ECH 5101 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH TECHNOLOGY

Water Treatment Processes

1
 Coagulation
• The addition of chemicals to alter the physical state of
dissolved and suspended solids and facilitate their removal by
sedimentation
• Removal of unsettleable solids or particles from wastewater.
• Coagulants e.g. aluminum sulphate, ferric chloride or lime

raw waste floc formation settled floc 2

Mechanism of Coagulation

3
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decrease

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 Flocculation

• Physical processes transform smaller particles into larger

aggregates or flocs.
• Process need slow mixing or stirring
• Rate of aggregation is determined by the rate at which
interparticle collisions occur.
• The floc then float to the top of the liquid, settle to the bottom of
the liquid or can be readily filtered from the liquid 8
Section view of a flash-mix and flocculation tank used
in coagulation process.

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 Examples of Flocculation

O&G from poultry

Processing Floc formed in metal industry
Flocculated Free O&G wastewater

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Combination Process: Coagulation –
Flocculation - Separation

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 Softening
• Process of removing hardness.
• Hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium ions
that exist as soluble chemical species in hard
groundwater.
• Hardness in water interferes with the lathering
action of soap and causes deposit of scale in water
heaters, pipes and plumbing fixtures.
• Hardness level about 100 mg/l are considered
optimum for drinking water.
• Two common methods of softening are lime-soda
method and ion-exchange method.
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1. Lime-soda method

 Add lime, Ca(OH)2 and soda ash,

Na2CO3 in water will react with Ca
and Mg ions, causing the formation
of calcium carbonate and
magnesium hydroxide.
 Insoluble calcium carbonate and
magnesium hydroxide compounds
precipitate.
 Coagulants aids like activated silica
is very effective when added prior
to lime soda.

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2. Ion-exchange method

 Passing the water through a column

containing a special ion-exchange
material e.g. zeolites and synthetic
resins.
 An exchange of ions will perform
when contact with resin.
 Ca and Mg ions are taken up by the
resin and Na ions are released into
water.
 Can produce water with almost zero
hardness
 But, very soft water may be
aggressive and corrosive and not
suitable for consumption esp. for
person who suffer heart disease.
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 Sedimentation
• Under quiescent condition, when flow velocities and turbulence are
minimal, particles that are denser than water will be able to settle to
the bottom of the tank.
• The layer of accumulated solids at the bottom of the tank is called
sludge.
• The speed at which suspended particles settle to the bottom depends
on size and density.
• Depends on the concentration of suspended particles and their
tendency to interact with one another.

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 SEDIMENTATION RATE
The settling rate is determined by:
size
shape
density of the solid particles
density of the liquid phase

Chemicals are often added to the waste stream to

form a precipitate or a floc (this will assist
suspended solid removal).

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 Filtration
• To remove suspended particulate material from water
such as clay, silt, microorganism, colloidal, humic
substances, and other precipitates from softening and
coagulation process.

• By passing through a layer or bed of a porous granular

material, such as sand.

• As the water flows through the filter bed, the suspended

particles become trapped within the pore spaces of the
filter media.

• Very important treatment process in a surface water

purification plant. 23
 Schematic diagram
of filtration process.

Schematic diagram of the

backwash or cleaning cycle
of a rapid filter.

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 Types of Filter
1. Slow sand filters : water takes a long time to flow through the
pore spaces in the fine sand, need big spaces, inexpensive.

2. Rapid sand filter : relatively small and compact, requires

chemical pretreatment, need backwashing.

3. Pressure filter : enclosed in a cylindrical steel tank and the

water is pumped through the bed under pressure, commonly
used for filtering water for industrial use or for swimming
pools.

4. Diatomaceous earth filter : filter media is a thin layer of

diatomaceous earth, produces high clarity water, sludge
disposal problems, used in F&B industry and swimming pools.

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(a) Typical gradation of a rapid sand filter bed. Solids
removal occur primarily by straining action at the
top of sand bed.
(b) Typical coarse-to-fine gradation of a mixed-media
filter. Preferable to the sand bed because it
provides in-depth filtration. 26
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 Disinfection
• The process of selectively destroying or inactivating
pathogenic organisms in water, usually by chemical means.
• Different types of disinfectant, widely used is chlorination.
• Disinfection will cause disturbances in cell activity, so that
microorganisms no longer be able to multiply.

UV disinfection Chlorination
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 Types of Disinfection

Method Disinfection Advantages Disadvantages Uses

Process
Chlorine Chemical a small dose in some cases, widespread use to
reaction with kills bacteria chlorination can disinfect water; also
pathogens rapidly; cause the used in color, taste,
residual can formation of and odor removal,
be maintained trihalomethanes improving coagulation,
and killing algae.
Iodine chemical good high cost; emergency treatment of
reaction with disinfectant harmful to water supplies;
pathogens pregnant disinfecting small,
women non-permanent water
supplies
Bromine chemical Handling very limited use,
reaction with difficulties; primarily for treating
pathogens residuals hard swimming pool water
to obtain; supply
is limited
Bases chemical Bitter taste in Sterilize water pipes
(sodium reaction with water handling
hydroxide pathogens difficulties
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and lime)
Method Disinfection Advantages Disadvantages Uses
Process
Ozone chemical good high cost; lack disinfection; treating
reaction with disinfectant; of residual; iron and manganese,
pathogens better virucide storage difficulty; helping flocculation,
than chlorine; maintenance removing algae,
oxidizes iron, requirements; oxidizing organics,
manganese, safety problems; removing color,
sulfide,organic unpredictable treating tastes and
removes color, disinfection; no odors
odor, and taste track record
Ultra UV light lack of lack of small or local
violet causes dangerous measurable systems and
biological by-products residual; cost of industrial
changes which operation; applications
kill pathogens turbidity interfere
with disinfection
Ultra sound waves very expensive
sonic destroy pathogen
by vibration
Heat boiling water simple, very energy Individuals may boil
for about five requires little intensive; their water for
minutes will equipment expensive household quantities
destroy of water when quality
essentially all of water is 31
microorganism questionable
32
 Adsorption
• A process that occurs when a gas or liquid solute
accumulates on the surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent),
forming a film of molecules or atoms (the adsorbate).

• Taking a contaminant ranging from 1 ppb to 1000 ppm out of a

stream of gas or liquid. Normally, activated carbon is used as
adsorbent.

• Caused by London Dispersion Forces, a type of Van der Waals

Force which exists between molecules.

• Adsorption efficiency decreases over time and eventually

activated carbon will need to be replaced or reactivated.

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 Factors Affecting Adsorption

1. Surface area of adsorbent

2. Particle size
3. Contact time
4. Solubility of solute in liquid
5. Affinity of solute for the adsorbent
6. Number of carbon atoms
7. Size of the molecule with respect to the size of pore
8. Degree of the ionization of the adsorbate molecule
9. pH

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Column for adsorption process
in water treatment plant

Van der Waals Force

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 Types of Adsorbent

1. Oxygen-containing compounds
Typically hydrophilic and polar, including materials such as silica
gel and zeolites.
2. Carbon-based compounds
Typically hydrophobic and non- polar, including materials such as
activated carbon and graphite.
3. Polymer-based compounds
Polar or non-polar functional groups in a porous polymer matrix.

Zeolite Activated Carbon 36

Drinking water treatment

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RURAL WATER SUPPLY
AND TREATMENT
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 SOURCES OF WATER
 Due to unreliability treatment plant, best sources
those which do not require treatment
 Rainwater collected from metal or asbestos cement
roof – relatively pure and only available close to
users of their roofs; yet, many rural houses are
roofed with other materials i.e. thatch (straw)
 Surface water – readily available and easy to
abstract, but typically very polluted
 Ground water – normally preferable, purified by
filtering thru soil but may contain iron, manganese,
salt, fluoride, etc. make undesirable and unpleasant
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 PROTECTED SPRINGS
 where they exist and have a reliable flow, can make ideal
supply
 no pumping required, only how to collect it and protect it
from pollution
 point where water emerges called ‘eye’ of spring
 should cover the eye with carefully selected sand or
gravel; too coarse, spring water may erode the soil; too
fine, may block the flow
 spring box should be built to prevent fine sediment
suspended in water from settling over the eye and block
the flow; ensure overflow pipe not above the eye. Also,
removable cover for spring box to easier in cleaning
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 PROTECTED SPRINGS (cont.)
 Surface water should be prevented from running into and
polluting the spring box; puddled clay to backfill behind
the box to seal the ground against infiltration
 Also, the top of the spring box should at least 300 mm
above the ground, has access hole with a lip around and a
cover which is not easily removed
 Ditch should be dug on the uphill side of the spring and
excavated soil thrown up into a bank (or bund) to divert
surface water
 A fence or prickly hedge planted on the bund to keep
people and animal away
Rural Water Supply and Treatment

PROTECTED SPRINGS
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 WELLS
 Driven tube well – specially perforated or slotted tube
known as ‘well point’ is driven into ground; well point is re-
usable but expensive and normally last 5 years; can made
locally from galvanized iron pipe but liable to clogging and
corrosion
 Bored tube well – can be sunk by hand to depths up to 40
m with an auger
 Jetted tube well – a pipe is sunk into soft ground while
soil is loosened and removed by water pumped down (or
up) the pipe while surrounding hole is kept full of water
 Hand-dug well – most common method; construct cheaply
with local equipment and material; important advantage
that water can be drawn from bucket and rope
 Various methods of jetting, punching or drilling tube well
req. special drilling rig using trailer- or truck-mounted;
expensive
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 POLLUTION OF OPEN WELLS
 Tube well and boreholes are protected from pollution by a
concrete slab, at least 2 m across , used as a base for the
pump; Open hand-dug well – more liable to pollution
 Polluted ground water – location too close to pit latrines,
soakaways, or refuse dumps
 Seepage water from surface – may enter thru top few
meters of well lining if it is not sufficiently watertight
near the surface
 Vessels used for drawing water – improvement can be
achieved by having a permanent bucket hanging in the well
 Rubbish thrown down the well – can be reduced by
preventing children from playing near the well
 Surface water – may be washed straight down the well
 Spilt water – if no headwall or people stand on the
headwall to draw water, splashed water can fall back
Rural Water Supply and Treatment

PROTECTED OPEN WELLS

Rural Water Supply and Treatment

 RAISING WATER
1.hand power
 Hand power – cheapest mechanism; suitable for a supply
where water is drawn straight from source
 Simplest – bucket with rope; best to use rollers, windlass
or shaduf
 Not suitable for tube well or very deep hand-dug well; req.
hand pump
 Criteria of hand pump
o Should be as simple as possible and easy to repair
o Maintenance req. must be easy to carry out and not too
frequent
o Manufacture should not present major quality control
problems
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 RAISING WATER
1.hand power (cont.)
 Criteria of hand pump (cont.)
o Pump must be reliable
o Resistant to abuse, vandalism, and theft of parts
o Acceptable to users, easy to use and produce water at
a reasonable rate
o Suitable for local hydro-geological condition – depth of
water table, corrosiveness of ground water, etc.
o Accompanied by clearly illustrated installation and
maintenance and basic tool kit
o Price should be as low as possible
Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 RAISING WATER
2. Natural sources of power
 Wind power – free but req. windmill to
harness wind power and expensive; also req.
large and expensive storage tank to ensure a
reasonable reliable supply
 Hydraulic pump – use energy of flow of a
large volume of water to pump small
proportion of that volume; thus req. a much
larger flow of water
 Solar pump – involve sophisticated technology
3. Motor pumps
 Driven by diesel or electric motors
 Electric need less maintenance and usually
more reliable; but electricity supply are not
always reliable in rural area
Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 STORAGE
 Tank from reinforced concrete or corrugated steel sheet
as they are easier to make reliably watertight
 Should be covered to prevent becoming breeding places
for malaria mosquitoes
 Ventilation pipes should be screened with mosquito-proof
mesh
 Pond and dams – req. special measures to prevent their
banks becoming overgrown with weeds
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 TREATMENT
 No simple and reliable water treatment process suitable
for small community
 Preferable to choose a source of naturally pure water
 Collect the ‘pure’ water and protect from pollution
 Storage – simplest method of treating; careful design to
ensure slow and even flow of water like sedimentation;
thus, will permit some silt to settle out and allow time for
some pathogens to die off; stored for at least 48 hrs, any
schistosome cercariae become non-infective
 Sedimentation – for larger community, useful to build a
small sedimentation tank; not possible to add coagulant to
assist & not remove harmful organisms but helps to clarify
water
 Rural Water Supply and Treatment
 TREATMENT (cont.)
 Filtration and chlorination – usually not suitable for village
condition; if req. filtration, use slow sand filter; one
method of chlorination – pot containing a mixture of
coarse sand and bleaching powder and hang underwater in
a well
 Removal of minerals and salts – heavy conc. of dissolved
iron and manganese can give unpleasant taste and brownish
color to food and clothes; to remove – use aeration where
cause iron and manganese to become insoluble and form
fine dark sediment which easily removed; aeration – water
is sprayed over the stones at the top and collected at the
bottom cylinder, water is exposed to air as it trickles thru
stones and sediment deposit on the sand
Water Purification Process

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 Introduction
• Process of removing undesirable chemical and biological
contaminants from raw water.
• Reduce the concentration of particulate matter, suspended
particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi.
• Methods of water purification;
- distillation
- ion exchange
- reverse osmosis
- adsorption media
- microporous filtration
- ultra-filtration
- photo-oxidation

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1. Distillation
- water is heated until it evaporates and the vapor condensed
and collected.
- inexpensive but it is very energy intensive.
- volatile impurities such as carbon dioxide, silica, ammonia
and a variety of organic compounds will 'carry over' into the
distillate. 57
2. Ion exchange
- functions by exchanging hydrogen ions for cationic
contaminants and hydroxyl ions for anionic contaminants in the
feedwater.
- only remove polar organic compounds from the water and
dissolved organics can foul the ion exchange beads, decreasing
their capacity.

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3. Reverse Osmosis
- mechanical pressure is applied to an impure solution to force
pure water through a semi-permeable membrane.
- separates very fine particles or other suspended matters, with a
particle size up to 0.001 microns.
- unless membranes are well-maintained, algae and other life
forms can colonize the membranes.

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4. Adsorption Media
- prepared by pyrolizing coconut shells, coal or resin beads
removes chlorine by a catalytic mechanism.
- wide range of pore sizes and incorporates both carbon and an
inorganic material.
- effective in removing large, naturally-occurring organic
contaminants, toxic compounds.
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5. Microporous Filtration
- provide a physical barrier (membrane) to the passage of
particles and micro-organisms and have absolute ratings down to
0.1 to 10.0 µm .
- trap contaminants, including carbon fines from organic
adsorption cartridges, resin particles from ion exchange
cartridges and bacteria.
- considered to be indispensable in a water purification system.

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6. Ultra-filtration
- uses a membrane, the ultra-filter pores are slightly larger, from
0.001 to 0.02 micron.
- allow a small portion of the feedwater to tangentially flush the
membrane to minimize the build up of contaminants and the
growth of bacteria.
- an excellent technology for ensuring consistent ultra-pure water
quality in respect of particles, and bacteria.

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7. Photo-oxidation
- uses high intensity ultra-violet radiation to destroy bacteria
and other microorganisms and to cleave and ionize any
organic compounds for subsequent removal by ion exchange
cartridges.
- radiation with a wavelength of 254nm has the greatest
bactericidal action, while radiation at
shorter wavelengths (185nm) is most
effective for the oxidation of organics.

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Comparison between
membrane filtration
and reverse osmosis

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65
 Dissolved Oxygen and BOD in rivers

• When an oxygen-demanding waste is added to a river or stream,

the rate at which oxygen is consumed in oxidizing that waste
exceed the rate at which oxygen is resupplied from the
atmosphere.

• Lead to depletion of oxygen resources, with concentrations

falling far below saturation levels.

• Oxygen depletion (below 4-5mg/l) cause loss of biotic diversity

and poor aesthetics.

• Useful starting point for examination of the impact of oxygen-

demanding wastes on oxygen resources.

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Associated water quality zones reflecting impacts on physical conditions
and the diversity and abundance of organisms

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 Stream
Zones
Clean Water Degradation Damage Recovery
Physical Clear water; Floating Turbid water; Turbid water;
Conditions no bottom solids, bottom malodorous bottom
sludge sludge gases; bottom sludge
sludge

Fish Species Cold or warm None Pollution- Cold or warm

water game, tolerant fish: water game,
forage fish, carp, gar, forage fish,
trout, bass buffalo trout, bass

Benthic Clean water Intermediate Pollution Intermediate

invertebrate tolerance tolerant tolerance

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Industrial pollution could have a grave impact on river fauna like fish.
Fish kills have often been reported in the country.

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 1. Oxygen Saturation

• The amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in water at a given

temperature.

• Determine by Henry’s constant (assuming no ionic effect);

DOsat = KHPO2
where;
DOsat = saturation dissolved-oxygen concentration (moles
O2/L)
KH = Henry’s constant (1.356 x 10-3 moles/L.atm at 20°C)
PO2 = partial pressure of oxygen in atmosphere (~21% or
0.21atm)

• The value of Henry’s constant varies with temperature.

• More oxygen will be in the gas phase at an increased in

temperature, and thus the solubility of dissolved oxygen at the70
increased temperature will be lower.
Example : Determination of dissolved-oxygen saturation

Determine the saturation dissolved-oxygen concentration, DOsat at

20°C.

Solution ;

DOsat = 1.356 x 10-3 moles x 0.21atm = 2.85 x 10-4 moles O2

L.atm L

and converting to mg O2/L;

DOsat = 2.85 x 10-4 moles O2 x 32g O2 x 1000mg O2 = 9.1mg O2

L mole O2 g O2 L

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• The value for DOsat ranges from about 14.6 mg O2/L at 0°C to 7.6
mg O2/L at 30°C.

• As a result, fish with high oxygen requirements seek cold waters

and the impacts of oxygen-demanding wastes on water quality
maybe greatest in the summer when temperature is high.

• Stream flows are typically lower in warmer months, offering less

dilution of the waste.

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 2. Oxygen Deficit
• Departure of the ambient dissolved-oxygen concentration from
saturation.

• Defined as;
D = DOsat - DOact
where;
D = oxygen deficit (mg O2/L)
DOsat = saturation dissolved-oxygen concentration (mg O2/L)
DOact = ambient or measured dissolved-oxygen concentration (mg
O2/L)

• Negative deficits may also be occur when ambient oxygen

concentrations exceed the saturation value.

• Occur in lakes and rivers under quiescent, nonturbulent conditions

when algae and macrophytes are actively photosynthesizing and
thus producing dissolved oxygen. 73
Oxygen deficit lead to Dead
Zone of River

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 3. Oxygen Mass Balance

• The BOD exertion expected the following discharge of a waste

to a stream may exceed the oxygen resources of a system,
even at a saturation.

• The shortfall (oxygen present – oxygen required) must be

made up through atmospheric exchange (reaeration).

• When the demand of deoxygenation exceeds the reaeration,

anaerobic conditions develop.

• Mass balance = the dynamic interplay between the oxygen

source (reaeration) and sink (deoxygenation).

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• Streeter-Phelps model was developed in 1920s for studies of
pollution in Ohio River.

D× = k1L0 (e-k1x/U – e-k2x/U) + D0e-k2x/U

(k2-k1)
where;
D× = distance downstream of oxygen deficit at starting point
k1 = deoxygenation rate coefficient (day-1)
k2 = reaeration rate coefficient (day-1)
L0 = ultimate CBOD at t=0 (CBOD = carbonaceous BOD)
D0 = oxygen deficit at starting point (at t=0)
x = distance downstream (km)
u = river velocity (km/day)

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 4. Dissolved-Oxygen Sag Curve & the
Critical Distance

• The discharge of oxygen-demanding wastes to a river yields a

characteristic response in oxygen levels.

• Has three phases of response;

1. an interval where dissolved-oxygen levels fall because the
rate of deoxygenation is greater than the rate of reaeration
2. a minimum (critical points) where the rates of
deoxygenation and reaeration are equal
3. an interval where dissolved-oxygen levels increase
(reaching saturation) because BOD levels are being
reduced and the rate of deoxygenation is less than the rate
of reaeration

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Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curve

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80
 5. Biodegradation

• Plant growth, or photosynthesis can be represented by the

equation;
sunlight
CO2 + H2O HCOH + O2
& nutrients

• Formaldehyde (HCOH) and oxygen are produced from carbon

dioxide and water, with sunlight as the source of energy.

• If the formaldehyde and oxygen are combined and ignited, an

explosion occurs.

• The energy which is released during the explosion is stored in

the carbon-hydrogen-oxygen bonds of formaldehyde.
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82
 Plants use inorganic chemicals as nutrients and with sunlight as
source of energy build high-energy molecules.

Animals eat these high-energy molecules and during the digestion

process some of this energy is released and used by animal.

The release of this energy is quite rapid and the end products of
digestion consist of partially stable compounds.

The compounds then become food for other organisms and are thus
degraded further but at a slower rate.

After several such steps, very low energy compounds are formed
which no longer be used as a food for microorganisms.

Plants then use these compounds to build more high energy

molecules and these process starts all over again.
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River Anatomy

84
85
Polluted River

86
#10 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Mississippi River

The massive dead zone in the Gulf Of Mexico. More than 12.7 million pounds of
poisonous chemicals such as PCB, mercury, fertilizers, sediments etc. have been
dumped into the Mississippi River in just one year. The toxin levels in the water
make it dangerous not just to the marine animals but also to humans who 87
consume it.
#9 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Buriganga River

Become a dumping ground for all kinds of pollutants including industrial and
domestic waste, sewage waste, medical waste, dead animals, plastic and on and
on. About 80% of the sewage dumped into the river is untreated. Shockingly, just
the capital city of Dhaka tosses in 4,500 tons of solid waste into the Buriganga
88
every day.
#8 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Ganges River, India

The pollutants crowding this mighty river varies from industrial, chemical and
sewage waste to soap from washing clothes and bathing, religious offerings, even
dead bodies. Over 1.2 billion pounds of plastic is unashamedly discarded into it
every year. 89
 #7 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Niger River, Nigeria

Large petroleum operations since the 1950s, have polluted the river to critical
levels, with oil and hydrocarbons. Every year, on average, system failures, natural
calamities and other causes lead to the spilling of 240,000 barrels of crude oil into
the Niger River Delta.
90
#6 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Sarno River, Italy

This river that flows into Italy is although clean at the source and safe for
consumption. However, on the way to Italy, it gathers enough pollutants from
factories and agricultural activities. The increasing toxin levels of the river has
hiked up the number of liver cancer cases in the area.
91
 #5 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Marilao River

Most of the pollutants entering the river are waste generated from tanneries, gold
refineries and household waste. Dumping of inorganic materials such as single-
use plastic bags, bottles is rampant in the Marilao River, and even the lead level
in the water is so high that it is killing off the fishes. 92
 #4 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Yellow River

A United Nations Environmental Program report points to 4.29 billion tons of

industrial and sewage waste being dumped into the Yellow River. And now the
river water in the city of Lanzhou has turned red, due to excess chemical
discharge, the water in the river has been declared ‘unfit for human
consumption’. 93
 #3 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Indus River

Every day, hundreds of thousands of people come to the river for purposes
ranging from bathing, fishing, trade to performing religious rites. Rampant and
careless development has however led to the river being severely polluted by
household, agricultural, industrial and sewage waste. Not to forget the horrendous
94
amount of plastic choking it.
 #2 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Yangtze River

A deadly combination of over-population (480 million people live on the river

basin), a completely pro-consumerist lifestyle, and poor waste management
system, has lead to about 333,000 tons of plastic waste being dumped into 95
the East China Sea every year.
 #1 Most Polluted Rivers in the World – Citarum River

The river is literally overcrowded by the amount of industrial and domestic

waste dumped in it. All varieties of pollutants such as plastic items, rubber,
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glass, metal, paints, chemical etc. have accumulated all over the river.
HEALTH & WATER
CHEMISTRY

97
 Health & Water Chemistry

Chemistry of water can lead to disease through:

1) an absence of a necessary constituent, or
2) an excess of a harmful chemical

 Not infectious!! Why??

 How to treat?
By adding chemicals which is deficient or
By removing the harmful chemicals
 Health & Water Chemistry

Water from a piped and treated source

- no major obstacles !! Why ??
Added or removed are done at treatment work
Benefits of increasing or reducing a given compound
must be weighed against the extra treatment costs
involved
 Health & Water Chemistry

Water from untreated supplies such as most villages

in developing countries
- serious problems !! Why ??
If lack a necessary chemical – extremely difficult to
add to water
If water untreated – impossible to remove harmful
chemical pollutant
Health & Water Chemistry
1.Absence of Necessary Chemicals
 Not big issue – alternative source in
food
1. Iodine deficiency in water  iodine deficiency in
diet – lead to goitre; occurs among isolated rural
communities; best controlled by introducing
iodized salt and injections of iodized oil
2. Fluoride deficiency in water  fluoride
deficiency in diet – lead to poor growth of bones
and teeth in the young; communities with low
overall fluoride intake may experience a higher
incidence of dental carries; common practice: add
1 mg/L of F to public water supplies at treatment
work; supplementary fluoride may be introduced
in diet
 Health & Water Chemistry
1.Absence of Necessary Chemicals (cont.)
3.Water softness and heart disease – populations
use hard water (contain carbonates and sulphates
of Ca & Mg) have lower incidence of cardiovascular
disease; heart disease much less in most developing
countries than in Europe and North America;
however, no scientific explanation in terms of water
quality compared to hard water
4.Certain trace elements in water – ex: low Cr
content in diet and drinking water of a village in
Jordan was found to cause juvenile diabetes;
however, rare cases and evidence is inconclusive
 Health & Water Chemistry
1.Absence of Necessary Chemicals (cont.)
 Conclusion: absence of necessary chemical
constituents in water is not a widespread
problem among the poor in hot climates; can add
as supplementary diet
 Health & Water Chemistry
2.Excess of Harmful Organics
 Over a thousand different organic compounds have
now been identified in water; occur in very small
concentrations (<1 µg/L)
 However, some organic compounds or groups of
compounds are known to be either:
a) Toxic, or
b) Carcinogenic (cancer-producing), or
c) Produce odors or tastes
 Sometimes occurs after reacting with chlorine
used for disinfection
 Health & Water Chemistry
2.Excess of Harmful Organics (cont.)
a) Toxic substances – ex. Pesticides (inc. herbicides,
fungicides, insecticides & molluscicides)
 Bulk of pesticide application is in agriculture  most
human intake is in food, not in water
 Settlement in still water or in sedimentation tanks 
reduce concentration of most pesticides
 Areas where heavy runoff from treated fields into
surface waters or where water has been treated
directly with insecticides or molluscicides  a danger
that pesticides levels in surface water used for
drinking may exceed permissible limits, whether or
not it has been filtered or chlorinated
 Health & Water Chemistry
2.Excess of Harmful Organics (cont.)
a) Toxic substances
 Most surface waters in developing countries are used
to catch fish; any pesticides present in water may
accumulate in the food chain & particularly in
bottom-feeding species of fish  greater hazard to
people who eat than anyone drinking the water
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 Health & Water Chemistry
2.Excess of Harmful Organics (cont.)
b) Carcinogenic
 Some organic chemicals are known to cause cancer
when consumed in large doses
 Use of granular activated carbon (GAC) treatment is
recommended to reduce organic compounds in public
drinking water supplies
 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and
trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water cannot
exceed 0.01 µg/L and 1-100 µg/L
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 Health & Water Chemistry
3.Excess of Harmful Inorganics
 Some inorganic chemicals can be found in water
 Metallic ions (ex. At, Ar, Ba, Be, Bo, Cd, Co, Pb, Hg,
Mo, Se, Sn, U & V)  cause metabolic disturbances
in man by upsetting the production and function of
certain enzymes, or to cause a variety of other
toxic effects
 Acceptable intakes and physiological effects are not
known for all of these chemicals
 Health & Water Chemistry
3.Excess of Harmful Inorganics (cont.)
 WHO-recommended limits for nine health related
substances

substance Concentration (mg/L)

Arsenic 0.05
Cadmium 0.005
Chromium 0.05
Cyanide 0.1
Fluoride 1.5
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.001
Nitrate (as N) 10.0
Selenium 0.01
 Health & Water Chemistry
3.Excess of Harmful Inorganics (cont.)
 Aluminum concentrations in drinking water and incidence of
Alzheimer’s Disease (a form of senile dementia) – public concern,
yet not conclusive findings
 Salts in groundwater – mainly chlorides and sulphates  high
dose would make water unpalatable and would have a laxative
effect for those who not used to them and higher dose would
make water undrinkable;  lead people to use surface water
which more bacteriologically polluted
 Health & Water Chemistry
3.Excess of Harmful Inorganics (cont.)
 High intake of sodium (usually NaCl)  high blood pressure
 Fluoride deficiency tooth decay; conc. >2 mg/L  mottling tooth
enamel; conc. >4 mg/L  may cause stiffness and pain in joints
and skeletal deformities, particularly in hot climates where
people drink more water, where conc. tend to increase by
evaporation of stored water, and where people’s diets may also
rich in fluoride or nutritionally deficient
 Health & Water Chemistry
3.Excess of Harmful Inorganics (cont.)
 Fluoride can contribute towards Genu Valgum
(skeletal deformity mainly associated with a high
dietary intake of molybdenum) – only found in areas
prone to fluorosis  crippling knock-kneed
condition found in a few communities in India since
irrigation raised their groundwater level and
increased the uptake of Mo by their sorghum crops
Health & Water Chemistry
3.Excess of Harmful Inorganics (cont.)
 Nitrate conc. >45 mg/L in drinking water  potentially
hazardous to health:
1. Nitrates are reduced in body to nitrites and cause a serious
blood condition in infants known as methaemoglobinaemia
(infantile cyanosis), particularly if their diet is not rich in
Vitamin C)
2. Very high nitrate conc., such as those found in some community
water supplies in Colombia and Chile, maybe implicated in
causation of gastric cancer
 Health & Water Chemistry
3.Excess of Harmful Inorganics (cont.)
 High conc. of nitrates in groundwater may result from thick
deposits of guano, from certain volcanic rocks, or from
prolonged heavy use of organic or artificial fertilizers; also
from final product of oxidation of organic compounds, thus
associated with organic pollution
 Surface or groundwater which receive organic pollution
from sewage discharges or on-site sanitation systems may
show high nitrate levels
 A rising nitrate levels – warning sign of continuing pollution
 Boiling water will kill pathogens, but increase nitrate
content further
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 Additional Info
How Do Water Treatment Plants Work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_ZcCqqpS2o
Make your own water filter and never buy drinking water again.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kazEAzGWuIc
DIY Rainwater Filter System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tgF0o9n_Sn4
'Not a single family is healthy': an Indian village sickened by contaminated
water https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MeUDtPsokRQ
The Effects Of Drinking Contaminated Water
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HJ1uYQgwytg

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Thank YOU..

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