Lecture No.

GE 135: FUNDAMENTALS OF
SURVEYING AND MAPPING

TOPIC 2:
Errors and Statistics in Survey
Measurements and Adjustments
Department of Geodetic Engineering
College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University
 Lecture No. 1

Outline
▪ Concepts and principles of measurements
▪ Measurement versus Observation
▪ Units and Significant Figures in Measurement
▪ Errors in Measurement
▪ Types and Sources of Errors
▪ Correction of Errors, Statistics and Measure of Central Tendency
▪ Variance and Standard Deviation
▪ Accuracy versus Precision
▪ Probable Errors, Weighted Observations, and Interrelationship of
Errors
 Lecture No. 1

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lecture, the students must be able to:
● Explain the concepts and principles of measurements and their importance in surveying.
● Differentiate measurements from observations.
● Explain the usage and application of significant figures in measurements.
● Explain the theories of errors and observations.
● Explain the types and sources of errors.
● Describe the concepts and procedures involved in the correction of errors.
● Explain the concepts and principles of statistics of errors
● Explain the measures of central tendency.
● Explain Variance and Standard Deviation
● Solve problems involving variance and standard deviation.
● Differentiate accuracy from precision.
● Explain the concepts of probable errors, weighted observations, and interrelationship of errors.
● Solve problems involving probable errors.
● Solve problems involving weighted observations.
● Solve problems involving interrelationship of errors
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF

MEASUREMENTS
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Measurements
▪ It is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a
particular quantity in comparison to a given standard.
▪ Consists of several physical operations which renders a numerical
values.
▪ In surveying, measurements are usually concentrated on
▪ Angles
▪ Elevations
▪ Distance
▪ Areas
▪ Volume
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Measurements can either be:

– Direct Measurements
– Indirect Measurements
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Direct Measurement
▪ It is a comparison of measured quantity with a standard measuring unit or
units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind.

Example: Determining the

distance between two
points using a graduated
tape
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Indirect Measurement
The observed value is determined by the relationship to some other known values.
– obtained when it is not possible or practical to make direct measurements
– the quantity is determined from its mathematical relationship to direct
measurements
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

MEASUREMENT VERSUS OBSERVATION

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Observation vs. Measurement

▪ An observation is a single, unadjusted determination of a linear or angular
value. A single reading of an angle or a single reading of an EDM is an
observation.
▪ An observed value is a quantity that is obtained by instrumental measurement
of the quantity.

A direct observation is an observation of

the desired quantity while an indirect
observation is a quantity computed from
direct observations.
For example, rod readings in leveling are
direct observations and the elevation
difference between two points that is
computed from these rod readings is an
indirect observation.
 Lecture No. 1

Observation vs. Measurement

▪ A measurement is the entire process of obtaining a desired
quantity.
▪ A measurement entails performing a physical operation that
usually consists of several more elementary operations such as
preparations (instrument calibration and setup), pointing, matching,
and comparing (reading).
▪ The result of these physical operations renders a numerical value
that is called a “measurement”
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN

MEASUREMENT
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Measurement
▪ In surveying, measurements entail both angular and linear measurements:
▪ The SI (International System) is used in the Philippines effective in 1983,
phasing out the English System.
▪ The International System of Units (Système Internationale d’Unités or SI) is a
globally agreed system of measurements that was formalized in 1960.
▪ Units in SI of major concern to Surveying
1. Meter (m) – linear measure
2. Square Meter (𝑚2 ) – areas
3. Cubic Meter (𝑚3 ) – volume
4. Radian (rad) – plane angles
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Measurement
▪ Conversion between SI and English System
▪ 1 kilometer = 0.621371 mile
▪ 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
▪ 1 foot = 12 inches
▪ 1 yard = 3 feet
▪ 1 yard = 0.9144 meter
▪ 1 hectare = (100 m) 2 = 10,000 m2
▪ 1 acre = 4,840 yd
▪ 1 cubic meter = (100 cm) 3 = 1,000,000 cubic centimeter
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Measurement
▪ Angular Measurements:
▪ For plane angles:
▪ Using SI: radian where 2pi = 360 degree
▪ Sexagesimal Units: 1/360 the of a circle
▪ Degree, Minute, Second
▪ Centesimal Units: 1/400th of a circle
▪ Grad: 400 grads = 360 degree
In the Philippines, the sexagesimal units are used due to their
practical importance and familiarity with it.
 Lecture No. 1

Units of Measurement
PREFIXES
Giga 1 000 000 000 1x109
Mega 1 000 000 1x106
Kilo 1000 1x103
Hecto 100 1x102
Deca 10 1x101
BASE 1 1
Deci 0.1 1x10-1
Centi 0.01 1x10-2
Milli 0.001 1x10-3
Micro 0.000 001 1x10-6
Nano 0.000 000 001 1x10-9
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Significant Figures
▪Refers to each digits of a number that are used to

express to the required degree of accuracy, starting

from the first non-zero digit.
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Some general rules regarding Significant Figures

Rule 1: Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.
▪ Example, 12.03, 35.06, 4009, etc.

Rule 2: For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the
decimal are not significant.
▪ Example, 0.0000006, 0.023

Rule 3: Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant.

▪ Example, 169.30, 366.00, 11.000
Rule 4: Trailing zeros in a whole number with no decimal shown are not
significant.
▪ Example, 1000, 345000, 81000

Rule 5: Trailing zeros in a whole number with the decimal shown are
significant.
▪ Example, 540., 6200., 281000.
 Lecture No. 1

Some general rules regarding Significant Figures

Practice
✓0.03 1 sig. dig.
✓0.42000 5 sig. dig.
✓097.83 4 sig. dig.
✓076.0128 6 sig. dig.
✓650 2 sig. dig
✓0.0624000 6 sig. dig
✓0.396 3 sig. dig.
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Rounding off Numbers

▪It is the process of dropping one or more of the
final digit so that the values contains only the
significant figure required.
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Rules on Rounding Off Numbers

1. Digit is less than 5. When the digit to be dropped is
less than 5, remove all the digits to the right of the
round off figure.

Example: Round off to the nearest six significant figure:

12.0134407

Answer : 12.0134
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Rules on Rounding Off Numbers

2. Digit is equal to 5. If you have an even number next
to the rounding number, maintain the value and drop
the rest. If odd number, increase it by 1 to make it even.

Example: Round off to the nearest six significant figure:

12.01385 & 12.01335

Answer : 12.0138 / 12.0134

 Lecture No. 1

Rules on Rounding Off Numbers

3. Digit is greater than 5. When the digit to be dropped
is greater than 5, the number is written with the
preceding digit increased by one.

Example: Round off to the nearest six significant figure:

12.0135721

Answer : 12.0136
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
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Illustration:
Measuring an angle
Device: scale divided into degrees → its value can be read only
to perhaps the nearest tenth of a degree
Device: scale graduated into minutes → angle might be
estimated to tenths of a minute.
Device: scale graduated into seconds → reading to the nearest
tenth of a second might be possible.
 Lecture No. 1

Errors in Measurements
‒ No measurements are exact.

‒ Every measurement contains errors.

‒ The true value of a measurement is never known

‒ The exact sizes of the errors present are always unknown.

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Error ()
‒the difference between a measured value for
any quantity and its true value

𝜺=𝒚 − 𝝁
Where:
 - the error in an observation,
y - the measured value, and
 - is true value.
 Lecture No. 1

Errors vs. Mistakes

Mistakes
‒Caused by confusion or by an observer’s carelessness.
‒Must be removed from any set of observations.
‒Also called “blunders” or “gross errors”
‒They are not classified as errors
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

TYPES AND SOURCES OF ERRORS

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Types of Errors
‒ Systematic or Cumulative Errors

‒ Random or Accidental Errors

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Types of Errors
Systematic Errors
‒ follow some mathematical or physical laws, and thus can be predicted

‒ It is one which will always have the same sign and magnitude as long as
field conditions remain constant and unchanged.
‒ these are removed by following correct measurement procedures, and
deriving corrections based on the physical conditions that were
responsible for the presence of the errors
‒ also known as “biases”

Example: temperature not being standard while taping

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Types of Systematic Errors

1. Constant Error
▪ If its magnitude and sign remains the same throughout the
measuring process/field conditions are unchanged.
▪ Example: tape “too short” or “too long”
2. Counteracting
▪ If its sign changes while its magnitude remains the same perhaps
due to personal bias of the observer.
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Common Systematic or Cumulative Errors

▪ Equipment out of calibration
▪ Personal biases of the observer
▪ Use of incorrect units (feet instead of meters)
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Types of Errors
Random Errors
– also known as accidental errors.

– caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor and are present in all
surveying measurements.
– errors that remain after all mistakes and systematic errors have been removed

– generally small

– do not follow physical laws

– This variation results from observational errors which have no known functional
relationship based upon a deterministic system.
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Sources of Error in Measurement

Instrumental errors
‒These errors are caused by imperfections in
instrument construction or adjustment.

Example: The divisions on a theodolite or total station instrument may

not be spaced uniformly.
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Sources of Error in Measurement

Personal errors.
‒ These errors arise due to limitations in human
senses, such as the ability to read a micrometer or
to center a level bubble.

Example: Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb

during sighting
 Lecture No. 1

Sources of Error in Measurement

Natural errors
‒ These errors are caused by changing conditions in
the surrounding environment.

Example: Variations in atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind,

gravitational fields, and magnetic fields
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

CORRECTION OF ERRORS, STATISTICS AND

MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
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General Uses of Statistics

▪ Statistics aids in decision making
oProvides comparison
oExplains action that has taken place
oJustifies a claim or assertion
oPredicts future outcome
oEstimates unknown quantities
▪ Statistics summarizes data for public use
 Lecture No. 1

Measure of Central Tendency

▪ A measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that
represents the center point or typical value of a dataset.
▪ These measures indicate where most values in a distribution
fall and are also referred to as the central location of a
distribution.
1. Mean
2. Median
3. Midrange
4. Mode
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Sample Mean
▪ Most Probable Value (MPV)
o Sum of all the values of the observations divided by the number of
observations.
▪ Characteristics:
o Most familiar measure of central tendency used.
o Affected by the value of every observation.
o In particular, it is strongly influenced by extreme values.
o Since it is calculated number, it may not be an actual number in the data set.

MPV = X = X /n=( X 1+ X 2 + X 3+.... + Xn)/ n

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Sample Mean
▪ If a distribution is skewed, then the mean is usually not in the middle.

Example: The mean of the ten numbers 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17 is 52/10 = 5.2. Seven of
the ten numbers are less than the mean, with only three of the ten numbers greater than
the mean.

▪ A better measure of the center for this distribution would be the median, which in this
case is (2+3)/2 = 2.5. Five of the numbers are less than 2.5, and five are greater.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Median
▪ Positional middle of the arrayed data

▪ Characteristics:
o Affected by the position of each item but not
by the value of each item.
o A stable measure of central tendency.
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Midrange
▪ Value of observation that is midway along the range.
▪ Arithmetic mean of the largest and smallest observations

▪ Example: 3.5 3.1 3.9 3.6 4.0

▪ Midrange: (4.0 + 3.1) / 2 = 3.55

Note: After arranging: 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.9 4.0

Thus, sample median = 3.60 and sample midrange = 3.55
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Mode
▪ Value that occurs most frequently in the sample

▪ Characteristics:
o Not always exist. If it does, it may not be unique (2 or more sample
modes)
o Not affected by extreme values
o Easiest to compute
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

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Sample Statistics for Dispersion

1. Range – the total spread of the sample
(Range = Largest value – Smallest value)
1. Variance – parameter of dispersion or spread
2. Standard Deviation – defined as the positive square
root of the variance
 Lecture No. 1

Variance
Variance is defined as the average of the squared differences
from the Mean.

To calculate the variance, follow these steps:

▪ Work out the Mean (the simple average of the numbers)
▪ Then for each number: subtract the Mean and square the
result (the squared difference).
▪ Then work out the average of those squared differences.
 Lecture No. 1

Variance
– is an indicator of precision, it measures how far a set

of numbers is spread out from their average and

from every other number in the set

– expressed as:

σ(𝑥 − 𝑥)ҧ 2 σ 𝑣2
𝑉= =
(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−1
 Lecture No. 1

Standard Deviation
▪ Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread-out
numbers are. It is the square root of the Variance.
▪ Its symbol is σ (the Greek letter sigma)
▪ It is a measure of spread of a distribution .
▪ a measure of how dispersed the data is in relation to
the mean.
 Lecture No. 1

Standard Deviation
– also called the root-mean square (R.M.S.) error

– is a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values

– A low standard deviation indicates that the values tend to be close to the mean of the set

σ(𝒗)𝟐
𝝈=± =± 𝑽
(𝒏 − 𝟏)

– The expression above is also called the standard error

σ(𝒗)𝟐 𝝈
𝝈𝒎 = ± =± standard error of the mean
𝒏(𝒏−𝟏) 𝒏
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 1
Given the following measurements of the length of a road expressed in meters:
102.15 102.00 102.23 101.94 102.19 101.87 102.19

Compute for the:

a. Most Probable Value
b. Mode
c. Range
d. Median
e. Midrange
f. Variance
g. Standard Deviation
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 2
▪ A prominent surveyor collects 10 values and computes the
mean, X = 100.5. He collects 7 more values and computes the mean
of all 17 to be X = 98.8. What is the average of the last 7 values?
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION

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Accuracy
▪ It indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or
true value of the quantity measured.
▪ It implies the closeness between related measurements and their
expectations.
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Precision
▪ It refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which
any physical measurement is made.
▪ It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity.
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Precision vs. Accuracy

a. Precise and b. Not Precise and

Accurate Not Accurate

c. Not Accurate but d. Accurate but Not

Precise Precise
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

PROBABLE ERRORS, WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS, AND

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
 Lecture No. 1

MOST PROBABLE VALUE

▪it is the arithmetic mean or the average.

▪it refers to a quantity which based on available data has

more chances of being correct than has any other.

𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝒏
ഥ=
𝑴𝑷𝑽 = 𝒙
𝒏
 Lecture No. 1

True Value vs. Measured Value vs. Most Probable Value

▪ True Value - is the value which is absolutely free from all the errors and this
value is indeterminate.
▪ Observed/Measured Value – is the value obtained from the
observation/measurement.
▪ Most Probable Value (MPV) - it refers to a quantity which based on available
data has more chances of being correct than has any other. It is the arithmetic
mean or the average.
 Lecture No. 1

TRUE VALUE VS. MEASURED VALUE VS. MOST PROBABLE VALUE

100 Meters
TRUE VALUE

TRIAL VALUE

1 100.113 m OBSERVED / MEASURED VALUE

2 100.125 m

3 100.105 m

4 100.031 m
100.113 + 100.125 + 100.105 + 100.031 + 100.092
5 100.092 m = 100.0932 m
5
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 3
▪ A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance

between two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the
following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and
251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that
variations of results in is due to accidental errors, determine the most
probable value of the distance measured.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 3
σ𝒙 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝒏
ഥ=
𝑴𝑷𝑽 = 𝒙 =
𝒏 𝒏
250.25 + 250.15 + 249.90 + 251.04 + 250.50 +251.22
𝑴𝑷𝑽 =
𝟔

𝑴𝑷𝑽 = 250.51 m
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 4
▪ The angles at point Q have the following observed

values. 130° 15’ 20”, 142° 37’ 30”, and 87° 07’ 40”.
Determine the most probable value of each angle.

87° 07’ 40”

142° 37’ 30”
Q

130° 15’ 20”

 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 4
▪ A. Determining the Correction to be applied

▪ Sum = Ө1 + Ө2 + Ө3
= 130°15’20” + 142°37’30” + 87°07’40”
= 360°00’30” (sum of the angles observed about point Q)

▪ Discrepancy= expected correct sum – sum of the observed value

= 360° – 360°00’30”
= – 30” (discrepancy in the observation)

▪ Correction = Discrepancy / n = – 30”/ 3

= – 10”
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 4
B. Determining the Most Probable Values

Өn’ = Өn + Correction

Ө1’ = Ө1 + Corr = 130°15’20”+( – 10”)

= 130°15’10” (most probable value of Ө1)

Ө2’ = Ө2 + Corr = 142°37’30” +(– 10”)

= 142°37’20” (most probable value of Ө2)

Ө3’ = Ө3 + Corr = 87°07’40” +(– 10”)

= 87°07’30” (most probable value of Ө3)
 Lecture No. 1

Residual
▪ It is sometimes referred to as the deviation and defined as the difference

between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value.

ഥ
𝒗=𝒙−𝒙
where:

v – is the residual in any measurement.

x – is the measurement made of a particular quantity.

ഥ – is the most probable value of the quantity measured.

𝒙
 Lecture No. 1

Probable Error
▪ It is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance
that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside ( or outside ) the
limits thus set.
σ 𝑣2 where:
▪ PEs = ±0.6745 = ±0.6745𝜎
(𝑛−1) PEs = probable error of any single
measurement of a series
𝑃𝐸𝑀 = the probable error of the mean.
n= is the number of observation.
σ 𝑣2 𝑃𝐸𝑠 σ 𝑣 2 = summation o the squares of the
▪ 𝑃𝐸𝑀 = ±0.6745 =
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛 residual
 Lecture No. 1

True Error vs. Residual Error vs. Probable Error

▪ True Error - is the difference between the true value and the
observed/measured value.
▪ Residual (deviation)– the difference between any measured value of a
quantity and its most probable value.
▪ Probable Error- 50 percent chance that the true value lies in the MPV.
 Lecture No. 1

Relative Precision
▪ It is expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the error in the
numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity in the
denominator.

PE
RP =
MPV
where:
RP = the relative precision.
PE = the probable error.
MPV = the most probable value.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 5
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of
a line : 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters.
Determine the following:
a. Most probable value of the measured length.
b. Variance of the measurement
c. Standard Deviation of the measurement and its Standard Error of the
mean
d. Probable error and probable error of the mean.
e. Relative precision of the measurement.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 5
Solution:
a. most probable value
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟔
𝑴𝑷𝑽 =
𝟔

𝑴𝑷𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 5
Solution:
b. Variance of the measurement
Measured Length Residual (v) 𝒗𝟐 𝒗=𝒙−𝒙 ഥ
1 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟖 0.13 0.0169
2 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 -0.05 0.0025
ഥ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓
𝒙
3 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 -0.07 0.0049
4 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 0.03 0.0009
5 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 -0.05 0.0025
6 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟔 0.01 0.0001
Totals
0.0278
σ 𝑣2 0.0278
𝑉= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟔
𝑛−1 6−1
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 5
Solution:
c. Standard Deviation and Standard Error of the Mean

▪ Standard Deviation

σ(𝒗)𝟐
𝝈=± = ± 𝑽 == ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟔 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟔
(𝒏 − 𝟏)

▪ Standard Error of Mean

𝝈 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟔
𝝈𝒎 =± =± = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟒𝟒
𝒏 𝟔
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 5
Solution:
d. probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean.

▪ Probable error of a single measurement

σ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745 = ±0.6745𝜎
(𝑛 − 1)
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745 0.07456 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟐𝟗

▪ Probable error of the mean

σ 𝑣2 𝑃𝐸𝑠
𝑃𝐸𝑀 = ±0.6745 =±
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟐𝟗
𝑷𝑬𝑴 = ± = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑
𝟔
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 5
Solution:
e. relative precision of the measurement
𝑷𝑬
𝑹𝑷 =
𝑴𝑷𝑽

𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟑
𝑹𝑷 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓

𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝑷 = ≈
𝟒𝟖𝟕𝟑𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝟓𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
 Lecture No. 1

Weighted Observation
▪ Weight of an observation is a measure of an observation’s

relative worth compared to other observation.

▪ Weights are used to control the sizes of corrections applied to

observations in an adjustment.
 Lecture No. 1

Weighted Observation
1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observation.

𝑾 = 𝒌𝒏
 Lecture No. 1

Weighted Observation
2. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the error.

𝒌
𝑾= 𝟐
𝑬
 Lecture No. 1

Rules for Weighted Observation

▪ The weight (FREQ) is directly proportional to the number of observations
or measurements.
▪ The weight (FREQ) is inversely proportional to the square of the probable
errors.
▪ The weight (FREQ) is inversely proportional to the distance.
▪ The weight (FREQ) is inversely proportional to the number of set ups.
 Lecture No. 1

Weighted Mean/Most Probable Value

‒ mean value computed from weighted observations (the

observation is for one quantity only with different weight)

y1w1 + y2 w2 + ... + yn wn
M=
w1 + w2 + ... + wn
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 6
▪ Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22,
and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.
Determine the weighted mean.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 6
Solution: 𝑾 = 𝒌𝒏
Observed Distance Weight Weighted Observation
284.18 1 284.18 (1)= 284.18
284.19 2 284.19 (2)=568.38
284.22 3 284.22(3)=852.66
284.20 4 284.20 (4) =1136.8
Total 10 2842.02
σ 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟐. 𝟎𝟐
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 = =
σ 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝟏𝟎

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟎𝟐

 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 7
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different routes.
The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given below.

Line Observed Elevation Probable Error

1 219.832 ±0.006 m.
2 219.930 ±0.012 m.
3 219.701 ±0.018 m.
4 220.021 ± 0.024 m.

Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the point.

 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 7
𝒌
Solution: 𝑾= 𝟐
𝑬
Observed
Weight Weighted Observation
Elevation
219.832 𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐 219.832 (𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐 )= 6106444.444
219.930 𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟐 219.930 (𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟐 )=1527291.667
219.701 𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟐 219.701(𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟐 ) =678089.5062
220.021 𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟐 220.021 (𝟏/𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟐 )=381980.9028
Total 39544.75309 8693806.52
σ 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟖𝟎𝟔. 𝟓𝟐
𝑴𝑷𝑽 = =
σ 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟒𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟑𝟎𝟗

𝑴𝑷𝑽 = 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟒𝟕

 Lecture No. 1

Interrelationship of Errors
1. Summation of Errors

PEs =  PE1 + PE2 + PE3 + ... + PEn

2 2 2 2

where:
PEs is the probable error of the sum.
PE1, PE2, etc are the probable error of each measurement.
n is the number of values added.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 8
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different
routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given
below.
Line Observed Elevation Probable Error

1 219.832 ±0.006 m.
2 219.930 ±0.012 m.
3 219.701 ±0.018 m.
4 220.021 ± 0.024 m.

Determine the probable error of the sum.

 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 8 Line

1
Observed Elevation

219.832
Probable Error

±0.006 m.
2 219.930 ±0.012 m.

Solution. 3
4
219.701
220.021
±0.018 m.
± 0.024 m.

PEs =  PE1 + PE2 + PE3 + ... + PEn

2 2 2 2

PEs =  0.006 + 0.012 + 0.018 + 0.024

2 2 2 2

PEs = 0.03286
 Lecture No. 1

Interrelationship of Errors
2. Product of Errors

PEp =  ( Q1  PE2 ) + ( Q2  PE1 )

2 2

where:
PEp is the probable error of the product.
Q1 and Q2 are measured quantities.
PE1 and PE2 are the probable error corresponding to
each quantity measured.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 9
A baseline was measured using a steel tape and invar tape as
follows.
Measured Value Probable Error
Invar Tape 571.183 0.00093
Steel Tape 571.188 0.00131

Determine the probable error of the product

 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem # 9
Solution: Measured Value Probable Error

Invar Tape 571.183 0.00093

Steel Tape 571.188 0.00131

PEp =  (Q1  PE2 ) + (Q2  PE1 )

2 2

PEp =  (571.183  0.00131) + (571.188  0.00093)

2 2

PEp = 0.91764
 Lecture No. 1

References
▪ Ghilani, C.D., Wolf, P., 2012. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics (13th Edition), Pearson Education
Inc., USA. Available online at: https://dl.icdst.org/pdfs/files3/b2b03a2010d7cfca226e3115636ee421.pdf
▪ Google Images
▪ La Putt, J. P., 2007. Elementary Surveying, 3rd Edition, Baguio Research & Publishing Center, Baguio City, Philippines.
 Lecture No. 1

Thank You!
Department of Geodetic Engineering
College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University, Ampayon, Butuan City