References cited in this section

2. P.M. Bralower, Nondestructive Testing. Part I. The New Generation in Radiography, Mod. Cast., Vol 76
(No. 7), July 1986, p 21-23
3. R.A. Armistead, CT: Quantitative 3-D Inspection, Adv. Mater. Process., Vol 133 (No. 3), March 1988, p 42-
48

Nondestructive Inspection of Castings

By the ASM Committee on Nondestructive Inspection of Castings*

Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic inspection is a nondestructive method in which beams of high-frequency acoustic energy are introduced into
the material under evaluation to detect surface and subsurface flaws and to measure the thickness of the material or the
distance to a flaw (see the article "Ultrasonic Inspection" in this Volume for details). An ultrasonic beam will travel
through a material until it strikes an interface or defect. Interfaces and defects interrupt the beam and reflect a portion of
the incident acoustic energy. The amount of energy reflected is a function of the nature and orientation of the interface or
flaw as well as the acoustic impedance of such a reflector. Energy reflected from various interfaces or defects can be used
to define the presence and locations of defects, the thickness of the material, or the depth of the defect beneath a surface.

The advantages of ultrasonic tests are as follows:

• High sensitivity, which permits the detection of minute cracks

• Great penetrating power, which allows the examination of extremely thick sections
• Accuracy in measuring of flaw position and estimating defect size

Ultrasonic tests have the following limitations:

• Size-contour complexity and unfavorable discontinuity orientation can pose problems in interpreting the
echo pattern
• Undesirable internal structure--for example, grain size, structure, porosity, inclusion content, or fine
dispersed precipitates--can similarly hinder interpretation
• Reference standards are required

Effect of Casting Shape. Because castings are rarely simple flat shapes, they are not as easy to inspect as such
products as rolled rectangular bars. The reflections of a sound beam from the back surface of a parallel-sided casting and
a discontinuity are shown schematically in Fig. 14(a), together with the relative heights and positions of the reflections of
the two surfaces on an oscilloscope screen. A decrease in the back reflection at the same time as the appearance of a
discontinuity echo is a secondary indication of the presence of a discontinuity. However, if the back surface of the casting
at a particular location for inspection is not approximately at a right angle to the incident sound beam, the beam will be
reflected to remote parts of the casting and not directly returned to the detector. In this case, as shown in Fig. 14(b), there
is no back reflection to monitor as a secondary indication.