theory, photon has the following
characteristics:
a. It has a velocity of light in free space. The velocity of light (c) is equal to 3X108 m/s.
b. It has rest energy.
c. It has zero mass
d. It can carry energy and momentum
e. When radiation is emitted or absorbed, it can be created or destroyed.
f. It can interact with other particles like electrons.
Using his photon theory, Einstein explained the phenomenon called photoelectric effect. In this
phenomenon, when light strikes a metal surface, the electrons would become excited and jump out of the
metal. This is because, according to Einstein, light consists of packets of energy called photons which
transfer energy to the electron causing it to become excited.
3. Atomic Spectra
In your Grade 9 science, you learned that electrons orbits or energy levels. As long as electron stays
in the orbit, it does not absorb or emit energy and said to be in its ground state. But when the atom is
being heated, its electrons become excited and occupy a higher energy level. At this point the electron is
in its excited state. As electrons leave the excited state and return to its ground state again, they emit
energy in the form of photon.
The set of frequencies of
electromagnetic spectrum emitted by
excited atom is referred to as the atomic
emission spectra. Every element emits a
specific energy and wavelength producing a
unique set of banding pattern, thus we can
say that atomic spectra serves as
fingerprints of every element. The figure
below shows the emission spectrum of an
electrically excited hydrogen atom. The fine
lines corresponds to the emitted light with a
specific wavelength while the dark bands in
between corresponds to the absorbed frequencies.
B. Relationship of Wavelength and Energy
We learned from our previous science subjects that the relationship between frequency and
wavelength can be expressed using the equation c= λf where c is the speed of light, λ is the wavelength
and f is the frequency. Since the speed is constant, using the equation, we can infer that frequency and
wavelength are inversely proportional. Meaning to say, as wavelength increases, the
frequency decreases and vice versa.
Previously, we learned that E= hf. Combining the two equations, we will arrive at
the formula,

Using the equation above we can say the wavelength is inversely proportional to energy. This means
that the shorter the wavelength (the higher the frequency), the greater the energy.
C.Practical Application of Photon Theory
We can use the knowledge we derived from the relationship between energy and wavelength to
answer the following questions:
a. Why is red light commonly used in dark room?
As you can see in figure below, red light is the region of the visible light with the longest wavelength
(620-780 nm) and with lowest frequency; hence has the lowest energy. Because of its low energy, red light
is considered as “safe light” and ideally used in photographic dark rooms. This is because photosensitive
materials used in printing are not photosensitive to red and does not cause “fogging” in prints which can
be seen as blur or dark veil across the print.
 b. Why do people get easily sunburned by ultraviolet (UV) light but not by visible light?
Ultraviolet (UV) light has shorter wavelength and higher frequency and shorter wavelength than
visible light as shown in the figure 3. Since it has high frequency, we can expect that it also has high
energy. Therefore, exposure to UV light can cause sunburn or even skin cancer (prolonged exposure) faster
than exposure to visible light.

c. How do human eyes perceive colors?

The human eye can perceive colors because of its cones cells. There are three different cone cells
present in the retina of our eyes, each contains photosensitive pigment to certain wavelength. The L cone
is photosensitive to red (long wavelength), the M cone is photosensitive to green (middle wavelength) and
the S cone is photosensitive to blue (short wavelength). However, the sensitivity ranges of the three cones
sometimes overlap specially when the light that stimulates them are near the middle of the visible light.
Refer to figure 4 for the cone sensitivity curve.
Suppose a 550 nm wavelength of light enters your eye, what color of the light will you perceive? If
your answer is green, you are certainly correct. If you will try to look at the figure 4, the light with 550 nm
wavelength will stimulate the green receptor more strongly than
the red receptor and therefore, the your eyes will perceive green
light.
However, when a light with a 580 nm wavelength enters
your eyes, both the red and green receptors will be strongly
stimulated hence your eyes will perceive yellow color based on
the additive color mixing as shown figure 5.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
Directions: Identify what is being asked. Write your answers on
a separate sheet of paper.
1. Based from the equation, E= hc/λ, wavelength is __________
proportional to energy.
2. When electrons leave the excited states and return to return
to lower energy levels, they emit energy in the form of ______.
3. Cone cells of the human eyes have __________________
pigments that detect color.
4. The three types of cones in the human eyes are: ____________,
___________, and ________________.
5. ____________ was proposed by Albert Einstein, which states
that light itself is quantized.
6. The value of Planck’s constant is ______________.
7. __________ is the unit of frequency.
8. Solar energy enters the Earth’s atmosphere in the form of
_____________.
9. X-rays have ______ frequency, ________ wavelength and
___________ energy as compared to visible light.
10. ______ refers to the print deterioration which is seen as blur across the print.
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What color in the visible light spectrum contains the highest amount of energy?
a. red b. yellow c. green d. violet
2. Who proposed the Quantum Theory of Light?
a. Lord Rayleigh b. Max Planck c. Albert Einstein d. Isaac Newton
For numbers 3-5, choose the color of light that would be perceived by our eyes if:
3. Both the green and red receptors are being stimulated.
4. Both the blue and green receptors are being stimulated
5. Both the blue and red receptors are being stimulated.
a. Cyan b. magenta c. white d. yellow
6. Who proposed the Photon Theory?
a. Max Planck b. Albert Einstein c. Isaac Newton d. Louis de Broglie
7. Which of the following is the unit of wavelength?
a. hertz b. joule c. nanometer d. candela
8. The quanta of light is called_____.
a. protons b. electrons c. photons d. atoms
9. What happens to the energy of photon when the wavelength increases?
a. It decreases. b. It also increases. c. Remains the same d. Becomes doubled
10.The color of light which is considered safe to use in photographic printing is ____
a. violet b. red c. blue d. white
True or False: Write T if the statement is true, otherwise write F.
11.The red receptors in the cone of the human eyes are sensitive to short wavelength.
12.Wavelength is inversely proportional to the energy of photon.
13.The speed of light is equivalent to 3 X108 m/s.
14.The sun’s energy enters the atmosphere in the form of UV rays.
15. Photoelectric effect refers to the expulsion of electrons from an illuminated surface of metal.

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 9

Is an Electron a Particle or a Wave?

We all know that atom is the building block of all matter in the universe. These extremely small
particles are made up of a few even smaller particles. The earliest particles discovered that make up an
atom are protons, neutrons and electrons. But scientists did not stop looking for the fundamental particles
of matter and what “holds” them together. Recent discoveries suggest that quarks, which make up protons
and neutrons, are another type of fundamental particle. Together with the leptons, quarks make up the
stuff we think of as matter.
Large parts of modern physics and chemistry are based on the study of energy levels of various
atomic and molecular systems. Through the advancement in technology, laboratory instruments are now
able to contain and observe individual electrons while telescopes can detect electron plasma by its energy
emission. All these were the result of understanding the atomic and molecular behavior of the subatomic
particles, specifically the electrons.
This lesson will help enhance your understanding about the molecular behavior of electrons and
how its discovery led to the development of the wave-particle duality theory.
What Is It
Is Electron a Particle or a Wave?
This question may seem a simple one but in the scientists’ inquisitive minds, this is not so. In
science, a particle is described as a minute portion of matter and is also referred to as the smallest known
building blocks of the universe. This means that everything that makes up matter and universe is called
particle. So how can electrons become a wave? Well, the first thing that we need to understand is to
discover more about electrons. Are you ready? If yes, then let us proceed.
The electron is a subatomic particle that has a negative electric
charge. It has a no known structure and is believed to be a point
particle. It has a mass that is approximately 1836 times less than that
of the proton. The anti-particle of the electron is called the positron
which is identical to electron except that it is producing a pair (or more)
of gamma ray photons. The name “electron” was introduced for the
electric charge quantity in 1894 by Irish physicist George Johnstone
Stoney. The electron was identified as a particle by Joseph John
Thomson in 1897 using the cathode ray tubes that enabled him to
calculate the charge to mass ratio. He wona Nobel prize for his work.
Then, where does the idea of electron being a wave come from? It is like having two different worlds
mold into one! A sound impossible isn’t it? Let us continue exploring by understanding what is a wave and
if electrons manifest this wave-like behavior.
In physics, a wave is described as a disturbance that travels through space-time and medium
accompanied by transferring energy from one place to another. A medium may be a substance or material
that carries the wave. The wave medium is not the wave and it does not make the wave; it merely transports
the wave from its source to other locations. Remember, waves transfer energy and not matter. Thus, waves
are said to be an energy transport phenomenon.

Consider a slinky wave as an example.

We can apply this wave interference in
sound and light. When two waves meet together,
sounds are produced, light is present. When
there is no wave interaction, no sounds are
created and only darkness.
Now, how is electron become a particle
and exhibit wave-like behavior at the same
time? Let us go back to memory lane by tracing
how it all started.

LESSON 2:
Evidence of Wave-like Behavior and
Electrons

Two famous scientists in the 1600s,

Christian Huygens and Isaac Newton were both
working on the theories for the behavior of light.
Huygens proposed a wave theory of light while
Newton’s was a “corpuscular” (particle) theory of
light. Newton believed that light was made up of
small particles and these particles would
naturally have mass too. Since light particles
have mass, he deduced that a beam of light
parallel to the surface of the earth would bend downward due to the pull of earth’s gravity. On the other
hand, Huygens believed that light was made up of vibrating waves perpendicular to the direction of the
light travels. With this concept, he was able to formulate a way to visualize wave propagation. Huygen
suggested that light wave peaks form surfaces like the layers of an onion. In a vacuum or other uniform
mediums, the light waves are spherical and these wave surfaces advance or spread out as they travel at
the speed of light. This Huygen’s Principle explains why light shining through a pin hole or slit will spread
out rather than going in a straight line.
In 1803, Thomas Young studied the interference of light waves using the double-slit experiment. By
shining light through a screen with two slits equally separated, the light emerging form the two slits,
spread out according to Huygen’s principle. Eventually the two wave fronts will overlap with each other.
His experiment firmly supported Huygen’s wave theory of light. Later in 1815, August Fresnel supported
Young’s experiments with mathematical calculations.
In the early nineteenth century, diffraction (slight bending) of light had been observed which firmly
support the wave theory of light over Newton’s particle theory. The term diffraction was first discovered
and coined by Francesco Grimaldi, an Italian natural philosopher. In 1900 Max Planck proposed the
existence of a light quantum, a finite packet of energy which depends on the frequency and velocity of the
radiation. The birth of quantum physics is attributed to Max Planck’s experiment on black body radiation.
In 1905 Albert Einstein had proposed a solution to the problem of observations made on the
behavior of light having characteristics of both wave and particle theory. Using the works of Planck on
emission of light to form hot bodies, Einstein suggested that light is composed of tiny particles called
photons and each photon has energy. This finding came to be known as the photon theory of light which
later led to the conceptualization of quantum mechanics in the twentieth century.
After the wave-particle dual behavior of electron in light was accepted, another scientist took a leap
by testing the hypothesis in matter. Louis de Broglie made a bold assumption and performed experiments
to confirm whether the same observation can be seen in matter. In 1924, he was able to observed wave
properties of the particle when beams of electrons and neutrons
were directed at crystals and diffraction patterns were seen. He
concluded that everything has a wavelength but the wave
properties of matter are only observable for very small objects. He
showed that the waveparticle duality was not merely on light but
can be exhibited by both radiation and matter. Thus, the wave-
particle duality theory which states that matter and light exhibit
the behaviors of both waves and particles depending upon the
circumstances or condition was accepted.
 Further studies was made by De Broglie and he found out that the probability of finding a particle
at a particular location is related to the wave associated with the particle. The larger the amplitude of the
wave at a particular point, the larger the probability that the electron will be found there. Similarly, the
smaller amplitude the smaller the probability. This means that the larger the objects, the smaller
wavelengths can be observed. But for small objects, wavelengths are more distinct as shown in the double
slit experiment with electrons. Because of his profound discovery, de Broglie won a Nobel Prize.

What’s More
Activity 1.1 Experimental Evidences of Electrons Behaving like a Wave
Atoms are the building blocks of matter. This means that every thing around us is made up of
atoms, both for the living and non-living things.
The following video links will help you enhance your understanding about the wave-particle dual
nature behavior of electrons. Watch and analyze before answering the “Activity Assessment.”
Part A. Nature of light: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1yIApZtLos
Part B. Wave-Particle Duality: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qCmtegdqOOA
Activity 1.2
Guide Questions Directions: Answer briefly and concisely the following questions.
PART A : Nature of light
1. How did Newton view about the nature of light?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What particular evidence shows that light is a particle?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What particular evidence show that light is a wave?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
4-5. Is light a particle or a wave?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
PART B: Wave Particle Duality
6 -8. Describe how the following behave as they enter the two slits:
A. Particle
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
B. Wave
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
C. Quantum objects
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. What do you think will happen if an observer modifies the experiment?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. Briefly explain the Wave-Particle Duality Theory.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Assessment
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Directions: Choose the LETTER of the best answer.
1. Light demonstrates the characteristics of______.
A. Particle B. Wave
C. Both wave and particle D. Neither particle nor wave
2. Wave particle duality best applies in analyzing the motion of ________.
A. Projectile B. Space shuttle C. Heavenly bodies D. Electrons
3. Which phenomenon best supports the theory that matter has a wave nature?
A. Electron momentum B. Electron diffraction C. Photon momentum D. Photon diffraction
4. On the atomic level energy and matter exhibit the characteristics of _______.
A. Particles only B. Waves only
C. Neither particles nor waves D. Both particles and waves
5. What does the theory of modern Physics tells us about light?
A. Demonstrate wave property only
B. It combines wave and particle properties
C. Exclusively shows particle property
D. It has neither wave nor particle properties
6. Which of the following is an example of light behaving like a particle?
A. Photoelectric effect B. Doppler effect C. Interference D. Diffraction
7. What was the first experiment to show that light is a wave?
A. The oil drop experiment B. The gold foil experiment
C. The double-slit experiment D. The propagation of wave experiment
8. Why is laser light used in double-slit experiment?
A. It is made up of different wavelengths.
B. It is made up of coordinated waves of exactly the same wavelengths.
C. It is made up of uncoordinated beam of light.
D. It is made up of intense beam of light.
9. What wave -like property of light is shown when light bends as enters an opening?
A. Reflection B. Diffraction C. Refraction D. Interference
10. What does the dark fringe patterns of light wave on the screen in double slit experiment show?
A. Destructive interference B. Reflected interference
C. Constructive interference D. Diffracted interference
MATCHING TYPE:
Directions: Match the scientist in Column A with their contribution in Column B. Write the LETTER of the
answer on the space provided.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
______ 11. Christiaan Huygens A. Proposed the particle theory of light
______ 12. Isaac Newton B. Proposed light as electromagnetic wave
______ 13. Louis De Broglie C. Proved the dual nature of electron in light, radiation
and all matter
______ 14. Max Planck D. Performed the double-slit experiment
______ 15. Thomas Young E. Originator of quantum physics F. Proposed the wave
theory of light

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 10

LESSON 1: Diffraction, Interference, Dispersion and Scattering

WHAT’s IN
Electromagnetic Waves Both light waves and
radio waves are examples of electromagnetic waves,
meaning that they fall on the same electromagnetic
spectrum as infrared waves (the radiated heat you feel
from a stove), ultraviolet waves (the radiation that
causes sunburns), and microwaves (the radiation
that’s used to cook food in a microwave).

Because these are all waves, they all have a wavelength

that determines the distance over which their amplitude
changes. Radio waves can have wavelengths as wide as your
arms (and even longer!), while visible light waves have
wavelengths as small as a thousandth of the width of a human
hair.

WHAT’s NEW
The Double Slit Experiment
A famous experiment dating back to 1801 was made by Thomas Young. Did you know that he obtained
convincing evidence that light has this wave nature?
Activity 1.1. Visualizing Light as a Wave
In this experiment, you will be able to see how Young
knew how light acts as a wave.
1. Copy the table below on a separate sheet of paper
which would serve as your answer sheet. Given double slits (S1
and S2) in a barrier and rays from a light source, what is your
expected result that you would see in your viewing screen? Draw
it on your paper.
2. After drawing your expectation, obtain a small sheet of paper of any length and cut
two slits close to each other as seen in the figure below. This will serve as your barrier.

3. Obtain a source of light. Align it to a viewing screen as seen

in the figure below. Your screen may be any flat material such
as your house wall or another carton. Vary the angles of your light source until
you find something interesting. Now, draw your observation on your sheet.

WHAT IS IT
Understanding Light as a Wave
If you think of light in its particle form, you might expect to see two bright lines on your viewing
screen. But, when you did the double slit experiment, you saw multiple bright lines in a series, just as
what Thomas Young saw when he did a similar
experiment. He then concluded that the pattern he saw
is due to the wave-interference phenomenon. You can
think of this as a pattern when you throw two rocks at
the same time into a body of water, or when you listen
from two speakers playing the same song.

Light Sources for Interference

Looking back to your double-slit experiment, you observed wave interference when you used a single
source of light, and as it passes the two slits it acts as if there were two sources of radiation. This is what
you call coherent sources since they are maintaining a constant phase relationship (same wavelength
and frequency).
If two different sources are placed side by side, no interference effects can be observed because the
light are emitted independently. The emissions from the sources do not maintain a constant phase
relationship with each other over time and are called incoherent sources.
Moreover, you need to have plane waves of light of a single wavelength for interference to work,
called monochromatic light.

Wave Interference
When two waves come close to one
another, their effects add together. If the crests,
or highest parts of the waves, line up perfectly,
then the crest of the combined wave will be the
sum of the heights of the two original crests.
Likewise, if the lowest parts of the waves (the
troughs) line up just right, then the combined
trough will be the depth of the two original
troughs combined. This is known as
constructive interference, in which two waves
(of the same wavelength) interact in such a way
that they are aligned, leading to a new wave that
is bigger than the original wave.
However, if two waves are not perfectly aligned, then when the crest of one wave comes along, it will
be dragged down by the trough of the other wave. The resulting, combined wave will have crests that are
shorter than the crests of either original wave, and troughs that are shallower than either of the incoming
waves. This is known as destructive interference.
In fact, if the two waves (with the same amplitude) are shifted by exactly half a wavelength when
they merge together, then the crest of one wave will match up perfectly with the trough of the other wave,
and they will cancel each other out. The resulting
combined wave will have no crests or troughs at all,
and will instead just look like a flat line, or no wave at
all!
Double Slit Interference
Say you have a laser pointer. A laser is
basically just a bunch of light waves that all have the
same wavelength and are all lined up with one
another. Suppose you place a card in front of the laser
beam with two slits in it, such that waves can only
pass through two spots. You then measure the
amount of light that hits the wall on the other side of
the room at various points.

For the experiment to work, the slits have to

be tiny compared to the distance from the card to
the wall, but they have to be larger than a single
wavelength of the light. That means that if we
choose a spot on the wall, two light waves will be
hitting it; one from the top slit and one from the
bottom slit. As they get close to the wall, and close
to one another, they will start to interfere. We know
that the two waves were exactly the same when they
got to the card, but they won’t necessarily be the
same when they reach the wall. Let’s choose a spot
on the wall to measure the two waves, say above the
top slit.
The light coming from the bottom slit has
to come much further than the light from the top
slit, so more wavelengths will be needed to travel
the longer distance. If we choose a different point
on the wall, then we’ll get a different number of
wavelengths again for each path that the light
takes from its slit to the wall. The key is to
compare the number of wavelengths it takes for
each light wave to travel from the slit to the wall.
For constructive interference, the difference in
wavelengths will be an integer number of whole
wavelengths. For destructive interference it will be
an integer number of whole wavelengths plus a
half wavelength.
Think of the point exactly between the two
slits. The light waves will be traveling the same
distance, so they will be traveling the same
number of wavelengths. That means that there
will always be constructive interference at that
spot, so we will always see a bright spot on the
wall in the middle.
As you move away from the center point,
the two waves’ pathlengths (or total distance
travelled from the laser to the wall) will get more
and more different, until we hit a point where
they are the same plus a half wavelength. At
that point, one of the waves will hit the wall with
a crest when the other hits with a trough, so
they will effectively cancel one another out,
resulting in a dark spot there.

As we keep moving away from the center, the pathlengths will keep getting different, until we get to
the point where they are the same plus a whole wavelength, so we’ll get constructive interference again,
because the two waves will meet at the same spot in their wavelength cycle. This will result in another
 bright spot on the wall. This pattern will keep alternating so that
we get a pattern of light spots and dark spots, both above and
below our center bright spot.

If your slits are further apart, the light waves will be coming
from spots that are
further apart. That
means that their path
lengths will be more
different from one
another, giving bright
spots that are closer
together.

Dispersion in Prisms
Visible light, also known as white light, consists of a collection of
component colors. These colors are often observed as light passes through a
triangular prism. Upon passage through the prism, the white light is
separated into its component colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue and
violet. The separation of visible light into its different colors is known as
dispersion.

Angle of Deviation
The amount of overall refraction caused by the passage of a light ray through a prism is often
expressed in terms of the angle of deviation (𝜃). The angle of deviation is the angle made between the
incident ray of light entering the first face of the prism and
the refracted ray that emerges from the second face of the
prism. Because of the different indices of refraction for the
different wavelengths of visible light, the angle of deviation
varies with wavelength. Colors of the visible light spectrum
that have shorter wavelengths (BIV) will deviated more from
their original path than the colors with longer wavelengths
(ROY). The emergence of different colors of light from a
triangular prism at different angles leads an observer to see
the component colors of visible light separated from each
other.
Light Scattering
Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays get deviated from its straight path on
striking an obstacle like dust or gas molecules, water vapors etc. Scattering of light gives rise to many
spectacular phenomena such as Tyndall effect and the “red hues of sunrise and sunset”.
Tyndall effect is the phenomenon of scattering of light by colloidal particles. It is used to identify
a true and a colloidal solution. We get to see Tyndall effect in our surroundings very often, some of the
examples are:
1. When a beam of sunlight enters the dark room through small hole or window then its path
become visible due to
scattering of light by the dust particles present in the room.
2. When a beam of light is projected on a screen from a projector in the cinema hall, it becomes
visible.
3. When sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest it gets scattered by tiny water
droplets.
Another
phenomenon of
the scattering of
light is Rayleigh
scattering,
which refers to
the scattering of
light off of the
molecules of the air, and can be extended to scattering
from particles up to about a tenth of the wavelength of
the light. It is Rayleigh scattering off the molecules of
the air which gives us the blue sky.
 Rayleigh scattering can be considered to be elastic scattering since the photon energies of the
scattered photons is not changed. An in-depth discussion on this scattering and its relevance in our
atmosphere can be found in the next module.
WHAT’s MORE
Activity 1.2. Increasing the Number of Slits
We have seen that diffraction patterns can be produced by a single slit or by two slits. When light
encounters an entire array of identical, equally-spaced slits, called a diffraction grating, the bright fringes,
which come from constructive interference of the light waves from different slits, are found at the same
angles they are found if there are only two slits. But the pattern is much sharper.
Copy the table below on a separate sheet of paper which would serve as your answer sheet. What
should be the result that you would see in your viewing screen for a single slit? How about double slits?
How about seven (7) slits? Draw it on your paper and explain why the fringes or patters appear that way.

Activity 1.3. Deepening our Understanding on Diffraction

On a separate sheet of paper, try to answer these questions:
1. What type of experimental evidence indicates that light is a wave?
2. Give an example of a wave characteristic of light that is easily observed outside the laboratory.
3. Young’s double slit experiment breaks a single light beam into two sources. Would the same
pattern be obtained for two independent sources of light, such as the headlights of a distant car?
Explain.
4. Is it possible to create a situation in which there is only destructive interference? Explain.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
1. Constructive interference occurs if the amplitudes of the waves combine and form a bigger amplitude.
2. Destructive interference occurs if the waves are out of phase such that one wave traveled an extra
distance father, because the waves are not aligned.
3. Coherent sources occur when emissions come from a single light source, having a constant phase
relationship.
4. Incoherent sources occur when emissions from the sources do not maintain a constant phase
relationship with each other over time.
5. Monochromatic light means the light source consists of a single wavelength only.
6. Diffraction is the spreading of light when it comes up to a hole or other barrier.
7. Dispersion is the separation of visible light into its different colors.
8. Angle of deviation is the amount of overall refraction caused by the passage of a light ray through a
prism.
9. Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays get deviated from its straight path on striking
an obstacle.
10. Tyndall effect is the phenomenon of scattering of light by colloidal particles.
11. Rayleigh scattering refers to the scattering of light off of the molecules of the air
WHAT I CAN DO
Wave-Based Applications of Lights Laser beams are directional, very intense, and narrow (only
about 0.5 mm in diameter). These properties lead to a number of applications in industry and medicine.
The following are just a few examples:
1. CDs are read by interpreting variations in reflections of a laser beam from the surface.
2. Some barcode scanners use a laser beam.
3. Lasers are used in industry to cut steel and other metals.
4. Lasers are bounced off reflectors that astronauts left on the Moon. The time it takes for the light to make
the round trip can be used to make precise calculations of the Earth-Moon distance.
5. Laser beams are used to produce holograms. The name hologram means entire picture (from the Greek
holo-, as in holistic), because the image is three-dimensional. A viewer can move around the image and
see it from different perspectives.
6. Holograms take advantage of the wave properties of light, as opposed to traditional photography which
is based on geometric optics. A holographic image is produced by constructive and destructive interference
of a split laser beam.
7. One of the advantages of using a laser as a surgical tool is that it is accompanied by very little bleeding.
8. Laser eye surgery has improved the vision of many people, without the need for corrective lenses. A
laser beam is used to change the shape of the lens of the eye, thus changing its focal length.
ASSESSMENT
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What phenomena occurs when colors of a rainbow are seen when light passes through a glass prism?
a. Scattering of light b. Diffraction of light
c. Dispersion of light d. Reflection of light
2. Why is the spectrum of light separated into its components of color when white light is directed to a
prism?
a. The different colors in the white light bend away from the normal line at different angles when entering
prism ingestion.
b. The different colors in the white light bend towards the normal line at different angles when entering
prism.
c. The different colors in the white light bend away from the normal at same speed to each other when
entering prism.
d. The different colors in the white light bend towards the normal at same speed to each other when
entering prism
3. An example of dispersion of light is ____.
a. Sky looks bright orange in the evening b. Shadow
c. Rainbow d. Pool seems shallower
4. These are all colors of spectrum except:
a. Indigo b.Purple c. Blue d. Green
5. Why does scattering of light occur?
a. Light rays are blocked and reflected to all directions by the clouds or particles in the air.
b. Light rays are passing through and refracted to all directions by the clouds or particles in the air
c. Light rays are blocked and refracted to all directions by the clouds or particles in the air
d. Light rays are passing through and are dispersed by raindrops acting as multiple prisms.
6. Tyndall effect is the scattering of the light by:
a. Air particles b. Solid particles c. Liquid particles d. Colloidal particles
7. What principle is responsible for light spreading as it passes through a narrow slit?
a. Interference b. Scattering c. Diffraction d. Dispersion
8. What principle is responsible for alternating light and dark bands when light passes through two or
more narrow slits?
a. Interference b. Scattering c. Diffraction d. Dispersion
9. Two light sources are said to be coherent if they:
a. are of the same frequency.
b. are of the same frequency and maintain a constant phase difference.
c. are of the same amplitude and maintain a constant phase difference.
d. are of the same frequency and amplitude.
10. The following exhibits destructive interference except:
i. The crest of one wave will be dragged down by the trough of the other wave.
ii. The crest of one wave will match up perfectly with the trough of the other wave, and they will cancel
each other out
a. i only b. ii only c. both i and ii d. neither i and ii
11. If your slits from the double slit experiment are further apart, the light waves will:
a. be coming from spots that are further apart b. remain as is compared when the slits are narrow
c. have longer bright fringes d. not produce a diffraction pattern
12. Wave interference can occur in the following except:
a. two rocks are thrown at the same time into a body of water
b. the same song played on two speakers
c. two different light sources side by side
d. light reflected from a film of oil floating on water
13. Which of the following is/are true:
i. Plane waves of light of a single wavelength are needed for interference to work.
ii. Diffraction can occur using different light sources
a. i only b. ii only c. both i and ii d. neither i and ii
14. Which of the following phenomena does NOT show a difference between the wave theory and particle
theory of light?
a. reflection b. refraction c. interference d. diffraction
15. When light __________ interferes, the result is __________ light overall, and when light __________
interferes, the result is __________ light overall.
a. constructively . . . brighter . . . destructively . . . less bright
b. destructively . . . brighter . . . constructively . . . less bright
c. subtractively . . . brighter . . . additionally . . . less bright
d. additionally . . . brighter . . . subtractively . . . less bright

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 11
WHAT’s IN
This is a review to help you link the current lesson with the previous one.
1. Constructive interference occurs if the amplitudes of the waves combine and form bigger amplitude.
2. Destructive interference occurs if the waves are out of phase such that one wave traveled an extra
distance father, because the waves are not aligned.
3. Coherent sources occur when emissions come from a single light source, having a constant phase
relationship.
4. Incoherent sources occur when emissions from the sources do not maintain a constant phase
relationship with each other over time.
5. Monochromatic light means the light source consists of a single wavelength only.
6. Diffraction is the spreading of light when it comes up to a hole or other barrier.
7. Dispersion is the separation of visible light into its different colors.
8. Angle of deviation is the amount of overall refraction caused by the passage of a light ray through a
prism.
9. Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays get deviated from its straight path on striking
an obstacle.
10. Tyndall effect is the phenomenon of scattering of light by colloidal particles.
11. Rayleigh scattering refers to the scattering of light off of the molecules of the air
WHAT’s IS IT
Ray Diagram of Concave Mirrors in a Spoon3
In the center of the sphere from which the mirror was sliced is known as the center of curvature
and is denoted by the letter C in the diagram below. The point on the mirror's surface where the principal
axis meets the mirror is known as the vertex and is denoted by the letter A in the diagram below. The
vertex is the geometric center of the mirror. Midway between
the vertex and the center of curvature is a point known as the
focal point; the focal point is denoted by the letter F in the
diagram below. The distance from the vertex to the center of
curvature is known as the radius of curvature (represented by
R). The radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere from
which the mirror was cut. Finally, the distance from the mirror
to the focal point is known as the focal length (represented by
f).
Since the focal point is the midpoint of the line segment
adjoining the vertex and the center of curvature, the focal
length would be one-half the radius of curvature.

Ray Diagram of Convex Mirrors in a Spoon4

The diagram at the right depicts a convex mirror. In Lesson 3, a convex mirror was described as a
portion of a sphere that had been sliced away. If the outside of the sphere is silvered such that it can reflect
light, then the mirror is said to be convex. The center of that original sphere is known as the center of
curvature (C) and the line that passes from the mirror's surface through the sphere's center is known as
the principal axis. The mirror has a focal point (F) that is located along the principal axis, midway between
the mirror's surface and the center of curvature. Note that the center of curvature and the focal point are
located on the side of the mirror opposite the object - behind the mirror. Since the focal point is located
behind the convex mirror, such a mirror is said to have a negative focal length value.
 A convex mirror is sometimes referred to as a diverging mirror
due to the fact that incident light originating from the same point and
will reflect off the mirror surface and diverge. The diagram at the right
shows four incident rays originating from a point and incident towards
a convex mirror. These four rays will each reflect according to the law
of reflection. After reflection, the light rays diverge; subsequently they
will never intersect on the object side of the mirror. For this reason,
convex mirrors produce virtual images that are located somewhere
behind the mirror.
The image in the diagram above is a virtual image. Light does
not actually pass through the image location. It only appears to
observers as though all the reflected light from each part of the object
is diverging from this virtual image location. The fact that all the
reflected light from the object appears to diverge from this location in
space means that any observer would view a replica or reproduction
when sighting along a line at this location.
Mirages: Refraction in a Non-Uniform Medium5
A mirage is an optical phenomenon that creates the illusion of water and results from the refraction
of light through a non-uniform medium. Mirages are most commonly observed on sunny days when driving
down a roadway. As you drive down the roadway, there appears to be a puddle of water on the road several
yards (maybe one-hundred yards) in front of the car. Of course, when you arrive at the perceived location
of the puddle, you recognize that the puddle is not there. Instead, the puddle of water appears to be another
one-hundred yards in front of you. You could carefully match the perceived location of the water to a
roadside object; but when you arrive at that object, the puddle of water is still not on the roadway. The
appearance of the water is simply an illusion.
Mirages occur on sunny days. The role of the sun is to heat the roadway to high temperatures.
This heated roadway in turn heats the surrounding air, keeping the air just above the roadway at higher
temperatures than that day's average air temperature. Hot air tends to be less optically dense than
cooler air. As such, a non-uniform medium has been created by the heating of the roadway and the air
just above it.
While light will travel in a straight line through a uniform medium, it will refract when traveling
through a non-uniform medium. If a driver looks down at the roadway at a very low angle (that is, at a
position nearly one hundred yards away), light from objects above the roadway will follow a curved path
to the driver's eye as shown in the diagram below.

So when you experience this sunny

day phenomenon, your mind must quickly
make sense of how you can look downward
at the roadway and see an object located
above the road. In the process of making
sense of this event, your mind draws upon
past experiences. Searching the database of
stored experiences, your mind is interested in an explanation of why the eye can sight downward at a
surface and see an object that is located above the surface. In the process of searching, it comes up with
three possible explanations based upon past experiences. Your mind subtly ponders these three options.
1. There is a mirror on the road. Someone must have for some reason placed a mirror on the road. The
mirror is reflecting light and that is why I see an image of the oncoming truck when I look downward at
the road.
2. There is a glass window on the road. My gosh, do you believe it! Someone has left a glass window on
the road. The glass window is reflecting light and that is why I see an image of the oncoming truck when
I look downward at the road.
3. There is water on the road. It must have
rained last night and there is a puddle of
water left on the road. The water is reflecting
light and that is why I see an image of the
oncoming truck when I look downward at
the road.
Of the three possible explanations of
the image of the truck, only one makes a lot
of sense to the mind - there is water on the
road. After all, while both glass windows and
mirrors can reflect light, nowhere in your
mind's database of past experiences is there an account of a mirror or glass window being seen on a
roadway. Yet there are plenty of times that a water puddle has been observed to be present on a roadway.
Smart person that you are, you then concludes that there is a puddle of water on the road that is causing
you to see objects located above the road when you sight downward at the road. The illusion is complete.
Red and Green Cellophanes: Can Red Light Pass Through?6
In Activity 1.2., you should see the following observations when red light shines at a white paper with red
and green dots: (1) The white paper appears red; (2) The red dots on the paper cannot be seen; and (3) The
green dots appear black. Let’s understand why these happens and answer the question, “why does light
from a red laser passes more easily though red cellophane than green cellophane?”

The white paper appears red because the color white is a reflection of all wavelengths of light together,
and therefore is able to reflect the red light transmitted onto it, and also no other wavelengths of light are
visible in the darkened room.
The red dots cannot be seen because they are reflecting the same wavelength of light that is being
transmitted onto them. Since the red light is the only light in the room, when it hits the red dots on the
white paper the only wavelength of light that is reflected back is red. There is no contrast between two
different colors caused by multiple wavelengths of light so the colors cannot be distinguished from one
another.
The green dots appear black in the red light
because they absorb the red light and have no
other wavelength of light to reflect. A green dot
appears green in white light because when the
light hits it, it absorbs all wavelengths except
for green, which is reflected. The color black
occurs when all wavelengths of light that hit
an object are absorbed.
Rainbows: Bringing Colors in the
Atmosphere8
Rainbows result from refraction of sunlight in falling water droplets plus reflection of the light from
the back of the droplet.
If during a rain shower you can see the
shadow of your own head, then you are in
position to see a rainbow if conditions are
favorable. The rainbow forms a circular arc
around the anti-solar point, which is located at
the shadow of your head. You can search for the
shadow of your head to find a rainbow in a
waterfall, or even in the spray from a hose or
sprinkler.
The primary rainbow forms between
about 40° and 42° from the antisolar point. The

light path involves refraction and a single

reflection inside the water droplet. If the drops
are large, 1 millimeter or more in diameter, red,
green, and violet are bright but there is little
blue. Such large droplets are suggested by the
rainbow at right.
As the droplets get smaller, red weakens.
In fine mist, all colors except violet may
disappear. Even finer fog droplets, smaller than
0.05 mm, produce the white rainbow or fog bow.
The secondary rainbow involves two reflections
inside the falling droplets.
 Rainbows are not seen in midday since the whole 42° circle is below the horizon at most latitudes.
So rainbows tend to be seen most in the later afternoon when a thundershower has passed and the sun
from the west is illuminating the receding edge of an eastwardly moving raincloud. It is possible to see the
entire circle of the rainbow from an airplane since there can be falling droplets both above and below you.
The secondary rainbow is about 10°
further out from the antisolar point than the
primary bow, is about twice as wide, and has
its colors reversed.
Colors of the Clouds and the Sky9
In a cloud sunlight is scattered equally,
meaning that the sunlight continues to
remain white and gives clouds their distinctive
white appearance.
Clouds are white because light from the
Sun is white. As light passes through a cloud,
it interacts with the water droplets, which are
much bigger than the atmospheric particles
that exist in the sky.
When sunlight reaches an atmospheric
particle in the sky, blue light is scattered away more strongly than other colors, giving the impression that
the sky is blue.
But in a cloud, sunlight is scattered by much larger water droplets. These scatter all colors almost
equally meaning that the sunlight continues to remain white and so making the clouds appear white
against the background of the blue sky.
Cloud bases are often grey as a result of the same
scattering that makes them white. When light is scattered
in a cloud it usually is sent back upwards, or out to the
sides of the cloud, making the tops and sides of the cloud
whiter than the base which receives less light.
This is more prominent in rain clouds because the
cloud droplets are bigger, thus scattering more light. This
means that even less light from the Sun reaches the
bottom of the cloud, giving rain clouds their intimidating
appearance.
Because the tops of clouds have a constant source
of white light, they are always white! If you are ever on a
plane, look out the window when you are above the
clouds, you will see that the tops of all the clouds will be a brilliant white.
At sunrise or sunset, clouds can take on a red or orange color. This is because during sunrise and
sunset, the Sun is very low in the sky and so light has to travel through more of the atmosphere. As a
result more of the blue light is scattered and deflected away allowing more red and yellow light to reach
the Earth.
Rayleigh scattering refers to the scattering of light off of the molecules of the air, and can be extended
to scattering from particles up to about a tenth of the wavelength of the light. It is Rayleigh scattering off
the molecules of the air which gives us the blue sky.
WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
1. A spoon acts as a mirror, but with a curve in it. The front of the spoon is a concave surface giving off
an inverted image while the back is a convex surface giving off an upright image. A diagram showing this
phenomenon is called a ray diagram.
2. A mirage is an optical phenomenon that creates the illusion of water and results from the refraction of
light through a non-uniform medium.
3. Green cellophane will only allow green light to pass through it; a red one will only allow red light to
pass. The cellophane absorbs other colors of light. That is why a red light can easily pass through a red
cellophane compared to a green cellophane
4. Rainbows result from refraction of sunlight in falling water droplets plus reflection of the light from
the back of the droplet. Light enters the water droplet and refracts. It then reflects as it reaches the inner
surface of the droplet and refracts as it goes outside the droplet.
5. The primary rainbow forms between about 40° and 42° from the antisolar point.
6. The secondary rainbow is about 10° further out from the antisolar point than the primary bow, is
about twice as wide, and has its colors reversed.
7. Cloud scatters sunlight and is made by large water droplets. These scatter all colors almost equally
meaning that the sunlight continues to remain white.
8. Rain clouds scatters more sunlight because they have bigger water droplets. This means that less
light from the Sun reaches the bottom of the cloud, giving a gray appearance.
9. During sunrise and sunset, the Sun is very low in the sky and so light has to travel through more of
the atmosphere. As a result, more of the blue light is scattered and deflected away allowing more red and
yellow light to reach the Earth. This is called Rayleigh scattering.
WHAT I CAN DO
Mirror Mirror on the Wall?
We can apply your learning in everyday life by suggesting practical uses of concave and convex mirrors.
Where can we apply them? Elaborate the ones given below:
1. Car rear view mirror
2. Security
3. Street light reflectors
4. Shaving facial hair
5. Car light
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. Rain clouds are mostly gray because:
a. it mostly absorbs all colors except gray
b. it reflects less light as it prepares to rain
c. it reflects more light due to larger water molecules
d. it does not scatter light and focuses it on the atmosphere
2. Which of the following is true about rainbows?
i. Secondary rainbows occur in the order ROYGBIV.
ii. Purple can be seen in primary rainbows.
a. i only b. ii only c. both i and ii d. neither i and ii
3. Blue skies occur during the day due to:
a. Diffraction b. Mie scattering c. Rayleigh scattering d. Tyndall Effect
4. The following correctly explains light passing through a cellophane except:
a. As white light passes through red cellophane, the cellophane absorbs all colors except red.
b. Green light can’t easily pass through green cellophane because it shows the same color.
c. A red light passing through red cellophane will simply go through since they have the same color.
d. Red light can’t easily pass through green cellophane since the collophane absorbs the red light.
5. Which of the following observations can be seen when you shine a red light in a white paper with
red and green dots?
i. White paper appears white.
ii. Red dots can be still be seen.
iii. Green dots appear black.
a. i only b. iii only c. i and iii d. ii and iii
6. The following describes a mirage as a light phenomenon except:
a. Mirages form a circular arc around the anti-solar point, which is located at the shadow of your
head.
b. An optical phenomenon that results from the refraction of light through a non-uniform medium is
called a mirage.
c. If a driver looks down at the roadway at a very low angle, light from objects above the roadway will
follow a curved path causing a mirage.
d. A mirage makes it seem there is a puddle of water on the road that is causing you to see objects
located above the road.
7. Which of the following shows the correct sequence of rainbow formation?
a. Refract – Reflect – Refract b. Refract – Refract – Reflect
c. Reflect – Reflect – Refract d. Reflect – Refract – Refract
8. When illustrating a ray diagram, you can draw the mirrored image by using at least ___.
a. 4 lines b. 3 lines c. 2 lines d. 1 line
9. What principle is responsible when we see yellow to red skies in the early morning or late
afternoon?
a. Diffraction b. Dispersion c. Interference d. Scattering
10. A secondary rainbow is ___ the primary rainbow and is ___ that the primary.
a. above . . . narrower b. above . . . wider c. below . . . narrower d. below . . . wider
For numbers 11 to 15, use the following choices:
a. Concave side b. Convex side c. True d. False
11. A spoon is a double mirror
12. The reflection in a spoon changes as you go near to it.
13. Both sides of a spoon can give different image orientations.
14. This side of the spoon gives you an upright reflected image
15. This side of the spoon gives you an inverted reflected image.

Physical Science
2nd Semester Quarter 2 – Module 12
This module will provide understanding of how Heinrich Hertz discovered and produced radio pulses
WHAT’s IN
Before we proceed with our main topic for this lesson, which is how Heinrich Hertz produced radio
waves or pulses, let us first give a quick glimpse to one of the important discussions that will connect our
main subject in this module: The Theory of Electromagnetism by James Clerk Maxwell.
What is electromagnetism?
Dictionaries defined electromagnetism as a subdivision of physics that is concerned with the study
of the interacting relationship of electric currents or fields and magnetic fields.
Who is Maxwell?
James Clerk Maxwell is a Scottish physicist who proposed the theory about the relation of electric
currents or fields and magnetic fields. In 1873, he developed the unified theory of electromagnetism.
What is the theory of electromagnetism?
Before Maxwell pointed out the interrelationship of electric current, magnetic field and light, it is
thought that the two fields and the light were once separate forces. When Maxwell studied these, he
projected that the electric field, magnetic field, and light are different appearances of the same
phenomenon. He further proposed four main interactions of electromagnetic forces. These are:
1. The force of attraction or repulsion between electric charges is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
2. Magnetic poles come in pairs that attract and repel each other, much as electric charges do.
3. An electric current in a wire produces a magnetic field whose direction depends on the direction of the
current.
4. A moving electric field produces a magnetic field and vice versa.
WHAT’s NEW
FM Static
One fine day in March, a man named
Fonzo, planned to have a trip of a lifetime.
Vacation has just started the previous day
and the sun today is shining bright. It was his
dream since childhood to travel, however,
their meager life cannot afford such luxury.
So, he promised his little self that when
he grows up, he will work hard and save hard
to make his dream come true. His promise
came true and he was able to make time for a
short vacation. He invited his longtime
friends, Martin and James.
They rode his car and start to drive
towards north of Manila, Philippines. Their
target destination is Nueva Vizcaya. They were happily chatting when Martin suggested to listen to music.
When he and James agreed, Martin excitedly turned the stereo on. The music was good and the view
outside the window car is great. They can see wide plains and mountains, birds, and other animals.
Country life is good.
When they reach, Nueva Ecija, they took a stop at a fast food restaurant to take their fill and have
a little rest from driving. After an hour, they resumed their trip. When they reached the little town before
entering Nueva Vizcaya, static interference on the stereo started to be heard. The song that was playing
started to have gaps. Martin complained that it was unfortunate the song could not be played completely
because of the statics.
Fonzo assured his friend that it was just because they are passing by the mountains and there are
fewer station towers and satellites in the area. He said that signals are blocked because of the mountains
and the trees so station satellites cannot send signals properly and the stereo cannot receive those signals.
Even their mobile phones do not have cell signals.
However, he assured them that when they reach their destination, there will be station towers and
satellites so they can listen to music again without hearing any static interference.
WHAT IS IT
To further understand radio waves, what follows below is a discussion and description of how Hertz
produced the radio waves or pulses.
The Electromagnetic spectrum
It is the entire range of wavelengths or frequencies of electromagnetic radiation extending from gamma
rays to the longest radio waves and including visible light.
What are Radio waves?
Radio waves, as defined by
dictionaries, are electromagnetic
waves. It is measured to have the
longest wavelength in the
electromagnetic spectrum. Its
frequency ranges from 300 GHz to as
low as 300 kHz. Radio waves or radio
pulses are also considered to be one of
the most important discoveries the
human has ever had because it made
communication more efficient.
Radio waves are very significant. They are extensively utilized in modern technology for cell phones,
ICT communication, broadcasting, navigation schemes, communications satellites, wireless fidelity or wi-
fi routers, and numerous other applications. They also transport signals for television and mobile phones.
If not absorbed, radio waves will bounce off items.
How was it produced?
Heinrich Hertz verified the existence of radio waves or pulses in the late 1880s. In 1879, the 22 –
year old Hertz was seriously thinking to prove Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism as part of his studies
in Berlin.
By 1886, while continuing his quest to verify the theory of Maxwell, he witnessed an electrical spark
in one of his devices. That spark directed him to deep thoughts and questions.
Hertz put up his spark – gap transmitter. As he was already experimenting to prove Maxwell’s
theory, he hoped that his electrical apparatus would transmit electromagnetic waves.
At both ends of his spark-gap transmitter, Hertz put two hollow spheres of 30 cm diameter with 3m
apart. These spheres acted as capacitors – a passive electronic component with two terminals and stores
electrical energy in an electric field.
As he was using his transmitter in front of his students, he applied a high voltage alternating current
electricity across the central spark – gap, it produced electrical sparks through a process called magnetic
induction. The sparks flew between spark gaps – small gaps in the circuit.
He started producing them using a piece of electrical equipment called induction coil. The induction
coil converted low voltage direct current electricity from a battery into a high voltage alternating current
electricity. The electricity crossed a small air gap at consistent intervals as a spark.
Hertz observed that sparks caused an aggressive pulse of electric current within the copper wires
leading out to the spheres. These uncertain electric charges produced electromagnetic waves or radio pulse
or radio waves. The radio waves spread out at the speed of light through the air around the wire.
He, then, further observed that the
sparks that glided across the main spark gap
(transmitter) typically soared across the
secondary gap (receiver). Further experiments
that Hertz did show that the flickering at the
main gap produces regular electrical waves
that is moving back and forth.
He believed that the circuit was
vibrating which is determined by electrical
properties called inductance and capacitance.
He identified the phenomenon called self –
inductance was taking place in the cooper
wires. This phenomenon allowed him to deduce that the electric vibrations had an extraordinarily high
frequency.
As Maxwell’s theory had indicated, the main circuit of the transmitter would discharge
electromagnetic waves with a wave ranging up to one meter or more.
Hertz distinguished the pulses or waves with his receiver because the sparks jumped from the
transmitter to the receiver even though it has a distance of 1.5 meters.
The sparks were produced by the onset of the electromagnetic waves from the transmitter creating
fierce electrical vibrations in the receiver. Hertz, not only proved Maxwell’s theory, but he also was able to
generate radio waves.

WHAT’s MORE
Activity: Understanding Radio Waves
There are many ways by which you can understand the concept of radio waves better. One way is
by giving definitions to the terms associated with the subject matter. The way the word is used gives you
a clue as to its meaning. Another way is by looking at the parts of a diagram.
Learning the Skill: Definition of terms (A)
Directions: Using a piece of paper, write the definition of the terms given below.
Terms Definition
Capacitor
Electric field
Electrical Transmitter
Ultra-high frequency band
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic wave
Hertz (Hz)
Magnetic field
Magnetic induction
Radio wave
Self – inductance
Spark-gap
Voltage
Learning the skill: Arranging the steps (B)
Directions: Using numbers 1 – 8, chronologically arrange the steps below on how Hertz produced the
radio waves.
a. _____ A high voltage alternating current electricity was applied across the central spark – gap.
b. _____ He started producing them using a piece of electrical equipment called induction coil.
c. _____ Hertz put two hollow spheres of 30 cm diameter with 3m apart.
d. _____ Hertz put up his spark – gap transmitter.
e. _____ The induction coil converted low voltage direct current electricity from a battery into a high
voltage alternating current electricity.
f. _____ The spark gap produced electrical sparks through a process called magnetic induction.
g. _____ The sparks flew between spark gaps.
h. _____ The sparks that glided across the main spark gap (transmitter) typically soared across the
secondary gap (receiver).

WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

You are almost at the end of this module. But before we totally wrap up, fill in the blanks with
terms/concepts that define key points you have learned from the topic discussed.
1. Radio waves, as defined by dictionaries, are _______________ waves.
2. The frequency range of radio waves are from _______________ to as low as 300 kHz.
3. Electromagnetism deals with the study of the _______________ of electric currents or fields and
magnetic fields.
4. Radio waves will _______________ items if not absorbed.
5. Heinrich Hertz proved the presence of _______________ in the late 1880s.
6. Wi-fi uses radio waves that are directed through a _______________.
7. Hertz identified a phenomenon called _______________ as taking place in the copper wires of the spark-
gap transmitter.
8. The sparks created from the main spark-gap of the transmitter flew across the receiver’s spark-gap at
a distance of ______________.
9. The sparks generated by the transmitter were caused by the ________________.
10. Radio waves can be as tall as a human or a _______________.
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. Which of the following is the frequency range of radio waves?
a. 300 kHz – 300 GHz b. 300 GHz - 3 x 1013 Hz
c. 3 x 1013 Hz - 3 x 1015 Hz d. 3 GHz - 3 x 1021 Hz
2. Which of the following is the SI unit for frequency?
a. Hertz b. Ampere c. Minute d. Kilometer
3. Heinrich Hertz’s discovery confirmed which theory?
a. Galilean Relativity b. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory
c. Newtonian Mechanics d. Special Relativity
4. Which of the following materials can detect radio waves?
a. magnetic inductor b. semiconductor
c. spark gap transmitter d. wire loop with a small gap
5. Which of the following apparatus did Hertz use to produce the radio waves?
a. Magnetic inductor b. Semiconductor analyzers
c. Spark gap transmitter d. Wire loop
6. Which of the following materials allows the flow of radio waves?
a. conductor b. inductor c. insulator d. resistor
7. Which of the following have the lowest and longest frequency?
a. Radio waves b. Microwave c. Infrared d. Ultraviolet rays
8. Which of the following uses radio waves?
a. Mobile phones b. Navigation systems c. TV stations d. All of the these
9. In what part of the transmitter did Hertz see electrical sparks?
a. Battery b. Conductor c. Spark-gap d. Switch
10. Who discovered the electromagnetic radiation?
a. Aristotle b. Heinrich Hertz c. James Clerk Maxwell d. John Dalton
11. In which of the following means is radio waves generated and detected?
a. A battery and a microscope b. A light detector
c. A microphone and Z104 detector d. A spark-gap transmitters and receivers
12. Which is the best description for radio waves??
a. It is a sound wave used for short distance communication
b. It is a sound wave with the highest frequency
c. It is an electromagnetic wave with the longest wavelength used for long distance communication
d. It is an electromagnetic wave with the shortest wavelength used for long distance communication
13. Radio waves use ultra-high frequency band to deliver which of the following?
a. Email b. Music c. Signal d. Text Message
14. It is an intense burst of radio-frequency energy lasting for a fraction of a second.
a. Infrared b. Radio wave or pulse c. Ultrasound d. Visible light
15. Which of the following sparks can produce radio waves?
a. High voltage sparks b. Low voltage sparks
c. Medium voltage sparks d. Nominal voltage sparks

ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES
Science Investigation: Wave Blockers
What do radio, TV, radio-controlled cars, and cell phones all have in common? They all use invisible
waves to transmit information. Find out which materials block radio waves, and which materials allow
radio waves to pass through by doing this experiment.

Objective: Test different materials to see if they block radio waves

Materials and Equipment:

1. Any remote-controlled device and remote control with new batteries (TV, Stereo, toy car, etc.)
2. Two mobile phones (can be a basic phone)
3. Different materials to test:
a. Aluminum foil
b. Plastic wrap
 c. Paper
d. Cotton
e. Lab notebook

Experimental Procedure:
1. Wrap one of the mobile phones in the first material (e.g. plastic wrap) you want to test using multiple
layers so that it is completely and securely covered.
2. Using the mobile phone that is not wrapped, attempt to send a message to the wrapped mobile phone.
Does it work?
3. Repeat this process for the other materials collecting data in a table below:

Name of Does the mobile phone Does the remote My observations

Material work? (Yes/NO) control/device work?
(Yes/No)
Aluminum foil
Plastic Wrap
Paper
Cotton