TOPIC 2: Organisation of the organism

S4 BIO 2022
 2.1: Cell structure and organisation
Structure of plant cells and animal cells
HOMEWORK

1. State the function of the following structures found in plant and animal cells.
- Cell membrane - Chloroplast
- Cell wall - Rough endoplasmic reticulum
- Cytoplasm - Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- Nucleus - Golgi apparatus
- Vacuoles - Mitochondria
- Ribosomes

2. In a table, state the differences between plant cells and animal cells.

3. a) Name a cell which contains more mitochondria than other cells.

b) Give a reason for your answer.
 2.2: Levels of organisation

All living organisms comprises of:

1. Specialised cells 2. Tissues 3. Organs 4. Organ systems

 Specialised cells
These are cells which are designed to do a particular job in the organism

Examples
a) Ciliated cells
Function: To sweep mucus, in which dust and bacteria are trapped, up the bronchi and
trachea towards the throat where it is swallowed. cilia

nucleus
How they are adapted to this function
They are found lining the walls of the trachea. Each cell has cilia which performs an upward-
beating motion that carries the mucus, made and released by neighbouring cells, upwards.

b) Root hair cells

Function: The absorption of water and mineral ions from the soil

cell membrane semi-permeable, so will

allow water and mineral
cytoplasm ions into the cell
contains no
chloroplasts as no
photosynthesis is
needed
root hair
increases surface area for absorption
of water and mineral ions
How they are adapted to this function
The outer part of the cell wall of each root hair cell is in the form of a long,
tubular extension (the root hair).
This root hair:
- Is able to form a very close contact with the water film surrounding many
soil particles
- It greatly increases the surface area of the cell available for uptake of water
and ions

c) Xylem vessels
Function:
1. To conduct water and ions (dissolved salts) from the roots to the stem,
leaves, flowers and fruits
2. To provide support for the aerial parts of the plant
 xylem vessels are continuous tubes

xylem vessel

no cytoplasm
hollow: allows for continuous
flow of water and dissolved
mineral ions

lignin
water-proof and strong;
helps support the plant
cross-section longitudinal section
How they are adapted to this function
Conduction
They are elongated dead cells forming long, narrow tubes, stretching from the
roots, via the stem, to the leaves. They are stacked end to end like drain pipes.

Support
1. Their walls have been strengthened by the addition of lignin. There is no
layer of cytoplasm to restrict the flow of water and dissolved salts
2. They are part of the vascular bundles which run the entire length of the
stems of plants thus restricting bending strains caused by the wind
d) Palisade mesophyll cells
Function: They are the main photosynthesising cells
in the leaf Nucleus

How they are adapted to this function

- They contain the greatest number of chloroplasts
- They are found near the upper surface of the leaf
so they are the first to receive the Sun’s rays as Chloroplasts
they enter the leaf
- Their chloroplasts are able to move, within the cytoplasm of the
cell, towards the upper surface of the leaf to receive more sunlight
e) Nerve Cells
Function: Carry electrical impulses from the receptor organs to the central
nervous system, or from the central nervous system to the organs that are
required to respond (the effectors).

How they are adapted to this function

- They are long
- They have connections at the end
Nucleus
f) Red blood cells
Function: Carries oxygen around the body
How is it adapted to carry out its function
1. The cytoplasm contains the pigment haemoglobin which
combines with oxygen to become oxyhaemoglobin
2. They are small and there are many of them. This gives them a
very large surface area for oxygen absorption
3. They have a biconcave shape, increasing their surface area for
absorption
4. They are flexible allowing them to be pushed more easily through
capillaries
g) Sperm cell
Function: For sexual reproduction

Known as the male gamete. They are produced by meiosis. That means, their number of
chromosomes is halved (they become haploid). When they fertilise an ovum, the full
number of chromosome (diploid) is restored
How it is adapted to carry out its function
1. - Its head contains the haploid nucleus
- Has a vesicle containing enzymes which digest the
jelly coat of the ovum
1. Has a middle piece containing mitochondria which
supplies the cell with energy for movement
2. A tail (flagellum) that beats to provide propulsion as it
swims through the female reproductive system to locate
an ovum
h) Ovum or egg cell
Function: For sexual reproduction

The female gamete.

How is it adapted to its function

1. Contains yolk which supplies the growing embryo with nutrients
2. The nucleus carries genetic information (haploid number)
 Tissues
Definition: A group of similar specialised cells working together to perform a shared
function.

Examples of tissues in animals:

• muscular tissue, which can contract to bring about movement
• glandular tissue, which can produce substances such as enzymes and hormones
• epithelial tissue, which covers some parts of the body.
• blood tissue: transport oxygen and food substances, for protection against
infections, for blood clotting

Examples of tissues in plants:

• epidermal tissues: protects the plant against bacterial and fungal attack
• palisade mesophyll: carries out photosynthesis
• spongy mesophyll: has air spaces to facilitate diffusion of gases
• Vascular tissue which comprise of xylem and phloem: transport substances around
the plant.
 Organs
Definition: a structure made up of a group of tissues working together to perform
specific functions

Example of organs in animals is the stomach, which contains:

- muscular tissue, to allow contents to move through
the digestive system
- glandular tissue, to produce digestive juices
- epithelial tissue, to cover the outside and the inside
of the stomach.

Functions:
-Stores the food you eat and breaks it down into tiny pieces.
-Mixes food with digestive juices that contain enzymes to
break down proteins and lipids.
-Acid in the stomach kills bacteria.
Examples of organs in plants:
• stems
• roots and
• Leaves

Question
Label the different parts of the leaf.
 Organ system
Definition: It is group of organs with related functions working together to
perform body functions.

Example of an organ system in animals is the digestive system, a system in

which humans and other mammals exchange substances with the environment.
The digestive system includes:
- glands, such as the pancreas and salivary glands, which produce digestive
juices
- the stomach and small intestine, where digestion occurs
- the liver, which produces bile
- the small intestine, where the absorption of soluble food occurs
- the large intestine, where water is absorbed from the undigested food,
producing faeces.
 ORGAN SYSTEM ORGAN EXAMPLES TISSUE EXAMPLES
- Epidermis mesophyll
Shoot system Leaf, Stem, Flower, Fruit - Xylem
- Phloem
- Xylem
Root system Root, Tuber - Phloem
- Ground tissue
- Muscle
Oesophagus, Stomach,
- Connective
Digestive system Small intestine, Large
- Nerve
intestine
- Epithelial
- Connective
Respiratory system Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs - Muscle
- Epithelial
- Muscle
- Connective
Excretory system Liver, Kidney, Skin, Lungs
- Nerve
- Epithelial
Nervous system Brain, Spinal cord - Nerve
- Muscle
Ovary, Cervix, Uterus, - Connective
Reproductive system
Vagina, Testes, Penis - Nerve
- Erectile
 2.3 Size of specimens

Calculating Magnification & Specimen Size

• Magnification is calculated using the following equation:

• A better way to remember the equation is using an equation triangle :

• Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification
becomes easy when you remember the triangle - whatever you are trying to
find, place your finger over it and whatever is left is what you do , so:
- Magnification = image size / actual size
- Actual size = image size / magnification
- Image size = magnification x actual size

• Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as
‘x 10’ or ‘x 5000’
• Let’s look at an example:
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of
x 3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?
To find the actual size of the cell:
Using millimetres and micrometres as units
• The table below shows how millimetres are related to two other measures of length

• What this basically means is that 1mm = 1000μm and 1cm = 10,000μm
• This usually comes up in questions where you have two different units and you need
to ensure that you convert them both into the same unit before proceeding with the
calculation
• For example:

• What is the magnification of the diagram?

• Remember 1mm = 1000μm
• 2000 / 1000 = 2 so the actual thickness of the leaf is 2mm and the drawing thickness is 50mm
• Magnification = image size / actual size = 50 / 2 = 25
• So the magnification is x 25 (NO UNITS)

The following diagram may help with unit conversion between mm and μm: