Chapter 3 : The position of the European Union in a globalised world

Introduction : the EU is the most integrated transnational organisation

GLOBALISATION : a process leading to interconnectedness of places and people with

increasing economic, cultural or political flows. It is related to the idea of a shrinking world,
meaning that distances get shorter and interactions are more important. Some territories are very
well integrated (CORE AREAS), whereas some others are considered peripheral (SEMI
PERIPHERIES AND PERIPHERIES)

THE EU IS A TRANSNATIONAL ORGANISATION INVOLVED IN GLOBAL

GOVERNANCE : as an entity that operates beyond national boundaries, the EU reduces the
traditional role of states and aims at encouraging intergovernmental cooperation. In the context of
globalisation, the EU participates in global governance and promotes rules favouring cooperation,
sustainability and interdependency.

AND YET GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND EUROPEAN REGIONAL (here = continental)

POWER ARE LIMITED... Mostly because of national claims. Indeed, major economic powers such
as France or Great Britain (think about Brexit) favour their national interest. Moreover, even if world
or European institutions do exist, it's always a national seat or vote.

Some significant quotes you should meditate and why not use as hooks or new
meanings...

In 1973, Henry Kissinger, then US secretary of state, supposedly complained that

Europe did not exist as there was no single telephone number to call.

In 1999, Mike Moore, Director of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) said
“Globalisation is with us; it cannot be un-invented. No nation, great or small, in the world
today and tomorrow can secure its future alone”

In 2016, talking about the consequences of the Brexit vote, Jean Claude Juncker,
then president of the European Commission said “You can’t deepen the European Union
against the wishes of the European countries.”

1
 Even if that's not this chapter's purpose, do not forget how the EU works...

Western Europe developed an economic unity from the Marshall Plan (1947) to the
European Economic Community (1957, Treaty of Rome), then to the European Union
(1992, Maastricht Treaty) while at the same time it expanded its membership (27
members), and deepened the legal and political bonds that tied the member states
together.

The EU is a trade bloc : the initial aim of the EU was to create a single market for
goods, services, capital, and labour by eliminating all barriers to trade and hence
promoting free trade between members. In this trade bloc, a monetary union has existed
since 1999. 19 countries are integrated into the Euro-zone.

The EU is a political organisation : many institutions do exist and contribute to

limiting national power. For instance, joining the Schengen area means accepting free
circulation of people.

2
I/ The diversity of European territories on different scales

A/ Various levels of development

1. Global scale : highly developed region

Remember Geography 2, part 1. What criteria do we use to measure development ?

• HDI (picture 1 and picture 2) : do they all belong to the very high group ? YES ! Are
they all in the top 15 countries ? NO !

Some examples : ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

• Income (picture 3) : member states are HICs... except for ------------ and ---------------

• Poverty (picture 4) : national poverty ratio is the percentage of the population living
below the national poverty line.

Some examples : ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Regarding the idea that development would be the ability of a country to meet its
population's need, we can say that the EU has more social expenses than the other
developed regions. They do represent 25% of European GDP.

The “big picture” : being so highly developed, it's of course important for the EU to
preserve its image and so contribute to international aid. They spent more than 70 billion
euros in 2020, which represented 46% of total international aid.... and yet only 0,5% of
European income ! European countries are much more interested in investing in
developing countries so they develop trade and benefit from these new markets. Indeed,
the new plan (2021-2027) does represent more than 300 billion euros...

2. Continental (regional) scale : a development gap

• 2 different categories of countries

The first group, which is relatively homogeneous, consists of 11 countries in
Western and Northern Europe: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
Luxembourg, Netherlands, Republic of Ireland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. These
are the richest countries in the EU, all with a GDP/capita above the European average. As
a result of their high level of income, these countries are also the least affected by poverty
in its various forms. Income inequality in these countries is also lower and they are those
with the healthiest population. In addition, these countries also benefit from both a better
level of education and better employment conditions, as well as better governance.

3
The “big picture” : Luxembourg is the richest country in the EU. On this basis, its
economic and social performances are, on the whole, very positive, but it has mediocre
performance for several environmental indicators (emissions of ammonia from agriculture,
of CO2 per inhabitant, etc.).

The second group consists of 17 countries from Eastern and Southern

Europe : Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain. These
countries are classified as being below the European average in terms of GDP/capita
However, they do benefit, especially in the former communist countries, from a high
economic growth rate, far greater than that of the group of rich countries.

• 3 different categories of regions (picture 5)

Less developed regions, where GDP per inhabitant is less than 75 % of the EU
average : -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Transition regions, where GDP per inhabitant was between 75 % and 90 % of the EU
average : -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
More developed regions, where GDP per inhabitant was more than 90 % of the EU
average : -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. National scale : example of France/les Outre-mer

• Do inequalities lessen or worsen ? (picture 6)

Decreasing trend in ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Increasing trend in ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The “big picture” : remember Luxembourg is the richest country in the EU ? And yet,
since 2010, there has been an alarming increase of people living in poverty. 21.5% of
people in Luxembourg are living at risk of poverty or social exclusion.18.7% of working
people in Luxembourg are considered as working poor

• Examples of + France and les Outre-mer (Mayotte/Comores, les soeurs

ennemies, émission France TV “sur la ligne”, du 2 février 2023)

+ Investigate this page and collect some information to describe this development gap.
Do not forget to use global scale to provide some limitation for this view.

https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/6459395#onglet-2

4
 B/ Various levels of integration in globalisation

1. Global scale : member of the Triad, core area

Second-largest economy. 18,9% of world's GDP for only 6,9% of the world's
population. Some sectors are particularly dynamic, such as agriculture and services. But
the EU has to face a growing competition and the negative impacts of Brexit. For instance,
in 2018, only 28 European TNCs were in the top 100... Since Brexit, there have been only
12 !
First trading power. The EU accounts for around 15% of the world’s trade in
goods. Of course, we have to take into account that two thirds of the EU countries' total
trade is done with other European countries.

2. Continental (regional) scale : different initial situations, different ways to

participate in globalisation

A gap between Western and Eastern Europe... Not the same advantages, which
is great at an international level and contributes to European power... but on a regional
scale, it means you have to face competition with other member States, knowing that the
national power is still an decisive matter. Think about France for instance, not so proud of
being the 6th largest world economy... while Germany is number 4... That's why
comparative advantages, meaning the ability to produce a particular good or service at a
lower cost than its trading partners, are so important within the EU.

Western Europe : important ability to innovate and develop high technologies.

Benefits from the Northern Range façade and its international ports such as Rotterdam or
Le Havre. Main international airports. Very attractive countries for tourism (Spain, Italy,
France).

Eastern Europe : Western countries are accusing Eastern countries of social

dumping, meaning creating unfair competition by dropping low wages. Countries, such as
Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland and Romania are therefore attractive places for foreign direct
investment and for the hiring of cheap labour. In recent years, the Central and Eastern
European Region has switched to an “assembly line” for Western European companies,
such as Renault. They do specialise in electric and electronics equipment production.

3. National scale : local core areas... with both regional, national and
international impacts.

Let's take the French 54 pôles de compétitivité...

1. They are local core areas. Indeed, they generate jobs and wealth, so a positive
local economic development. For instance, Neopolia (marine energies) holds 32000
jobs, mostly in Nantes and St Nazaire.
2. They do allow France to be more competitive within the EU. Indeed, they do
encourage innovation in branches such as green energies, robotics and sub-marine
technologies. Thanks to many projects encouraged by the State, France can
compete with European leaders such as Germany.
3. These pôles impact French global power. For instance, the Cosmetic Valley pôle

5
 de compétitivité contributes to the French soft power. Allowing worldwide famous
brands such as Dior, Guerlain or Hermès, to benefit from labs, production sites and
communication facilities, this pôle now attracts foreign companies, such as
Japanese Shiseido.

II/ The EU and development strategies

A/ European policies of social, territorial and economic integration

1. Their targets : mainly territorial cohesion

The European policies of social, territorial and economic integration, or

COHESION POLICIES have two main aims : the reduction of geographical inequalities
and the development and consolidation of regional or local poles in order to face global
competition. They do represent € 350 billion.

The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) was established in 1975.

The 2021-27 plan is to correct imbalances between regions and territories. Their targets
are multiple, focusing on jobs as well as transportation or urbanisation. For instance, at
least 8 % of the ERDF resources benefit areas that are naturally disadvantaged from a
geographical viewpoint. It does include remote islands or mountainous areas. The ERDF
also funds very specific projects. March 2022... A € 3,4 billion aid has been voted,
financing member states welcoming refugees fleeing Ukraine. Another example is the €
105 million given to Mayotte for investments the health system and the digitalisation of
services. In Romania, more than € 70 million have been granted to improve water quality
and wastewater infrastructure.

The European Social Fund (ESF) was established in 1957. It specifically targets
people, with the idea to improve job prospects and create a more inclusive society,
financing especially local and regional employment-related projects. For instance, there 33
projects in France, from helping the low-skilled with training and qualifications to “ Second
Chance Schools” such as the micro-lycée at Jean Rostand (Caen).

https://microlyceecaen.etab.ac-caen.fr

https://actu.fr/normandie/alencon_61001/orne-dix-entreprises-supplementaires-rejoignent-
la-plateforme-orne-emploi_49349410.html

2. Their measures and their impacts (success/failure)

• Example of the Cross-border territories : transnational zones (pictures 7 and 8)

Cross-border territories do represent 40% of the territory of the EU. 1 European out
of 3 lives in a border region. There are 2 million cross-border workers in the EU, of which
over 20% live in France. At a European level, cross-border territories are considered
testing grounds for European construction cause they embody free movement and
territorial cohesion.

6
 E.g 1 : the Greater Region (France-Belgium-Germany-Luxembourg). 11,4 million
inhabitants and three spoken languages.The programme focuses on a facilitated access to
the cross-border labour market, the promotion of an eco-friendly lifestyle and the increase
of the share of R&D-spending in the region. Success = increase of the offer of transport
system with a minimum impact on the environment, which allows 120000 people cross
borders daily + improved preservation of the natural and cultural heritage of the Greater
Region and an increase in the number of tourists. Failure = not a real collaboration as the
existence of different political, legal, cultural and linguistic systems creates obstacles to
cooperation. Some argue that cross-border relationship exist for the interest in obtaining
European funds. Regarding Education, it's true that it remains difficult to implement shared
educational centres.

E.g. 2 : Romania/Bulgaria (pictures 9 and 10) The programme aims to sustain the
process of creating competitive and sustainable communities, seizing the unique growth
opportunities offered by the area’s backbone, the Danube River and the Black Sea
corridor. Improving navigability, building a bridge and encouraging tourism is part of the
programme. Success = water management and tourism have increased. Failure =
competition between tourism, agribusiness and fish farming. As many projects are aimed
at improving the cultural and tourist potential in the region, farmers feel abandoned.

• Example of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) (picture 11)

The CAP was created in 1962. Its main objectives are to ensure a fair standard of
living for farmers and to provide a stable and safe food supply at affordable prices for
consumers. The budget is huge ! 375 billion euros for 2021-2027, which represents 30% of
European budget.

Some issues the CAP is supposed to tackle : despite the importance of food
production, farmers’ income is around 40% lower compared to non-agricultural income;
agriculture depends more on the weather and the climate than many other sectors;
farmers should work in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner, and maintain
our soils and biodiversity.

Some successes : for many farmers, the CAP represents income stability. Facing
a growing international competition, e.g. with Brazil, it helps maintaining 22 million jobs in
Europe. The CAP also helps the EU maintaining its culinary traditions, which is part of its
soft power. Under CAP, 750 traditional local foods are protected along with 2,000 wines
and spirits ! To finish with, the CAP is used to protect the rural environment. Farmers get
more if they sign up to agro-environment commitments – using fewer chemicals; leaving
boundaries uncultivated; maintaining ponds, trees and hedges; protecting wildlife.

Some failures : Farmers represent 3% of the EU’s population. They generate

(together with the agri-food business) roughly 6% of the Union’s GDP. Yet they receive
30% of the EU’s total budget. Plus 80% of CAP aid goes to just 20% of farms, mostly the
bigger ones. Moreover, by ignoring the rules of supply and demand, the CAP is hugely
wasteful. It leads to overproduction, forming mountains of surplus produce which are either
destroyed or dumped on developing nations.

7
 B/ European countries and sustainability

1. Environmental and social strategies

• E.g. 1 : developing organic farming. The farm to fork strategy.

Implemented in 2020, this strategy aims at developing organic farming in the

member States. The goal is to limit environmental impact, encourage the maintenance of
biodiversity and provide a fair market for producers.

Video and factsheet : https://ec.europa.eu/food/horizontal-topics/farm-fork-strategy_fr

Some facts that you should consider :

Farm to Fork strategy is at the heart of the European Green Deal. This deal sets out
how to make Europe the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. As far as agriculture is
concerned, the idea is to redesign our food systems which today account for nearly one-
third of global Greenhouse gas emissions, consume large amounts of natural resources,
result in biodiversity loss and negative health impacts and do not allow fair economic
returns and livelihoods for all actors, in particular for primary producers.

Picture 12 : the EU passed new legislation relating to the organic sector which
applies from January 2022. The action plan sets out to achieve target of 25% of
agricultural land under organic farming by 2030. It currently accounts for 8,5%. The area
under organic farming has increased by almost 66%in the last 10 years – from 8.3 million
hectares in 2010 to 13.8 million hectares in 2019. It currently accounts for 8.5% of the
EU’s total ‘utilised agricultural area’. But some countries are already “good students”, such
as --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The “big picture” : 2022, presidential candidates and organic farming... Vive le salon de
l'agriculture !
Emmanuel Macron said he would like to like to see 25% of land farmed organically by
2030. For Anne Hidalgo, that should be 30%.
Eric Zemmour and Valérie Pécresse believed in R&D (robots, satellites) so farmers are
less dependent on fertilisers and pesticides.
Jean-Luc Mélanchon proposed to reduce aid to the largest farms and advocated for a total
ban on pesticides by 2030, compared to the current 50% reduction provided in the EU strategy.
Fabien Roussel wanted to develop agro-ecological stockbreeding instead of reducing cattle
as Jean-Luc Mélanchon would like to. He claimed the importance of meat as representative of
French soft power “un bon vin, une bonne viande, un bon fromage”.

• E.g. 2 : developing renewable energies. The Smart Regions strategy.

Since 2016, the EU has encouraged innovation at a regional level. Smart Regions
promote sustainable planning and development of high technology, mostly aiming to
increase the use of renewable energy. Example of Alpgrids :
https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2022/02/14/unlocking-the-grid-the-smart-energy-
solution-for-alpine-areas
Example of Vilawatt : https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2021/10/25/the-community-
with-energy-efficiency-at-its-heart

8
 2. Global strategies with many impacts on European, national and local scales

• E.g. 1 : the EU and the 17 SDGs

Since adopting the 2030 Agenda in 2015, the EU, in coordination with its Member
States, has committed to integrating the Sustainable Development Goals into the
European political framework. Of course, the Farm to Fork strategy is also part of it.

Picture 13 : At a European level, the Commission and the Parliament implement the
European Way of Life, which does include the Gender Equality Strategy 2020-25. It does
correspond to SDG 5.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0152

Ursula Von der Layen communicated about this plan, giving some facts such as
– The EU is a global leader in gender equality : 14 of the top 20 countries worldwide
on gender equality are EU Member States. However, they scored 67,4 out of 100 in
the Gender Equality Index in 2020. Gender gaps in employment, pay, care and
power persist. For instance, women only represent 17% of people in ICT studies
and careers in the EU.
– 44% of Europeans think that the most important role of a woman is to take care of
her home and family. The Commission will launch an EU-wide communication
campaign combatting gender stereotypes.

Impacts on national and local scales : first of all, remember that SDGs are
implemented by States. Of course, we have to take into account initial situations. For
instance, on the European scale, the gender pays gap is on average 13%. But there is a
huge difference between the 4,2% in Italy and the 22,3% in Latvia ! Countries therefore
implement adapted measures. In Latvia, the Ministry of Welfare copes with a limited
budget for gender equality policies. The idea is to address income inequality through
maternity provisions and flexible child care arrangements. In Italy, the idea is to focus on
private sector, cause the gender pay gap is limited in public sector.

• E.g. 2 : the EU and NGOs

Non-governmental organisations engage in regular dialogue with public authorities

with a view to ensuring better implementation of EU initiatives and policies in the EU
countries. The Europe 2020 Strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth and the
PROGRESS programme aim at strengthening the partnerships between EU institutions,
national governments and NGOs.
Creating a link with the SDGs, we can take the example of social inclusion and
promotion of gender equality. The European Women's Lobby was created in 1987. The
idea was to exert pressure on European and national institutions to ensure better defence
and representation of women’s interest. In 1990, the European Commission granted its
financial support. Because of its advisory status in both the United Nations Economic and
Social Council and the Council of Europe, the EWL plays an instrumental role at the
international level. The lobby is in fact the voice and the network of 2000 organisations in
Europe. Each local organisation strives to realise women’s rights, equality between women
and men and social justice, leaving no woman and girl behind.

https://www.womenlobby.org/?lang=en

9
III/ Challenges facing the European Union in a changing world

A/ Politically speaking

1. Is the EU a political power ?

POINT = the EU is an emerging superpower with many challenges.

EXPLANATION AND ILLUSTRATION : a political union does exist as many
institutions have been created since 1957 (cf p. 2). And yet, the EU is not a political
power...

Challenges regarding global governance : after the withdrawal of American troops from
Afghanistan in August 2021, Joseph Borrell, EU's chief diplomat, urged the bloc to create
a collective armed force. The contradictions within the EU members are strong, as
German Defence Minister said “Europeans will not be able to replace America's crucial
role as a security provider” and the French president said “strategic autonomy is vital, so
Europe can take more responsibility”. The EU agreed in 1999 to develop a contingent of
50,000-60,000 soldiers that could be deployed within 60 days. But in fact, the bloc clearly
depends on NATO... Russia’s war on Ukraine has convinced many European states to
rebuild their militaries... But to what extent is it a European will ? Countries such as
Germany have announced a dramatic increase in defence spending, but that's a national
decision. And yet, according to some experts, this war will accelerate the creation of a
European Army, as US policymakers will likely tell Europeans that they must provide most
of this themselves, with US support limited to intelligence and nuclear deterrence. The fact
European leaders have decided to buy and deliver weapons to Ukraine - the first time the
bloc has financed military support for a country under attack – is a sign that a new era is
definitely coming.

Challenges regarding political internal division : Eurosceptic and illiberal (rejecting for
instance independence of justice) political parties have gained power since 2019 in
countries such as Hungary and at a European level too (62 seats at the European
Parliament out of 751). They claim Sovereignism, which is a simple cooperation between
sovereign States. Brexit did accelerate this trend, some politicians calling for Frexit or
Polexit... What's left of Federalism, the idea that EU should be an actual supranational
entity ?

Conclusion : Europeans are still struggling/hesitating between a simple union of states or

a supranational Europe Picture 14-15 ⇒ Multi-speed Europe/ “Europe à géométrie
variable”.
http://geoconfluences.ens-lyon.fr/glossaire/europe-a-geometrie-variable-a-la-carte-a-plusieurs-
vitesses

The “big picture” : the idea of a common political Europe is old (the term 'United States of
Europe' was used by Victor Hugo in 1849) and it knew a renewal during and after WW2, mainly
carried by former resistants, as the best way to rebuild the continent and to maintain a lasting
peace and prosperity. So after 1945, pro-Europe associations were created and flourished, such
as the Union of European Federalists created in 1946 with the belief that only a European
Federation, based on the idea of unity in diversity, could overcome the division of the European
continent. In 1946, the former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill pronounced a speech at
Zurich University, advocating in favour of a political Europe.

10
 2. Is it still possible for a country to enter the EU ?

https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/joining-eu_en

Enlargement process. The Copenhagen criteria = rules that define whether a country is
eligible to join the EU. The criteria require that a state has the institutions to preserve
democratic governance and human rights, has a functioning market economy, and accepts
the obligations and intent of the EU.

1973: first enlargement from 6 to 9. Britain, Ireland and Denmark

1981: second enlargement from 9 to 10. Greece
1986: third enlargement. Spain and Portugal ⇒ strengthening of democracy in the
South of Europe
1995: fourth enlargement. Austria, Sweden and Finland.
2004: 10 new states joined the Union ⇒ Enlargements towards the East and the
South. The former Soviet-bloc countries (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland,
Romania and Slovakia), the three Baltic states that had been part of the Soviet Union
(Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), one of the republics of former Yugoslavia (Slovenia) and
two Mediterranean countries (Cyprus and Malta)
2007: Bulgaria and Romania
2013 : Croatia
Such enlargements forced the European Union to change the way it operates, its policies
and its finances. They also bring into question the borders of Europe.

February 2023... How long will it take Ukraine to join the EU ?

More than a dozen top European Union officials arrived in Kyiv, a top-level
demonstration of support following new pledges of military aid as the first anniversary of
Russia's invasion of Ukraine nears. While the EU backs Ukraine and supports democratic
and economic reforms there, Kyiv's hopes to quickly join the 27-nation EU are set to be
dashed.
Ukraine applied to join shortly after the Feb. 24, 2022, invasion and last June
received a formal candidate status from the EU. The last country to have joined the EU
was Croatia in 2013, a decade after formally applying. Ukraine's neighbour Poland took 20
years until joining in 2004.
It is likely that Ukraine will therefore have little choice but to go through the three
main stages of the standard accession process. First, the European Council must
unanimously agree on a framework for negotiations – a complex procedure. Ukraine will
need to comply with the policy criteria outlined in 35 “negotiating chapters” of EU
accession covering most sectors of governance, from energy to taxation to social policy.
Moreover, negotiations on any chapter are only closed when “every EU government is
satisfied with the candidate's progress in that policy field”. The third and final phase
includes the signing of an accession treaty between the member states and the candidate
nation. The treaty must be approved by the EU Council, the European Commission and
the European Parliament; signed by the representatives of all existing EU countries; and
ratified by each EU member state according to their own constitutional rules (parliamentary
vote, referendum, etc.).
Accession criteria do not specifically say a country at war cannot become an EU
member but the bloc does not want to import territorial conflicts. It did, however, allow
Cyprus to join in 2004 despite Nicosia not controlling the whole island since Turkey's 1974

11
invasion. All EU countries must agree to take a new peer in. Beyond Ukraine meeting the
complex criteria, it would also have to overcome reluctance from several founding states
including France and the Netherlands to expand the bloc more to the east. EU
enlargement talks have stalled since 2018 as the current members cannot agree whether
to admit other official candidates Albania, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro and
Serbia. The bloc is also divided on awarding formal candidate status to other hopefuls
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Georgia.
With some 44 million people, Ukraine would be the fifth-biggest EU country after
Germany, France, Italy and Spain, giving it large influence on the bloc's decisions.

Extracted from France 24, February 2023.

B/ Economically and socially speaking

1. The lack of a common answer to the migration crisis

Pictures 15, 16 and 17 : “the EU attracts migrants”. Using pictures 15 and 16, assess this
view.

23.7 million people (5.3%) of the 447.2 million people living in the EU on 1 January
2021 were non-EU citizens. 1.9 million immigrants entered the EU from non-EU countries
in 2020, a decrease of almost 30% compared with 2019.
Since 2015 and what was considered a migration crisis, the EU has had to cope
with many internal disputes over the issue of migrants. The 2015 migrant crisis was a big
scandal. 1,3 million people, mostly Syrians, came to request asylum. The vast majority of
refugees coming to Europe did so by crossing the Aegean Sea from Turkey to Greece and
subsequently making their way by land through the Balkans towards the European
Union.This was a significant change to previous years : before 2015, most refugees had
reached Europe by crossing Mediterranean Sea from Libya to Italy. These were mainly
migrants originating in Sub-Saharan Africa. The southeastern and central European
countries through which refugees traveled to reach Western Europe were unaccustomed
to and unprepared for the sudden movement of tens of thousands of refugees through
them. Many reacted by closing their borders to neighbouring countries. In March 2016,
Turkey agreed to close its border to the EU in exchange for money and diplomatic
favours... The crisis had considerable short-term and long-term effects on the politics of
both the affected EU countries and the EU as a whole. Populist right-wing political parties
capitalised in anti-immigrant sentiment and have since influenced politics.
“Fortress Europe”... Indeed, so many walls have been built since 1989 ! Most of
them are seen as a kind a anti-migrant shield. Let's not forget that in January 2022, Poland
asked Brussels to fund a border wall...

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/fortress-europe-borders-wall-fence-controls-eu-
countries-migrants-crisis/
https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2021/11/08/should-brussels-fund-border-walls-at-
eu-frontiers

12
 Since March 2022, countries across Europe have warmly welcomed refugees from
the war in Ukraine, with even politicians known for their anti-migration views calling for
support for those fleeing the conflict. The bloc has decided to use its Temporary Protection
Directive to grant refugees coming from Ukraine a residence permit, and access to
education and the labour market. This is the first time ever that this Directive, which was
passed in 2001, has been triggered.

2. How far do you agree that the EU is a trade bloc favouring globalisation ?
(key issue)

• Questions you need to anticipate (and of course, it does include your five minutes
presentation and the five minutes that come next)

- What is the EU’s trade policy?

- Why is it important in a globalised economy and how does it work?
- How does being a member State favour your integration and development ?
- What are the disadvantages ? How do countries cope with them ?
- The UK left the EU and yet still claims that it's for the best. Why ?
- What about trade agreements with non-member States (CETA with Canada,
JEFTA with Japan) ?
- Globalisation = economically speaking but also politically and culturally speaking.
Do not forget about that ! By the way, do not forget to use definitions on p. 1 (globalisation
and global governance).

Websites I did use when writing this

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/priorities/globalisation/20180703STO07132/th
e-eu-s-position-in-world-trade-in-figures-infographic

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/priorities/globalisation/20161014STO47381/tra
de-agreements-what-the-eu-is-working-on

https://eupinions.eu/de/text/globalization-and-the-eu-threat-or-opportunity

https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/european-issues/0296-europe-and-globalisation-dangers-and-
assets

• Some answers... but I let you organise your personal one !

The first trading power : in 2019, the EU did represent 15,6% of global exports.
The main EU partner for exports in 2020 and 2021 was the United States and for imports
China in 2020 and the UK in 2021. So obviously, the EU favours core areas and so de
facto excludes isolated peripheries...

How is the EU's trade policy decided ? The EU as a bloc has the power to
legislate on trade matters and conclude international trade agreements. Member States
must accept this policy. The bloc is also a member of the World Trade Organisation. The
European Commission negotiates on member States behalf.

13
 The main goal of the EU's trade policy is to increase trading opportunities for
European companies by removing trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas and by
guaranteeing fair competition. The EU participates in globalisation as it does encourage
other countries to trade with the bloc. PB is : what countries ? Of course, we have to take
into account that two thirds of the EU countries' total trade is done with other European
countries...

Trading opportunities with other nations : the EU has currently 77 trade

agreements with other States. Trade agreements are not only an opportunity to reduce
tariffs, but also to get our partners to recognise EU quality and safety standards, and to
respect products with a protected designation of origin, such as champagne or Roquefort
cheese. Moreover, the EU uses its trade policy to promote human rights, social and safety
standards, respect for the environment and sustainable development.For instance, in
2017, the Parliament adopted a resolution calling for rules obliging textile and clothing
suppliers to respect workers' rights.

A considerable number of Europeans think globalisation is a threat (44%

according to a 2019 survey, reaching 63% of populist supporters). The survey shows
European citizens associate globalisation with trade and migration. What I found
interesting is that populist left-wing party supporters think globalisation is a threat, but want
more European cooperation. For populist right-wing party supporters, the EU is seen as
part of the problem and fuels their globalisation fears.

There are concerns that free trade agreements with non-member States would
penalise European producers and consumers. For example, the free trade agreement
with Canada, known as the Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement (CETA) entered
into force in September 2017. Canada is a large market for Europe's exports and a country
rich in natural resources that Europe needs. This agreement mostly consists of removing
taxes on exports/imports which would make European companies more competitive in
Canada. But important issues like pesticide protection standards or food controls are still
being negotiated. NGOs such as Foodwatch denounce that.

There are concerns that trade agreements can lead to job losses in some
sectors due to the increased competition, but these deals always create more jobs than
they destroy. More than 36 million jobs in the EU depend on exports outside the bloc. But
some sectors are vulnerable, especially low-skilled jobs in textile, metal products and
manufacturing industries. These sectors are the most exposed to relocations because of
competition for low-wages countries. A current dynamic is that relocation trends are
shifting. Indeed, eastern European countries relocate mostly in North Africa. But of course,
it would be possible to use the NIDL (cf chapter 1) as a system which favours
globalisation... Or to mention the fact the Covid-19 pandemic has demonstrated the need
to move the production of critical sectors and product, such as medication or
semiconductor chips, back to Europe.

A significant example would be Russia's invasion of Ukraine and its impacts

on European integration and globalisation. Indeed, by provoking the biggest
commodity shock since the 1970s, it has brutally reminded us of the stakes of the NIDL.
The global economy is again facing huge supply chain disruptions, in sectors such as
energy of course, but also cereals. Many politicians, including E. Macron, after decades of
promoting free trade, now advocate for self-sufficiency and a kind of protectionism. Rings

14
a bell, doesn't it ? Cf History chapter 1 ! With the energy crisis triggered by the Russian
invasion of Ukraine, the issue of maintaining key economic/political relations with
autocratic countries, is raised. According to Nicole Gnesotto, historian and vice-President
of the Jacques Delors Institute (an independent think tank based in Paris), EU's role and
powers are clearly questioned and it could result in a bigger crisis than Brexit...

C/ National, European power... or both ?

Statement 1 : without the EU and intra-zone trade, France wouldn't be the 6 th largest
economy...
Statement 2 : without Germany and France, the EU wouldn't represent 18% of world's
GDP and so be the 2nd largest economy...
Statement 3 : the European Cohesion Policy helps France in reducing regional inequalities
between the Outre-Mer and the metropolis...
Statement 4 : In February 2022, France won the competition against Italy and Spain for
Start-up Verkor's future battery factory... E. Macron rejoiced, delivering a speech in which
he did remind that companies such as Amazon or Häagen-Dazs also chose the French
region Hauts-de-France.

What conclusions can you draw ?

15
 Révisions in Geography

You need : your 3 Geography chapters + the Internet + your culture G + your
ability to improvise.

1. OUR GUEST STAR COUNTRY... FRANCE !!!

Question 1 : describe this country's advantages to be a major economic

power
Question 2 : outline the main characteristics of regional inequality in
France
Question 3 : to what extent are the French development strategies
successful ?
Question 4 : evaluate the role of France in global governance.

2. USING THE PIE SYSTEM... CONSIDER THIS : DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIES

Question 1 : Point out three different development strategies

Question 2 : outline their main characteristics... The best marking band
supposes you use different scales.
Question 3 : why were they implemented ? By whom ? (initial situation
and targets ?)
Question 4 : to what extent are these strategies successful ? Do not
forget to use different scales.

3. USING THE PIE SYSTEM... CONSIDER THIS : INEQUALITIES

Question 1 : this could be a key term in many essays/DBQs, or a key

term for oral examination. Imagine the questions you should be able to
answer.
Question 2 : well, this would be time to investigate your chapters and
find answers.

16