Pluralism and the

Problem of the
Discernment of Spirits
Justin S. Ukpong

The question that concerns us here is in one sense an old question: we meet it in
different forms in the Old and New Testaments, and in the church's mission history. In
another sense it is a new question, for today not only have some of the assumptions
that framed it in the past changed, but also the context in which it arises and the
framework within which it is perceived have changed. It is the question of recognizing
the action of God in concrete situations in the universe and in the community of God's
people, and responding appropriately to it. We face this question in the incident in the
book of Numbers 11:24-30. Here Moses, as against Joshua, was able to discern the
action of God in the two elders who were prophesying in the camp. It is a similar issue
that is addressed in Mark 9:38-40 (Luke 9:49-50): what had appeared to Jesus'
disciples as a profane use of Jesus' name in casting out an evil spirit was discerned by
Jesus as a manifestation of God's power. From a different perspective 1 John 4:1 calls
for testing every spirit to know which comes from God.
Today, the pluralistic context in which Christianity exists and the increasingly positive
evaluation of this context in Christian theological circles have forced to the fore the
question of God's lordship over and continued action in creation (cf. Gen. 9:12,16; Ps. 24
and 104) and the need for the Christian church to discern God's action and respond
appropriately to it. We shall here be concerned with three aspects of this pluralistic
context. First, the situation of radically secular ideologies: can the Christian church
identify any manifestations of God's action in such a situation? Second, the context of non-
Christian religions: how should the Christian church relate to such religions? Third, the
pluralistic context of the Christian community itself: where is God's Spirit leading the
church today in the light of the rise of the ecumenical movement, new religious move-
ments, and new forms of theological expressions within the church?
We cannot of course provide ready-made answers for these questions. For one
thing, divine activity defies and transcends human understanding. For another,

• The Rev. Justin Ukpong is professor of New Testament and African theology at the Catholic Institute of
West Africa, Port Hartcourt, Nigeria.

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discernment of spirits in these situations is best linked to concrete experiences rather

than done theoretically. Our intention, rather, is to explore, from the biblical
perspective, the theme of discernment of spirits and relate it to the three contexts
identified above, with a view to awakening critical consciousness and questioning.
We shall begin by clarifying the different usages of the term "discernment of
spirits", and examining the meaning of "spirit" in the Bible.

The use of the term

The "discernment of spirits" goes back to 1 Corinthians 12:10. However, in the
church's theological tradition it is found mainly in the context of Christian spiritual-
ity. 1 Basically, in the traditional usage, the term had to do with taking right decisions
in matters of morality and spiritual progress. Paul Debuchy defines it as "the judgment
whereby to determine from what spirit the impulses of the soul emanate". And "spirit"
here refers to the "various spiritual agents which, by their suggestions and movements,
may influence the moral value of our acts".2 This basic understanding of the term is
still current today. Sometimes, as is evident in Ignatian spirituality, there is greater
orientation towards the aspect of spiritual progress whereby one comes to understand
the signs that manifest one's interior spiritual state.3
Another understanding is in the context of renewal in the church whereby faithful-
ness to the gospel message and Christian tradition is maintained in the process of
adjusting to the challenges of modern cultures. In this connection "discernment of
spirits" has become very significant for religious orders and institutes of the Roman
Catholic Church as they seek to adjust to modern conditions, at the same time
remaining faithful to the spirit of the original founders.4
Discernment of spirits is very important in the modern charismatic renewal
movement. It is naïve to trust all claims to inspiration by the Holy Spirit because an
evil spirit can cause the same manifestations attributed to the Holy Spirit. Here
discernment of spirits may be identified at two levels. First is the level of individual
impulses and inspirations. Though there are certain signs for recognizing these
impulses, it is generally admitted that there are no absolute criteria 5
The second level is that of decision-making. A process of discernment is employed
in making individual decisions in very serious matters and in making group decisions
on actual situations or on questions of faith.6 In each case discernment has to do with
recognizing what the will or action of God is.
In 1 Corinthians 12-14 where Paul discusses the right ordering of the gifts of the
Holy Spirit in the Corinthian church, he mentions diakriseis pneumaton, discerning of
spirits (1 Cor. 12:10) as one of these gifts. Diakrisis has the connotation of
"differentiating", "distinguishing", "judging". It also implies recognizing a thing for
what it is. Pneumaton here refers to spirits of persons as they may be under the
influence of the Holy Spirit or other forces. In Pauline anthropology there is a
distinction between "spirit" (pneuma), "soul" (psyche) and "body" (soma) (cf. 1
Thess. 5:23). The spirit of a person is that whereby the person relates to the spiritual
world. It is that on which the Holy Spirit as well as evil spirits can exert influence.
When, for example, a person prophesies, it is his/her spirit that receives the revelation
to prophesy. Discerning spirits in this context thus means knowing who is influenced
by the Holy Spirit and who is not.7 This charism appears in 1 Corinthians 14:19-32 as
complementary to prophecy.8 Its special connection with prophecy seems supported

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by parallel phrases like "proving all things" (1 Thess. 5:21), "testing the spirits"
(1 John 4:1) which have explicit reference to prophecy. However, in view of Paul's
statement in 1 Corinthians 14:37 which implies discernment of spirits on the part of
prophets and other pneumatics in the context of a written communication, this special
connection with prophecy may not be construed to mean exclusive connection with
prophecy. Thus diakriseis pneumaton refers to the ability to recognize the genuineness
of inspired communication.9
In Corinthians 12 where the charisms are listed, the thrust of Paul's argument is that
all the charisms come from one source — the Holy Spirit (vv.4,11); that they are given to
the body of Christ, the church, and Christians exercise them because they are members
of this body (vv. 12-30); and that they are to be used for the common good of the church
(v.7).10 Paul would therefore see discernment of spirits as a gift of the Holy Spirit to the
church to be exercised by members of the church for the good of the church.
The use of the term discernment of spirits in this essay (as in some current
theological discussions) takes as its point of departure the use in 1 Corinthians 12:10
where it is seen as a gift of the Holy Spirit to the church of recognizing the genuineness
of inspirations. It also embraces the traditional and the charismatic renewal movement
usages where it has to do with taking right decisions in accordance with God's will.
But it goes beyond these to include recognizing God's action in the world at large.
Today there is need for the Christian church to recover and exercise this gift.11

The Spirit and spirits

The words ruah (Hebrew) and pneuma (Greek) usually translated as "spirit" mean
ordinarily "wind", and only in the transferred sense "spirit". Very often, depending on
the context, it has the meaning of "breath". It is outside the scope of this article to do a
complete study of the meaning of "spirit" in the Bible. We intend here merely to deal
with those aspects that relate to our topic without any attempt at detailed exegetical
analysis.
In the Old Testament the word ruah sometimes refers to the invisible and
transcendent nature of God. God is by nature Spirit while human beings, for example,
only have spirit (cf. Isa. 31:3). God is also the source of all other spirits (cf. Gen. 2:7,
6:3; Ps. 104:29; Job 34:14-15). Sometimes the expression "Spirit of God" is itself used
to refer to God (cf. Isa. 40:13, 63:10, Ps. 106:33) or to express some of the divine
attributes (cf. Ps. 139:7 where "Your Spirit" refers to God's omnipresence). It is to be
noted here that in the Old Testament "Spirit of God" or "Holy Spirit" does not mean a
separate divine person. The Trinity was revealed only in the New Testament.12
In the New Testament the basic affirmations of the Old Testament about God's
nature as Spirit are taken over and in many instances clarified and nuanced. John 4:24
provides the clearest statement on this: "God is Spirit, and his worshippers must
worship in spirit and in truth." The expression "Holy Spirit of God" sometimes means
as in the Old Testament God himself, "the Father of our spirits" (Heb. 12:9) and "the
God of the spirits of the prophets" (Rev. 22:6). Jesus Christ is also described as Spirit
(cf. 2 Cor. 3:17,18; Phil. 1:19).
The first chapter of Genesis embodies in a very significant way a deep theology of
God's Spirit/breath as a dynamic creative force. At the beginning of creation God's
ruah hovered over the water (Gen. 1:2). Here, in view of the rest of the chapter
whereby God creates by speaking, "breath" would be a more appropriate translation of

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ruah.13 Speaking and breath are inseparable. This is brought out more clearly in Psalm
33:6-9: "By the word of the Lord were the heavens made, their starry host by the
breath of his mouth." In Genesis 2:7 it is by God's breath that the human creature
becomes a living being. This divine dynamism continues to accompany creation in its
being and to keep creatures in existence (cf. Job 33:4). It recreates and renews the
earth (Ps. 104:29-30).
In the New Testament, what appears purely as a manifestation of God's activity in
creation in the Old Testament is attributed to a distinct divine person — the Holy
Spirit. Thus, for example, Psalm 104:29-30 which refers to God renewing creation
with his breath, is often interpreted theologically, from the New Testament perspec-
tive, to mean the Holy Spirit renewing creation.
Reference to the Holy Spirit as the third person of the Trinity is not found in the Old
Testament. This is a Christian doctrine revealed only in the New Testament. Both in
the early life of Jesus and in his public ministry the Holy Spirit figured prominently.
He was prominent, too, in the life of the early church. His descent upon the apostles on
Pentecost day endowed them with the gift of tongues (Acts 2:1-13). He directed the
earliest church in all things, and the book of Acts may well be described as the story of
the activity of the Holy Spirit in the church. Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles, saw
his ministry as directed by the Holy Spirit (cf. e.g. 1 Cor. 2:4; Rom. 8:26-27).
The Holy Spirit is called Paraclete/Comforter, Counsellor, Spirit of Truth (John
14:17,26, 15:26, 16:13). He was active in the life of Jesus, in the life of Jesus'
disciples, and continues to be active in the life of the church and of individual
Christians today.14
Sometimes in the Old Testament ruah is used to refer to the vital principle in God's
creatures (Ps. 104:29-30). In this sense, with regard to human beings, it has the
meaning of soul (Ps. 76:12). Sometimes it appears as something additional to soul, a
source of strength (cf. 1 Sam. 30:12).
In the New Testament pneuma appears as the rational aspect of the human being. It
is distinguished from soul, body, mind and flesh. It is what enables a person to
perceive spiritual things. It is also often used to refer to power and strength in
contradiction to flesh which is weak. Sometimes it is used interchangeably with soul
(e.g. Acts 7:59).
Apart from expressing God's fundamental nature and dynamism and an aspect of
human existence, there is a sense in which "spirit" is used in the Old Testament to refer
to entities which have separate existence and which can act on human beings. Some
are good while others are evil.
Sometimes good spirits from God are depicted as descending suddenly on people
and making them act on the spur of the moment (e.g. 1 Chron. 12:18). At other times
they are depicted as charisms residing in and guiding persons charged with special
functions (cf. 1 Sam. 10:1, 5-7; Isa. 42:1, 61:1). Very often investiture with the spirit
produced phenomenal changes in the persons concerned — the judges in Israel had
great courage and wisdom (cf. Judg. 3:10, 6:34, 11:29), and Samson had great
strength (Judg. 14-16). In two instances we learn of personal transferable spirits
through which power and authority were imparted — the spirit of Moses (Num. 11:25)
and the spirit of Elijah (2 Kings 2:9,15).15
The New Testament attributes manifestations of divine activity in creation to the
Holy Spirit rather than to separate spirits, though in Hebrews 1:14 angels are referred

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to as ministering spirits. The Holy Spirit influences the spirits of people and moves
them to action. Thus expressions like "spirit of prophets" (1 Cor. 14:32, Rev. 22:6)
refer to spirits of Christians inspired by God to prophesy.
As entities distinct from God, some spirits in the Old Testament may be described as
evil in the sense that they incite people to evil actions. From 1 Kings 22:19-23,
however, it appears that sometimes "evil" may be just a function rather than a
characterization of the spirit concerned. We find a similar case in the story of Job
l:6ff., and this brings us to the idea of Satan. In the Old Testament the word Satan
(accuser, enemy, adversary) could refer to the function of a spirit that tests and accuses
people before God. Apparently any of the "sons of God" could be charged with this
function.16 It could also be a proper name referring to an evil spirit as in 1 Chronicles
21:1. 17 Another comparable proper name we find is Azazel — the wilderness demon
on whom the guilt of Israel was laid according to the rite of the Great Day of
Atonement (Lev. 16).
In the New Testament as in the Old Testament, we meet evil spirits as personified
entities. These are demon (daimonion/daimon), devil (diabolos) and Satan (satanás).
Demons have the general designation "unclean spirits" (pneuma akathartos). They
possess people and afflict them with severe diseases. They disseminate error among
Christians and seduce them from the truth (1 Tim. 4:1). Diabolos (slanderer,
calumniator, false accuser) and satanás (adversary) are used interchangeably in the
New Testament to refer to the prince of demons. In Matthew 12:24, Beelzebul
(Beelzebub) appears as a proper name for this prince of demons and in 2 Corinthians
6:15 another proper name Belial is found. He also inflicts diseases (Luke 13:16).
Where do these evil spirits come from? In the Old Testament it is clear that they
come from God and are under God's control, though it does appear that sometimes
Satan did act without reference to God (1 Chron. 21:1). Even so, such actions would
appear to be within the divine plan.18 The New Testament takes the existence of evil
spirits for granted. They constitute a kingdom in opposition to God's kingdom. Jesus'
mission is to destroy this kingdom and establish God's kingdom. He accomplished this
by his ministry, passion and resurrection and empowered human beings — Christians
— to continue this mission.
The above considerations of the meaning of "spirit" raise certain questions: Is God
still active in our universe? Does he still incite people's spirits to good and courageous
actions? Are we Christians making manifest the power of Christ in the world? All these
are questions that have to do with the discernment of spirits. To identify God's action in
the universe and in human affairs today is what constitutes discernment of spirits.

The phenomenon of discernment of spirits in the Bible

It is important here to note that the phenomenon of discernment of spirits is not
confined to those texts of the Bible in which this term is found. In fact, most of the
texts that involve this phenomenon do not contain the term itself. The New Testament
sometimes refers to the gift of discernment of spirits as divine wisdom in contrast to
human wisdom (cf. 1 Cor. 2; James 3).
We have many instances both in the Old Testament and the New Testament in
which God's action is discerned in people outside the community of God's people. An
example in the Old Testament is the story of Abraham and Melchizedek (Gen. 14:17-
20). By paying a tithe to Melchizedek, Abraham, the father of the chosen people of

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God, acknowledged Melchizedek as sent by God on a special mission. We see in the

story of the meeting of Moses and Jethro another example of discernment (Ex. 18:1-
26). Here Moses accepted the advice of a non-Jew on how to govern the people of
God. Perhaps the most striking example of this type of discernment in the Old
Testament is the case of the prophet Isaiah referring to Cyrus, a Gentile king, as God's
anointed sent to shepherd Israel into freedom (Isa. 44:24-28, 45:1; also 2 Chron.
36:22-23). In the New Testament we have the story of Peter and Cornelius in Acts 10,
and the story of Jesus and the Syrophoenician woman in Mark 7:24-30. Both stories
reveal discernment of God's presence and action in the lives of people regarded as
pagans.
Within the community of God's people, we also note instances of discernment of
spirits. The incident of Numbers 11:26-29 is a good example in the Old Testament.
The prophets Jeremiah and Micah exercised great discernment in their ministry. They
were able to distinguish true from false prophecy, and to rebuke false prophets (cf. Jer.
5:28; Lam. 2; Micah 3). In the New Testament Peter's confession of faith (Mark 8:27-
30) was an act of discernment. Paul recognized Bar-Jesus as "son of the devil" (Acts
13:10) and the slave girl in Acts 16:17 as possessed by an evil spirit.
The incidents in Matthew 9:1-8 and 12:22-28 indicate situations of lack of
discernment of spirits — the Pharisees did not recognize Jesus as God and therefore as
capable of forgiving sins; they also attributed his miraculous powers to Satan. Paul's
letter to the Galatians is a stern rebuke for a lack of discernment on the part of the
Galatian Christians in accepting a different gospel contrary to what he had preached to
them.
Discernment of spirits is basically an action of God himself or of the Holy Spirit
operating in human beings. Thus in many instances discernment is attributed to a
special revelation. For example, Samuel had God's revelation to anoint Saul and
David kings of Israel; Peter had God's revelation before accepting Cornelius into the
church. If discernment of spirits is basically the work of God or of the Holy Spirit
operating in us, then "living by the spirit" must be seen as the true disposition for
discernment of spirits (cf. Gal. 5:13-26; Rom. 8:1-17). This naturally involves
openness to the Holy Spirit — a true kenosis, i.e. a self-emptying and complete self-
surrender to the power of the Holy Spirit.
In the light of these considerations, let us now try to consider our contemporary
contexts identified earlier.

Discernment in contexts where radically secular ideologies operate

As we know them, the radically secular ideologies, whether of the Russian-Cuban
type or of the Chinese type, are characterized by the denial of God as the ultimate
point of reference for the universe, and by opposition to religion. Because God's
existence is denied, religion is regarded as superstition, and religious institutions are
under severe restrictions. Modern Christian interpreters of Marx have pointed out
that Marx's criticism of religion must be understood in the light of how religion
functioned in his days and that authentic Marxism is not irreconcilable with
Christianity. They would then go on to distance the mature Marx from the Marxist-
Leninism of today.19
Until recently, communist regimes have consistently and openly repressed religion,
Lenin was confident that the Russian church would die out with the withdrawal of state

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support at the beginning of the Russian revolution in 1917. Stalin went a step further
and mounted anti-religious propaganda campaigns, and enforced anti-religious laws in
1921. In 1950 Krushchev, with the strengthening of anti-religious laws, predicted that
by 1980 religion would be eliminated from the Soviet Union.20
Today, however, realities have belied these prognoses. Religion still lives on in the
Soviet Union. Besides, there are signs of mitigated and even positive government
postures towards religion — we hear of many churches being opened for public
worship and Christians no longer being imprisoned on religious grounds.21 The same
holds true for Cuba22 and China.23 We hear today oîperestroïka, restructuring of the
socialist system in the Soviet Union with its emphasis on glasnost, openness and
democratization of all aspects of society. To be sure, the idea is not a going-back on
socialism but making it, so to say, wear a human face.24
It is precisely at this point that the issue of discernment of spirits is posed for the
Christian church: could we say that the Holy Spirit has been active in societies that
have, as a matter of ideology, denied the existence of God? How do we account for the
continued existence of religion in these societies? How do we account for the emerging
new posture, and how do we respond to it?
That God is present and active in the world even where his existence is denied by
human beings follows naturally from the fact that the whole universe belongs to God
who continues to keep it in existence (Ps. 24, 104). The task of the Christian and of
the Christian church then must be to seek to discover how God operates in such a
situation. While sociological and historical analysis may help us to understand the
human factors that have helped to sustain the faith of Christians in such a situation,
the ultimate explanation must be found in God himself, who has continued to draw
people to himself in spite of the unfavourable situation in which they find
themselves. The present positive disposition of communist regimes towards religion
must be seen as a manifestation of God's active presence there. But the crucial
question is how the church actually responds in the concrete to this new posture.
This is where a true kenosis, a self-emptying of human ambitions and human pride,
and an openness to the Spirit are called for. The process of responding is a process of
discernment of spirits.

Discernment in the context of other religions

Up till recently, the Christian church had a rather negative attitude towards other
religions, and expected them to disappear with the introduction of Christianity into
those places where they were practised. But as these religions have continued to exist
side by side with Christianity, the attitude of much of the Christian world towards
them has changed today from that of confrontation to that of dialogue. It is no longer
theologically acceptable today, at least in the non-radical evangelical circles, to look
on other religions as Satanic. Positive evaluations of religions vis-a-vis Christianity are
being put forward by Christian scholars who have studied them.25
However, the Christian churches are yet to understand what such a stance involves
in terms of their assessment of the eschatological value of these religions, and how in
practice to relate to them. At the WCC Assembly in Vancouver in 1983, this problem
surfaced. In one of the draft reports presented to the plenary for adoption, a sentence in
the section on the relationship of Christians to people of other religious convictions
read: "While affirming the uniqueness of the birth, life, death and resurrection of Jesus

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to which we bear witness, we recognize God's creative work in the religious

experience of people of other faiths." This sentence was hotly contested and was
eventually turned over to the Central Committe to decide on. The Central Committee
reached a split decision on the following sentence: "While affirming the uniqueness of
the birth, life and death and resurrection of Jesus to which we bear witness, we
recognize God's creative work in the seeking for religious truth among people of other
faiths." What is therefore recognized is the "search for truth" and not "the achieve-
ments" of that search in other religions.26
The fundamental issue here is that of God's presence in other religions, and the
question is: does God operate in non-Christian religions and through non-Christian
persons? Examples like the pagan prophet Balaam prophesying under God's influence
(Num. 22-24), the Gentile Cornelius receiving a divine revelation (Acts 10:1-8), and
others would force us to give an affirmative answer. It is here that the problem of
discernment of spirits arises, and we must have recourse to the Holy Spirit for
guidance.

Discernment within the community of Christians

We shall discuss here three areas in the life of the community of Christians which
we consider important with regard to the question of discernment of spirits. First is the
ecumenical movement. The response of various Christian bodies to this movement
ranges from negative, non-participation to positive, active involvement.27 At this
level, discernment of spirits is needed to see whether this is not a movement inspired
by the Holy Spirit (cf. John 17:11,21-23), and whether participation in it is not
participation in God's action of salvation for humanity. Here, as in other cases,
openness to the Spirit of God and emptying oneself of prejudices and human pride
must be consciously cultivated as a predisposition for discernment. At another level,
that is, in the case of those churches committed to the movement, discernment of
spirits is needed to be able to appreciate each other's tradition, to perceive the action of
God in traditions and confessions other than one's own, and to accept each other in a
unity in which there is diversity. Indeed, given the wide variety of the backgrounds of
member churches, constant discernment of spirits in taking decisions in individual
concrete situations is the only guarantee for the success of the movement.
The second area of concern is the rise of new religious movements within the
Christian fold. Some of these movements, like the charismatic renewal movement, cut
across traditional confessional boundaries. In some places, they are seen as a power to
rejuvenate the traditional churches, while in other places they are seen as a threat to the
very life of the church.28 No doubt some of them have, in recent years, attracted
negative reactions from the public. An example is the Jim Jones' People's Temple
movement that met with a tragic end about a decade ago. Instances like this have made
the question of discernment of spirits in Christian ministry urgent.
The third area of concern comprises critical issues in the church today — incultura-
tion and liberation theologies, the issue of the ordination of women, etc. While some
of these issues have led to the opening up of new vistas in the church's life and
thought, and in some cases have been a source of hope for many Christians, they have
however also been a source of anxiety and concern. Discernment of spirits is called for
here at different levels — at the level of church authorities, individual theologians
engaged in discussing them, and the entire Christian community — to be able to

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perceive where the Holy Spirit is leading the church. At the base of it all must be
affirmed the power of the Spirit moving the church to do infinitely more than we could
ever imagine (cf. Eph. 3:20), and the church's duty to discern the direction of that
movement.

* * *

We have identified here three contemporary contexts which seem to us to demand

the church's attention in terms of discernment of spirits. We have also indicated that
discernment of Spirits particularly with regard to these contexts is more a matter of
experiencing rather than rationalizing on the action of God. This experiencing of
God's action must be seen to involve, on our part, a process of listening without
prejudice, of being open to the Spirit and expecting the unexpected. We must see the
activity of God as extending beyond the boundaries of our cultures, our churches and
confessions, and all human norms and structures. We must admit the impossibility of
holding God captive within our human structures, and the limitation of human wisdom
to fully comprehend divine transcendence.

NOTES
1
Joseph T. Lienhard, S J, offers a good survey of the interpretation of the term in the patristic era, see his
"On 'Discernments of Spirits' in the early Church", Theological Studies, 4, 1980, pp.505-529.
2
"Discernment of Spirits", in The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. V, eds Charles G. Herbemann et al., New
York, 1913, p.28.
3
Cf. T.N. McFadden, "Discernment of Spirits", in Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion, eds Paul Kevin
Meagher, Thomas O'Brien and Sr Consuelo Maria Pherene, Washington DC, Corpus Publications, 1979,
p. 106.
4
Cf. John Carroll Futrell, "Ignatian Discernment", Studies in the Spirituality of the Jesuits, 2, 1970, pp.47-
88.
5
Cf. Heribert Mühlen, Λ Charismatic Theology. Initiation in the Spirit, London, Burns & Oates, 1978,
pp. 182-189.
6
Cf. ibid., pp. 190-195.
7
Cf. William F. Orr and James Arthur Walther, / Corinthians (The Anchor Bible), New York, Doubleday,
1976, p.282.
8
Cf. E. Earle Ellis, "'Spiritual' Gifts in the Pauline Community", New Testament Studies, 20, 1974,
pp. 129,132-133.
9
According to G. Dautzenberg, however, this charism has to do with interpreting prophetic utterances. See
his "Zum Religionsgeschichtlichen Hintergrund der diakrisis pneumaton (I Kor. 12:10)", Biblische
Zeitschrift N.F., 15, 1971, pp.93-104.
10
Cf. Jannes Reiling, "Prophecy, the Spirit and the Church", in Prophetic Vocation in the New Testament
and Today, ed. J. Panagopoulos, Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1977, p.65.
11
The term "church" is used here comprehensively to refer to the different levels of understanding church as
the local congregation, the hierarchy and the entire Christian community.
12
Cf. G. von Rad, in Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. Xavier Leon Dufour, London, Geoffrey
Chapman, 2nd ed., 1973, p.571.
13
Cf. Robert Luyster, "Wind and Water: Cosmogonie Symbolism in the Old Testament", Zeitschrift für die
Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 93, 1981, p.l.
14
Cf. John O'Donnell, SJ, "In Him and Over Him: the Holy Spirit in the Life of Jesus", Gregorianum, 70,
1989, pp.25-45; Yves Congar, I Believe in the Holy Spirit, Vol. I: The Experience of Spirit, London,
Geoffrey Chapman, 1983; idem The Word and the Spirit, Geoffrey Chapman, 1986.
15
Cf. Ze'ev Weisman, "The Personal Spirit as Imparting Authority", Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft, 93, 1981, pp.225-234.
16
Cf. G. von Rad, "Diabolos", in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Vol. II, ed. Gerhard Kittel,
Grand Rapids, Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1964, pp.73-74.
17
Here the word is used without an article, and this designates a proper name, cf. ibid.
18
Cf. ibid.,p.l5.

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 PLURALISM AND THE PROBLEM OF THE DISCERNMENT OF SPIRITS

19
See for example Per Frostin, "Marx's and Bonhoeffer's Criticism of Religion: Some Observations
Towards a Synthesis between Christianity and Marxism", in Christianity and the New China, Vol. II,
Lutheran World Federation/Pro Mundi Vita, South Pasadena, Ecclesia Pub., 1976, pp.75-77.
20
Cf. Francis House, The Russian Phoenix: the Story of Russian Christians AD 988-1988, London, SPCK,
1988, p. 115; Dimitry Pospielovsky, The Russian Church under the Soviet Regime 1917-1982, Vol. II,
New York, St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1984, pp.329-358.
21
Cf. Ecumenical Press Service (EPS), year 56, issue 8 (1-5 March 1989), items 89.03.19 and 89.03.22;
issue 10 (11-15 March 1989) item 89.03.68.
22
Cf. EPS, year 56, issue 01 (1-10 January 1989), item 89.-01.21.
23
Cf. EPS, year 56, issue 04 (21-31 January 1989), item 89.-01.83.
24
Cf. Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for our Country and the World, New York, Harper &
Row, 1987, pp.31-38.
25
The following recent books on this may be mentioned: Wesley Ariarajah, The Bible and People of Other
Faiths, Geneva, WCC, 1987; Leonard Swidler ed., Toward a Universal Theology of Religion, New York,
Orbis, 1987; John Hick and Paul F. Knitter eds, The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic
Theology of Religions, New York, Orbis, 1988; Paul F. Knitter, No Other Name?, New York, Orbis,
1988.
26
Emilio Castro, "Mission in a Pluralistic Age", International Review of Mission, Vol. LXXV, 1986,
p.200.
27
It is important to distinguish here between involvement in the ecumenical movement and membership in
the World Council of Churches. The Roman Catholic Church, for example, is actively involved in the
ecumenical movement but is not a member of the WCC.
28
The charismatic renewal movement is not faring well in some parts of Africa, e.g. in the Roman Catholic
Church in Nigeria, while it is considered a positive influence in the Roman Catholic Church in France and
other parts of Europe.

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