Chapter Three: Leadership Styles

Leadership style can be defined as the degree of direction provided by the leader in
attempting to influence behavior towards the accomplishment of organizational objectives.
Leadership styles therefore refer to leadership behavior.
3.1. Styles of Leadership Based on Authority
One of the dimensions according to which leadership behavior has been classified is the focus
of decision making in the group.
3.1.1. Autocratic Leadership Style
Autocrats believe that leaders must retain decision-making authority. In autocratic leadership
the leader makes all the decisions and allows the staff little influence in the decision making
process. These leaders are often indifferent to the needs of their staff.
What advantages do you think an autocratic leadership style might have? Benefits of AL are;

1. Management takes the initiative in coordinating work.

2. Tasks, situations and relationships are clearly defined
3. Decision-making is fast, with management at the center of operations
4. Staff receive direct and immediate assistance towards achieving their goals

Following are some of the disadvantages of autocratic leadership

 The knowledge, skills and experience of the staff are not fully used
 This leadership style suppresses staff members imitative
 Employees cannot develop to their maximum potential
 Absence of the leader may mean that important work is not completed.

The primary problem with the autocratic leadership style is that staff is made aware of what
to do, but not why they should do it. It often results in (1) low staff morale and (2) staff
following leader directions to the letter while knowing that the directions are wrong. If errors
do occur, staff will take no responsibility since they were only following orders. We must be
careful about simply assuming that autocratic leadership will lead to low morale and low
productivity among staff, because that would imply that we were making certain assumptions
about workers . Some people who prefer a safe and secure work environment in which they
do not have to talk any responsibility may find an autocratic leader very satisfactory.
3.1.2. Style of Democratic Leadership or leader

In democratic leadership, leaders consult their staff on appropriate matters and allow them
some influence in the decision-making process. This leadership style treats the staff with
dignity and is not punitive.
List a few advantages of the democratic leadership style.

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Have you included some of the following advantages of democratic leadership style?
 Staff morale can be improved by involving members of staff in planning decision-
making and control.
 Job satisfaction of staff may be increased by giving them wider responsibilities and
making their work more interesting
 The expert knowledge and problem-solving skills of members of staff are utilized.
 Only reasonable goals are set because the people who have to attain them are involved
in their formulation.
The following are some of the disadvantages of democratic leadership style.
 Decision-making may be time-consuming
 Disagreements can occur and staff may not wish to become involved in a tug-of-war.
 Lack of positive and clear direction may hinder the attainment of objectives.
 There might be some members of staff who are not capable of working without close supervision.
3.1.3. Laissez-faire Leadership style
In laissez-faire leadership managers allow their staff complete autonomy. Individual behavior
is left up to the individual and the leader in essence abdicates his or her role. The leaders do
not supervise directly, so the staff makes all the decisions themselves.
Figure 3: Continuum of influence in the leadership process

Amount of superior “say” in

Decision making

Amount of subordinate “say”

In decision making

AUTOCRATIC DEMOCRATIC LAISSEZ-FAIRE

3.2. Factors Affecting leadership

AmountStyle
of subordinate “say”
There are a few factors that have a major impact on the choice of leadership styles.
In decision making
Mangers Followers‟
Management Maturity level
Philosophy

Situation faced
by the Manager

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 3.2.1. The manager’s Management philosophy
The management philosophy of a manger is basically determined by his or her assumptions
about the nature of people. Whether managers are aware of it or not most of them have a
philosophy that influences their style in working with people. Several other factors influence
this philosophy:
1. The manager‟s family and early school environment.
2. The management‟s experience and training in the area of leadership
3. The manager‟s present working environment, including the type of work and the
general management system in the work place
McGregor‟s theory X and theory Y is one of the best – known approaches to the study of
management philosophy. He contrasted two sets of assumptions he or she adheres to. A
manager‟s leadership style is affected by the set of assumptions he or she adheres to. The
following include the most significant assumptions of theory X.
1) The average human being dislikes work and will avoid it if possible.
2) Because of this human trait most people must be coerced, directed or
threatened with punishment to get them to achieve organizational goals.
3) The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid
responsibility, has little ambition and seeks security.
Managers who accept the assumptions of theory X are inclined to prefer an autocratic
leadership style. In basic assumptions of theory Y include the following.
 The majority of employees will respond as positively to work as they do to play or rest.
 People will exercise self-direction and self-control in attaining goals to with they are
committed. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means to
organization goals.
 Commitment to organizational objectives is a function of rewards associated with the
attainment of objectives.
 Avoidance of responsibility, an emphasis on security and limited drive is for the most
part, consequences of experience, not fundamental characteristics of human nature.
 The ability to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity when
striving to solve an organizational problem is widely distributed talent among the
population.
 In an industrial society the intellectual potential of the average employee is only partially
utilized. Mangers that adhere to the theory Y assumptions will tend to prefer a supportive
and participative leadership style.

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McGregor believed that a manager‟s leadership style determines staff behavior. If a manager
treated staff as though they were lazy and lacked a sense of responsibility, they would fulfill
those exceptions. On the other hand, if the staff were treated as though they were mature,
responsible people, they would act accordingly. McGregor was of his opinion that the
assumptions help by manager were self – fulfilling prophecies.
3.2.2. The followers’ Maturity Level
Maturity level defines, as the state of person is drive and need for achievement. It is the
product of his or her experience, education, attitude, and willingness as well as ability to
accept responsibility. It is important that these maturity levels should be considered only in
relation to a specific task to be performed. The following formula expresses the maturity
concept. Maturity = Ability + Willingness.
If staffs are low on maturity, the manger should use a different style from the style he would
use with a mature staff.
3.2.3. The Situation Faced by the Manager
It is self-evident that the situation faced by the manager will have a major influence on his or
her leadership style. Consider these examples: An army leader directing troops in combat, an
airline pilot who suddenly faces engine failure or a manager who is faced with a safety crisis
would certainly not call a meeting and involve other people in dealing with the emergency.

1. In assessing a situation, the nature of the work and the types of assignments must be
considered. Scientists who perform creative jobs, for example, require more freedom
to function than staff that performs repetitive work.
2. A manager‟s choice of style will also be influenced by the way his or her organization
(unit) is functioning. For example, if the organization had low performance results for
two consecutive years, the leadership style would differ from the style adopted at an
organization, which has had outstanding results for two years.
Think of practical examples where the situation would call for immediate action without the
involvement of all group members.
1. Do you think every leader displays the different leadership styles according to the
scenario? How do the processes and dynamics in a management team reflect and influence
the leadership style being exercised?
3.3. Situational Leadership styles and others
3.3.1. Situational Leadership styles

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This model is one of the most recognized and useful leadership models in
management studies. A situational leader is someone who can adopt different leadership
styles depending on the situation. Most of us do this anyway in our dealings with other
people: we try not to get angry with a nervous colleague on their first day; we chase up tasks
with some people more than others because we know they'll forget otherwise.
But Ken Blanchard, the management guru best known for the "One Minute Manager" series,
and Paul Hersey created a model for Situational Leadership in the late 1960's that
allows you to assess the needs of the situation you're dealing with, and then adopt the most
appropriate leadership style. It's simple to understand, and it works in most
environments for most people in a leadership or management position. Leadership style
can be seen and described in terms of the amount of direction and support that the leader
gives to their followers in the following table.
-Supportive
Behavior+ Supporting Coaching
(S3) (S2)

Delegation Directing
(S4) (S1)
- Directive Behavior +

Directing
Leaders define the roles and tasks of the 'follower', and supervise them closely.
Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one-way.
Coaching
Leaders still define roles and tasks, but seek ideas and suggestions from the follower.
Decisions remain the leader's prerogative, but communication is much more two-way.
Supporting
Leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the
follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is with the follower.
Delegating
Leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower.
The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved.
Effective leaders are versatile in being able to move around the grid according to the
situation, so there is no one right style. However, we tend to have a preferred style, and in
applying situational leadership you need to know which one that is for you.

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Clearly the right leadership style will depend very much on the person being led - the team
member. The leader's style should be driven by the Competence and Commitment of
the team member, and came up with four „Development‟ levels:
D4 High Competence Experienced at the job, and comfortable with their own ability to do
High Commitment it well. May even be more skilled than the leader.
D3 High Competence Experienced and capable, but may lack the confidence to go it alone,
Variable Commitment or the motivation to do it well / quickly
D2 Some Competence May have some relevant skills, but won't be able to do the job
Low Commitment without help. The task or the situation may be new to them
D1 Low Competence Generally lacking the specific skills required for the job in hand, and
Low Commitment lacks any confidence and / or motivation to tackle it.

Development Levels are also situational. I might be generally skilled, confident and
motivated in my job, but would still drop into Level D1 when faced, say, with a task
requiring skills I do not possess. For example, many managers are D4 when dealing with the
day-to-day running of their department, but move to D1 or D2 when dealing with a sensitive
employee issue. Blanchard and Hersey said that the Leadership Style (S1 - S4) of the
leader must correspond to the Development level (D1 - D4) of the follower - and it's the
leader who adapts. For example, a new person joins your team and you're asked to
help them through the first few days. You sit them in front of a PC, show them a list of
orders that need to be processed today, and push off to a meeting. They're at level D1, and
you've adopted S4. Everyone loses because the new person feels helpless and demotivated,
and you don't get the orders completed. On the other hand, you are handing over to an
experienced colleague before you leave for a holiday. You have listed all the tasks that need
to be done, and a set of instructions on how to carry out each one. They are at level D4, and
you've adopted S1. The work will probably get done, but not the way you expected, and your
colleague resents you for treating him like an idiot.
However, swap the situations and things get better. Leave detailed instructions and a
checklist for the new person, and they will thank you for it. Give your colleague a quick chat
and a few notes before you go on holiday, and everything will be fine. By adopting the right
style to suit the follower's development level, work gets done, relationships are built up, and
most importantly, the follower's development level will rise to D4, to everyone's
benefit. The focus in situational approaches to leadership is on the observed behavior of
leaders and their group members (followers) in various situations, not on any hypothetical
inborn or acquired ability or potential for leadership. This emphasis on behavior and

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 environment allows for the possibility that individuals can be trained to adapt their style of
leader behavior to varying situations. Therefore, it is believed that most people can increase
their effectiveness in leadership roles through education, training, and development. From
observations of the frequency (or infrequency) of certain leader behavior in numerous types
of situations, models can be developed to help leaders make some predictions about the most
appropriate leader behavior for their current situation. Current organizational behavior theory
views leadership as well as other organizational behavior concepts and theories as situational
or contingent in nature. The literature supports the basic notion that a situational view is
necessary to portray accurately the complexities of the leadership process.
Earlier we identified the three main components of the leadership process as the leader, the
follower, and the situation. Situational approaches to leadership examine the interplay
among these variables in order to find causal relationships that will lead to predictability of
behavior. All situational approaches require the leader to behave in a flexible manner, to be
able to diagnose the leadership style appropriate to the situation, and to be able to apply the
appropriate style. Although there are many situational models and theories, most scholars
focus on the Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum of Leader Behavior, Fiedler‟s Contingency
model and the Paul Heresy and Kenneth H. Blanchard situational leadership style that have
received wide attention in leadership research.
3.3.2. The Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum of Leader Behavior
In this model the leader selects one of seven possible leader behaviors depending upon the
forces among the leaders, follower, and situation. The following Figure indicates, the range
of choices is between democratic or relationship oriented behaviors and authoritarian or task-
oriented behaviors.

Area of freedom for followers

Source of Authority

Use of Authority by the Leader

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Leaders whose behaviour is observed to be at the authoritarian end of the continuum tend to
be task-oriented and use their power to influence their followers. Leaders whose behaviour
appears to be at the democratic end tend to be group-orientated and thus give their followers
considerable freedom in their work. Often this continuum is extended beyond democratic
leader behaviour to include a laissez-faire style. This style of behaviour permits the members
of the group to do whatever they want to do.
3.3.3. Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Widely respected as the father of the contingency theory of leadership, He developed the
Leadership Contingency model. He suggested that three major situational variables determine
whether a given situation is favorable to leaders:
1. Their personal relations with the members of their group (leader-member relations)
2. The degree of structure in the task that their group has been assigned to perform (task
structure), and
3. The power and authority that their position provides (position power).
Fiedler defined the favorableness of a situation as “the degree to which the situation enables
the leader to exert influence over the group.” As a leadership situation varies from good to
poor on leadership- member relations, high to low on task structure, and strong to weak on
position power, it will fall into one of the eight combinations (categories).
According to Fiedler's contingency Model; he most favorable situation for leaders to
influence their groups is one in which they are well liked by the members (good leader-
member relations), have a powerful position (strong position power), and are directing a well-
defined job (high task structure). On the other hand, the most unfavorable situation for
leaders is one, which they are disliked, have little position power, and face an unstructured
task. In a review of old leadership studies and an analysis of new studies, Fiedler concluded:
1. Task-oriented leaders tend to perform best in-group situations that are either very
favorable or very unfavorable to the leader.
2. Relationship-oriented leaders tend to perform best in situations that are intermediate in
favorableness.
Fiedler has made an important contribution to leadership theory, particularly in his focus on
situational variables as moderating influences. It is the interaction of the basic style with the
environment that results in a degree of effectiveness or ineffectiveness. We call the third
dimension effectiveness because in most organizational settings various performance criteria
are used to measure the degree of effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a manager or leader.

8
 3.3.4. Paul Heresy and Kenneth H. Blanchard Model
This was developed by Paul Heresy and Kenneth H. Blanchard at the center for leadership
studies in the late 1930s. This concept was developed to help people attempting leadership,
regardless of their role, to be more effective in their daily interactions with others. It provides
leaders with some understanding of leadership and the level of readiness of their follower.
The emphasis in situational leadership is on the behavior of a leader in relation to followers.
Followers in any situation are vital, not only because individually they accept or reject the
leader, but also because as a group they actually determine whatever personal power they
may have. The concepts presented in situational leadership should be applicable whether you
are attempting to influence the behavior of an employee, your supervisor, an associate, a
friend, a relative or a group. According to situational leadership, there is no one best way to
influence people. Which leadership style a person should use with individuals or groups
depends on the readiness level of the people the leader is attempting to influence?

Situational leadership style is based on an interplay among

1. The amount of guidance and direction (task behavior) a leader gives;
2. The amount of socio-emotional support (relationship behavior) a leader provides and
3. The readiness level that favorers exhibit in the performing a specific task, function, or
objective.

I) Task Behaviour is defined as the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the
duties and responsibilities of an individual or group. These behaviours include telling
people what to do it, and who is to do it. High amounts of task behaviour might be
required, for instance, when you ask someone for directions: You are told where to start
and where to finish. It is important to notice that being directive does not mean being
nasty or short tempered. The person helping you might be very pleasant aimed at
completing the task that helping you finds your way. Task behaviour is characterized by
one-way communications from the leader to the follower. The person is not so much
concerned with your feelings, but with how to help you achieve your goal.
II) Relationship Behaviour is defined as the extent to which the leader engages in two-way
or motioning, facilitating and supportive behaviours. High amounts of relationship
behaviour might be required when you reach an impasse with an assignment. You
basically know how to do the assignment but need some encouragement to get you over
the hump. The listening, encouraging and facilitating a leader does in this example is an
illustration of relationship behaviour.

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 Task behavior and relationship behavior are separate and distinct dimensions. They can
be placed on separate axes of a two dimensional graph, and the four quadrants can be
used to identify four basic leadership style. No one style is effective in all situations.
Each style is appropriate and effective depending on the situation. The fallowing
descriptions apply to the four styles :
Style-1/s1/. This leadership style is characterized by above average amounts of task behavior
and below- average amounts of relationship behavior.
Style-2-/s2/ - This leadership style is characterized by above average amounts of both task
and relationship behavior.
Style-3/s3/ -The style III characterized by above average amounts of relationship behavior
and below average amounts of task behavior.
Style-4/s4/ - This style is characterized by below-average amounts of both relationship
behavior and task behavior.
Figure 7: The Four Leadership style and Effective Leader Behavior
High relationship and Low High task and
RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR-
(Providing supportive

task High relationship

behavior)

S3 S2
(High)
(Low)

High task and

Low relationship and task Low relationship

S4 S1
TASK BEHAVIOR (Providing guidance)
III) Readiness of the Followers
There is no one best style of leadership; it depends upon the situation with in which the
attempt to influence takes place. The more leaders can adapt their behaviors to the situation,
the more effective their attempts to influence will be.
In working with others and helping them develop, leaders should have positive assumptions
about followers' potential. Effective leaders believe that people have the potential to grow
and that, given an opportunity, they can and will respond. We need to remind ourselves that
the relationship between leaders and flowers is the crucial variable in the leadership situation.
If the followers decide not to fallow, it doesn‟t matter what the supervisor or key associates
think or what the job demands may be. In order to maximize the leader-follower relationship,
the leader must first determine the task-specific outcomes the followers are to accomplish on
an individual and group basis.

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 There is no leadership without someone following
Readiness in situational leadership is defined as the extent to which a follower demonstrates
the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. Readiness is not a personal
characteristic; it is not an evaluation of person‟s traits, values, age, and so on. Readiness is
how ready a person is to perform a particular task. This concept of readiness has to do with
specific situation-not with any total sense of readiness. All persons tend to be more or less
ready in a relation to a specific task, function or objective that a leader is attempting to
accomplish. So leaders have to understand that they may have to behave differently one on
one with members of their group from the way they do with the group as a whole. The two
major components of readiness are ability and willingness.
1. Ability is the knowledge, experience, and skill that an individual or group brings to a
particular task or activity. When considering the ability level of others, one must be task-
specific. It is essential to focus on the specific outcome desired and to consider the ability
of the followers in light of that outcome.
2. Willingness is the extent to which an individual or a group has the confidence,
Commitment, and motivation to accomplish a specific task. The term unwilling might be
most appropriate when for same reason; the individuals have slipped, or lost some of their
commitment and motivation.
Even though the concepts of ability and willingness are different, it is vital to remember that
they are an interacting in twine system. This means that a significant change in one will affect
the whole. The extent to which followers bring willingness into specific situations affects the
use of their present ability. And it affects the extent to which they will grow and develop
competence and ability. Similarly, the amount of knowledge, experience, and skill brought to
a specific task will often affect confidence, commitment, and motivation. Readiness levels
are the diverse combinations of ability and willingness that people bring to each task.
Continuum of Follower Readiness
The continuum of follower readiness can be divided into four levels. Each represents a
different combination of follower ability and willingness or confidence
1. Readiness level 1 (R1): Unable and unwilling. The follower is unable and lacks
commitment and motivation, or, Unable to insecure. The fallowed is unable and lacks
confidence.
2. Readiness level 2 (R2): Unable but willing. The follower lacks ability. But is motivated
and making an effort. Or Unable but confidant. The follower lacks ability, but is
confident as long as the leader is there to provide guidance.

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3. Readiness level 3(R3): Able but unwilling. The follower has the ability to perform the
task, but is not willing to use that ability. Or Able but insecure. The follower has the
ability to perform the task, but is insecure or apprehensive about doing it alone.
4. Readiness level 4 (R4): Able and willing. The follower has the ability to perform and is
committed. Or Abelard committed. The follower has the ability to perform and is
confident about doing it.
Selecting Appropriate Styles
1. Matching readiness level-1 with leadership style-1: TELLING
 For a follower or group that is at readiness level 1 for a specific task, it is appropriate to
provide high amounts of guidance but little supportive behavior.
 A word that describes this specific leadership style is telling - telling the follower what
to do, where to do it, and how to do it.
 This style is appropriate when an individual or group is low in ability and willingness
and needs directions.
 Other one-word descriptors for this leadership style include guiding, directing, or
structuring
2. Matching readiness level 2 with leadership style-2: SELLING.
The next range of readiness is readiness level 2. This is an individual or group that is still
unable, but they are trying. They are willing or confident. The high probability styles are
combinations of high amounts of both task and relationship behaviors. But since they are
trying, it is important to be supportive of their motivation and commitment. This style is
selling. It is different from telling in that the leader is not only providing the guidance but it
also providing the opportunity for dialogue and for clarification, in order to help the person
“buy in” psychologically to what the leader wants. If a leader simply says, “Go stand by the
door and keep people from coming through” that is telling. On the other hand if the leader
suggests, “I‟d sure appreciate it if you would be willing to stand by the door to guide people
around the classroom because people coming through here have been disruptive,” this would
be an example of selling. One of the differences between telling and selling is that selling
answers why questions.
3. Matching readiness level 3-with leadership style 3-PARTICIPATING
Readiness level 3 would include a person or group that‟s able but has just developed ability
and hasn‟t had an opportunity to gain confidence in doing it on his or her own. The
appropriate behavior would be high amounts of two-way communication and supportive

12
behavior but low amounts of guidance. Because the group has already shown that they are
able to perform the task, it is not necessary to private high amounts of what to do, where to
do it, or how to do it. Discussion, supportive, and facilitating behaviors would tend to be
more appropriate for solving the problem or soothing the apprehension. Other descriptors for
this style of leadership include Collaborating, Facilitating, and Committing. Each of these
terms implies high relationship, low task behaviors.
4. Matching readiness level 4 with leadership style 4-DELEGATING
Readiness level 4 is where the individual or group is both able and willing or able and
confident. They have had enough opportunity to practice, and they feel comfortable without
the leader providing direction. It is unnecessary to provide direction about where, what,
when, or how because the followers already have the ability. Similarly, above- average
amounts of encouraging and supportive behaviors are not necessary because the group is
confident, committed, and motivated. Other words for this leadership style include
observing and monitoring.
Remember;- Some relationship behavior is still needed, but it tends to be less than average.
- It is still appropriate to monitor what is going on, but it is important to give these
followers an opportunity to take responsibility and implement on their own.
Determining Appropriate Leadership Styles
The appropriate leadership styles for the four-readiness designation are:-
Low (R1), low to moderate (R2), moderate to high (R3), and high (R4) – are telling (S1),
selling (S2), participating (S3) and delegating (S4), respectively. That is, low readiness
needs a telling style; low to moderate readiness needs a selling style, and so on.
The probability of success of each style for the four readiness levels, depending on how far
the style is from the high probability style along the prescriptive curve in the style, of leader
portion of the model, tends to be as follows:-
- R1. S1 high, S2 2nd,S3 3rd, S4 low probability.
- R2. S2 high, S1 2nd S3 ,3rd, S4 low “
- R3, S3 high S2 2nd, S43rd, S1 low “
- R4, S4 high S3 2nd, S2 3rd, S1 low “
In situational leadership it is the follower who determines the appropriate leader behavior.
The follower can get any behavior desired depending up on the follower‟s behavior.
Regardless of the level of readiness of an individual or group, change may occur. Whenever a
follower‟s performance begins to slip-for whatever reason- and ability or motivation
decreases, the leader should reassess the readiness level of this follower and move backward

13
through the leadership curve, providing appropriate socio emotional support and direction. To
determine what leadership style you should use with a person in a given situation, you must
make several decisions.
1. What objective/s do we want to accomplish?
- First, you must decide what areas of an individual‟s or a group‟s activities you would
like to influence
- Specifically, what objectives do you want to accomplish?
Before managers can begin to determine the appropriate leadership style to use with a
group, they must decide what aspect of that group‟s job they want to influence
2. What is the group’s readiness?
- The key issue is how ready or receptive is the group to accomplish these tasks?
- If the group is at high level of readiness, only a low amount of leadership intervention
will be required.
- If, on the other hand, the group is at a low level of readiness, considerable leadership
intervention may be required.
3. What leadership action should be taken?
- Suppose the manager has determined that the group‟s readiness level in terms of
accomplishing all of these tasks is high that is, the group is able and willing (R4). Using
continuum of follower readiness, the manger would know that when working with this
group, a delegating (S4) style (low task-low relationship behavior) should be used.
- Some members of the group may be lower in readiness than the group as a whole with
respect to specific tasks. For example, a team member may be R3 (able but insecure) with
regard to responding to service problems on a new line of equipment. The manager would
use an S3 (high relationship- low task) leadership style to build that members confidence
and self- esteem.
4. What was the result of the leadership intervention?
- This step requires assessment to determine if results match expectations.
- Development involves positively reinforcing successive approximation as the individuals
or group approaches the desired level of performance.
- Therefore, after a leadership intervention, the manager must assess the result through
rechecking the objectives, re-diagnosing readiness, and ascertaining if further leadership
is indicated.

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5. What follow-up (if any) is required?
- If there is a gap between present performance and desired performance of the individual
or group, then follow-up is required in the form of additional leadership interventions,
and the cycle starts again. In a dynamic environment such as the leadership environment,
follow- up is almost a certainty.
- Leadership under modern competitive conditions means hitting moving targets.
- Tasks, readiness, and result are all continually changing; follow-up is a must.

Leading is a full-time job that must be practiced every hours of every

day.
3.3.5. Path-goal theory
The theory of reinforcement of change is prominent in the path-goal theory. This theory
states that motivation is increased by changing followers' expectations of being rewarded or
punished and the leader reinforces their behavior by controlling rewards and punishments.
Path-goal theory of leader effectiveness focuses on the relationship between the leader's
behavior and followers' output and two sets of contingency variables that moderate the
relationship. As seen earlier, leadership behavior can be classified in terms of initiating
structure or consideration. More specifically, possible leadership styles defined by this theory
are directive leadership, supportive leadership, participative leadership and achievement-
oriented leadership. The effectiveness of a leadership style depends on the situation.
According to the path-goal theory, the leader motivates his or her followers by increasing
rewards for attaining goals, clarifying the paths (method) to achieve these goals and also
reducing problems that might hinder a person in achieving the goals, and increasing personal
satisfaction in working towards goals, and also providing more opportunities for reward.
Leader behavior needs to be seen as an immediate source of satisfaction or as being
instrumental for future satisfaction, and will motivate followers to the extent that satisfaction
is made dependent on effective performance, and guidance, support and rewards necessary
for effective performance are provided. The leader considers the environment and selects
those behaviors that will ensure that his or her followers are maximally motivated towards the
organizational goals.
Situational variables that impact on the effectiveness of leadership behavior are the personal
characteristics of followers and the environmental pressures and task demands with which
followers must cope to realize their goals and obtain satisfaction. Important follower
characteristics are authoritarianism, locus of control and ability, and the environmental

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factors to be considered are the tasks, formal authority system and primary work group.
These variables should be taken into account when deciding on an appropriate leadership
style(s).In a more structured situation, consideration is helpful, whereas initiating structure
(clarifying the path) leads to greater satisfaction when tasks are not clear. The performance-
based system of reward (pay-for-performance) is an example of the application of the path-
goal theory. The relationship between leadership behavior (specifically consideration) and
job satisfaction as an outcome measure has been confirmed, but support for performance as
an outcome measure and for the moderator variables has not been consistent. According to
the authors, the theory can nevertheless be regarded as valuable because it provides a
functional approach to leadership, focusing on the functions which need to be fulfilled in the
subordinates' work environment to ensure motivation, performance and satisfaction.
Modification and extension of the theory in terms of the work done on charismatic leadership
are suggested as a future possibility.
3.3.6. Leadership-Participation Model
This model is based on a rational-deductive approach. The leader asks himself or herself a
number of questions in deciding to adopt a directive or participative style in decision making,
and whether to do so with individual members or the whole group. This model is also
referred to as a decision-making theory.
Vroom and Jago (1995) provide the following presentation of the basic model. The leader
chooses from five possible decision processes that differ in the form and amount of
participation. These can be seen as running parallel to the autocratic-democratic continuum
and include the following:
• You reach a decision alone, employing whatever facts you have at hand.
• You reach a decision alone, but first seek specific data from those who report to you.
• You consult one-on-one with those who report to you, describing the problem and seeking
advice but still making the final decision alone.
• You consult with those who report to you in a meeting on the situation, take advice and
choose one or more options alone.
• You devote a meeting to the situation and help the group to concur on a decision.
Eleven decision heuristics (contingency questions) are used to analyze the problem, and
based on the answers to these questions; appropriate decision behavior (i.e. how much
participation should be used) is suggested. The use of a leadership style (or styles) depends
on whether the aim is to improve decision quality, improve decision commitment, and reduce
decision costs (time) or increase subordinate development.

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This model can be classified as a contingency theory in terms of its consideration of the type
of situation. However, it differs from theories such as those of Fiedler or Hersey and
Blanchard which deal with relatively stable situational factors, implying a difference between
managers who are in different circumstances. The Vroom-Jago model requires the leader to
adjust his or her style to different situations. The situational unit of analysis is the immediate
decision problem and the leader's behavior varies in as much as he or she is presented with a
variety of dissimilar decision problems.
A descriptive model, the aim of which is to describe how leaders decide if and when to use a
participative style, was also developed. The unit of analysis is the person rather than the
situation, and it is determined how effectively each person responds to a number of decision-
making situations. Although the situation has been shown to explain more variance in
behavior than the overall leadership style, there are factors that lead to a disposition towards
autocracy or participation. These person effects include industry differences, level in the
organization, function, gender and culture. Person-by-situation effects apply when different
implicit theories concerning the usefulness of participation and the expected outcomes of its
use result in differences in behavior between persons, given a specific situation.
3.3.7. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
The vertical-dyad linkage or leader-member exchange (LMX) theory as one that explains
leadership and leader-follower relationships as an interactive process. It focuses on the group
maintenance behavior referred to in the section on leadership behaviors. The interaction
linkage between leader and follower is one of mutual influence and that the relationship
between the leader and each individual follower should be considered instead of focusing on
the relationship with the group as a whole. The leader develops a unique relationship or
exchange with each follower instead of using the same style in dealing with followers.
Central to this theory are the concepts of in-group and out-group. The extent to which the
leader treats the follower as an out-group member versus the extent to which the follower is
treated as an in-group member falls on a continuum of leader-member roles. In-group
members are allowed more independence and also receive more attention and other rewards,
resulting in better performance and greater satisfaction. Leader-member exchange theory is
furthermore based on the assumption that social interaction represents a form of exchange.
For example, the group provides the leader with esteem in exchange for the leader's unique
contribution to group goals.

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