ArIES IIT Roorkee

Recruitment Manual
2022
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Table Of Contents

Sr No. Topics

1. Electronics
2. Drone
3. ROS
4. AR_VR
5. ML_DL
6. Development
7. Mechanical

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Electronics Study Material

● Microcontroller:
○ Abbreviated as MCU.
○ Nothing, but an IC (Integrated Circuit).
○ In general, we can say that it’s like a mini-computer.
○ It can be programmed by the user.
○ Programmable input and output pins
○ Small storage memory to store data.
○ Various algorithms can be programmed onto an MCU for the
processing of input data.
○ Various communication interfaces for communicating with
different devices.

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Fig: Block diagr2am of a Microcontroller

● Development Boards:
○ Printed circuit board with a microcontroller soldered on it.
○ Provide all the circuitry necessary for a useful control task like I/O circuit, clock
generator, memory unit, etc.
○ Provide ease to interface input, output devices.

Arduino description:

1) Power USB:

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 An Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your computer.

2) Power (Barrel Jack):

Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by connecting it to the
Barrel Jack.

3) Voltage Regulator:
The voltage regulator is used to control the voltage given to the Arduino board and stabilize the
DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.
4) Crystal Oscillator:
The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues.

5) Arduino Reset:
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You can reset the
UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button on the board. Second, you can connect
an ex3ternal reset button to the Arduino pin labeled RESET.

6) Pins (3.3, 5, GND):

On the board, there are 2 supply output voltages(3.3V and 5V) and several ground ports.

7) Analog pins:
The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can read the signal
from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature sensor and convert it into a digital
value that can be read by the microprocessor.

8) Main microcontroller:
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the brain of your
board.

9) ICSP pin:
Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting of MOSI,
MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND.

10) Power LED indicator:

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to indicate that your
board is powered up correctly.

11) TX and RX LEDs:

On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They appear in two places
on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate the pins responsible for
serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13).

12) Digital I/O:

The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) output.

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 13) AREF:
AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes used to set an external reference voltage
(be4tween 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.

For more information

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/arduino/arduino_board_description.htm#:~:text=The%20Arduino
%20UNO%20board%20has,be%20read%20by%20the%20microprocessor.&text=Each%20Ardu
ino%20board%20has%20its%20own%20microcontroller%20(11).

Sensors
A sensor is a device used to measure a property, such as pressure, position,
temperature, or acceleration, and respond with feedback. A Sensor converts the
physical parameter (for example temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed,
etc.) into a signal which can be measured electrically. The various types of sensors
which are commonly used are:

● Inertial Sensors: Inertial sensors are sensors based on inertia and relevant
measuring principles.These sensors measures angular velocity, acceleration,
temperature, etc. of an object on which it is mounted.

○ Accelerometer: An accelerometer measures acceleration (change in speed) of

anything that it's mounted on. How does it work? Inside an
accelerator, MEMS devices are tiny micro-structures that bend due to
momentum and gravity. When it experiences any form of
acceleration, these tiny structures bend by an equivalent amount
which can be electrically detected. Today, accelerometers are
easily and cheaply available, making it a very viable sensor for
cheap robotics hobbyists like you and me.
http://www.societyofrobots.com/sensors_accelerometer.shtml
https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/accelerometer-basics

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 ○ Gyroscope: A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or
maintaining orientation and angular velocity.[1][2] It is a spinning
wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any
orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is
unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the
conservation of angular momentum.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope
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○ Magnetometer: The digital compass gives

measurements based on Earth's magnetic field for robot
navigation. Inside this, commonly available MEMS are tiny
nanostructures that bend due to electromagnetic fields. When
this MEMS experiences any form of EM field, the tiny
structures bend by an amount which can be electrically
detected. Cheaper digital compasses usually have a resolution of around +/- 5 degrees,
but newer and better ones can detect with better accuracy.
http://www.societyofrobots.com/sensors_digitalcompass.shtml

○ IMU: An inertial measurement unit (IMU) is an electronic device

that measures and reports a body's specific force, angular rate,
and sometimes the magnetic field surrounding the body, using a
combination of accelerometers and gyroscopes, sometimes also
magnetometers. IMUs are typically used to maneuver aircraft,
including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), among many others,
and spacecraft, including satellites and landers.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit

○ IR Distance Sensor: The Sharp IR Range Finder works by the

process of triangulation. A pulse of light (wavelength range of 850nm
+/-70nm) is emitted and then reflected back (or not reflected at all).
When the light returns it comes back at an angle that is dependent on

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 the distance of the reflecting object. Triangulation works by detecting this reflected beam
angle - by knowing the angle, distance can then be determined.
http://www.societyofrobots.com/sensors_sharpirrange.shtml

○ Ultrasonic Distance Sensor: Everyone knows how sonar works. A

sound gets emitted, then you 'see' your surroundings based on the sound
coming echoing back. This is because sound takes time to travel distances.
Farther the distance, the longer it takes for the sound to come back.
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http://www.societyofrobots.com/sensors_sonar.shtm

● Proximity Sensors: These sensors are used for object and obstacle detection.
○ IR Sensor (Proximity Sensor): The Infrared emitter detector circuit
is very useful if you plan to make a line following robot, or a robot with a
basic object or obstacle detection. Infrared emitter detector pair sensors
are fairly easy to implement, although involved some level of testing and
calibration to get right. They can be used for obstacle detection, motion
detection, transmitters, encoders, and color detection (such as for line
following).
http://www.societyofrobots.com/schematics_infraredemitdet.shtml
● Angular Position Sensor: When coupled with a rotating object it measures the
rotation of the object.
○ Encoders: The encoder is a sensor attached to a rotating object
(such as a wheel or motor) to measure rotation. By measuring
rotation your robot can do things such as determine displacement,
velocity, acceleration, or the angle of a rotating sensor. A typical
encoder uses an optical sensor(s), a moving mechanical component,
and a special reflector to provide a series of electrical pulses to your
microcontroller. These pulses can be used as part of a PID feedback
control system to determine translation distance, rotational velocity, and/or angle of a
moving robot or robot part.
http://www.societyofrobots.com/sensors_encoder.shtml

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 ○ Angular Potentiometer: A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is
defined as a 3 terminal variable resistor in which the resistance is manually varied to
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control the flow of electric current. A potentiometer acts as an adjustable voltage divider.
Angular position can be found by measuring the voltage at the sliding terminal.

● Color Sensor: The color sensor detects the color of the surface, usually on the
RGB scale. Color is the result of interaction between a light source, an object, and
an observer. In case of reflected light, light falling on an object will be reflected or
absorbed depending on surface characteristics, such as reflectance and
transmittance. For example, green paper will absorb most of the reddish and bluish
part of the spectrum while reflecting the greenish part of the spectrum, making it
appear greenish to the observer.
http://www.societyofrobots.com/sensors_color.shtml

Shrey : 9457255404 Dishant : 6375758756

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 1

Drone Study Material

“Drone” - Components and Working :

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle and Model Aircraft

(1) Unmanned Aerial Vehicle or Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle
(UAV). The flight of UAVs may be controlled either
autonomously by onboard computers or by the remote
control from a pilot on the ground or in another vehicle.
UAVs are also called drones.
(2) Model Aircraft. “An aircraft of limited dimensions, with or
without a propulsion device, not able to carry a human
being and to be used for aerial competition, sport or
recreational purposes” is called a model aircraft [1]. The
statutory parameters of a model aircraft operation are
outlined in [2], [3].

Remote Control of a Quadcopter

At a hover position
• Sum of the four produced thrusts compensates for the weight;
• Thrusts of four rotors are the same and the moments of four rotors
sum to zero;
• About the yaw moment. If the blades are spinning counterclockwise,
then the airframe will start to rotate clockwise due to the torque
reaction. This is due to Newton’s Third Law.
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Upward and Downward Movement

Forward and Backward Movement

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After the pitch angle exists, four propellers’ angular velocities

should be further increased by the same amount to compensate
for the weight.

Leftward and Rightward Movement

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Yaw Movement

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What are the basic compositions of a multicopter system?

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 Multicopter Configurations Propulsion System
1)A propulsion system includes propellers, motors, ESCs and often
a battery.
2)The propulsion system determines the main performances of
multicopter like the hovering time, the payload ability, the flying
speed and distance.
3)Components of the propulsion system have to be compatible
with each other, otherwise they cannot work properly or even fails
in some extreme cases

Electronic Speed Controller

In general, Electronic Speed Control is called ESC for short.

• Controlling the speed of motors based on the PWM signal that
autopilots send.
• Supplying power for Radio Controlled (RC) servo motors.
• Transforming the onboard DC power into the three-phase
Alternating Current (AC) power that can be applied to brushless
DC motors.

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• The auxiliary functions includes battery protection and starting
protection.

RC Transmitter and Receiver

The RC transmitter is used to transmit commands from remote
pilot to the corresponding receiver, then the receiver passes the
comma7nds to the autopilot after decoding them, finally, the
multicopter flies according to the commands. Some flight
parameters can be set on the transmitter, such as the throttle
direction, stick sensitivity, neutral position of RC servo motors,
function definitions of channels, record and remind setting of
flight time, and lever function setting.

Futaba RC Transmitter

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 C8orrespondences Between Multicopter and Fixed-wing Aircrafts

Autopilot
A multicopter autopilot can be divided into the software part and
hardware part：
• Global Position System (GPS) receiver. It is used to obtain the
location information of multicopters.
• Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). It includes: three-axis
accelerometer, three-axis gyroscope, electronic compass (or
three-axis magnetometer). It is used to obtain attitude information
of a multicopter.
• Height sensor. Height sensor includes the barometer and
ultrasonic range finder, which are used to obtain the absolute
height and relative height, respectively.
• Microcomputers. It is a platform used to receive information and
run algorithms to produce control command.
• Interface. It acts as a bridge between the microcomputer and the
other devices, like the sensors, ESC and RC receiver.

Ground Control System

• Software is an important part of GCS.
• Remote pilots can interact with the software using the mouse,
keyboard, button and joystick.
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• Remote pilot can plan the way point in advance, therefore the
remote pilot can monitor the flight status in real time and set new
missions to intervene flight.
• The software can record and playback flight for analysis.

Some important links -

1. https://dronenodes.com/how-to-build-a-drone/#tab-con-12
2. https://catsr.vse.gmu.edu/SYST460/DroneComponents.pdf
3. https://grinddrone.com/drone-features/drone-components
4. (650) How to Make a Drone at Home - For Beginner - YouTube
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOugJpQfUDU

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 AR/VR Study Material
Augmented reality is made up of the word “augment” which means to make
something great by adding something to it. So basically, augmented reality is a
method by which we can alter our real world by adding some digital elements
to it. This is done by superimposing a digital image on the person’s current
view thus it enhances the experience of reality.

Virtual reality is the use of computer technology to create simulated

environments. Virtual reality places the user inside a three-dimensional
experience. Instead of viewing a screen in front of them, users are immersed
in and interact with 3D worlds.

Difference between Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality

Virtual reality makes a virtual environment and puts the user in it whereas
Augmented reality just adds the virtual components into the user’s real-world
view. Virtual reality sends a person into a virtual place created by a computer
whereas augmented reality brings the digital world into our real world.to
experience virtual reality the person needs to wear a special VR headset that
is connected to a computer like the Oculus Rift or a gaming console like
PlayStation VR but there are devices that work with a smartphone-like Google
Cardboard.

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The Reality-Virtuality Continuum

The reality-virtuality continuum is a scale that was given by Paul Milgram. It is
a scale which has two extremes. One part depicts ‘virtuality’ or an
environment which is completely virtual and the other part describes a real
environment or ‘reality’ and the middle part is termed as “mixed reality”. AR,
VR and MR are collectively called “XR”.

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How to build AR/VR applications?
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● The first stage is to choose the different tools/platforms that will help
you build the AR/VR application.
● Once you have chosen the platform, you need to decide on the
application mechanism.
● Android and iOS both have helpful SDK's (Software Development Kits) and
choosing any OS is good. Ideally, you can choose a platform that lets you
develop a cross-platform AR application, providing greater depth and reaching
a larger audience.

Unity 3D
Unity is a game engine that can be used as editor for developing AR/VR
applications. Unity's AR Foundation is a cross-platform framework that allows you
to write augmented reality experiences once, then build for either Android or iOS
devices without making any additional changes.

For further details:

https://docs.unity3d.com/Manual/XR.html

Unreal Engine
Similar to unity, the unreal engine can also be used for XR development but
it's more widely used for developing applications for PC than mobile
applications.Unreal Engine project can ship with the following plugins enabled:
OpenXR, Oculus, SteamVR, and Windows Mixed Reality.

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SDK’s used for XR development
AR Core
Supported platforms: Android 7.0 and higher, iOS 11 or higher.
ARCore is Google’s platform for building unparalleled AR experiences. Using
different APIs, ARCore enables your device to sense its environment,
understand the world and interact with data at your fingertips. ARCore uses 3
key capabiliti4es to integrate virtual content with the real world.
1. Motion Tracking
2. Environmental understanding
3. Light estimation
For reference:
https://youtu.be/GkzMFNmvums

AR Kit
Supported platforms: iOS 11/12
The world’s biggest iOS platform for AR app development, ARKit helps create
persistent and shared AR experiences, 2D and 3D image tracking and
detection, quick look objects, and more.

Vuforia
Supported platforms: Android, iOS, UWP and Unity Editor.
Vuforia is one of the most preferable tools among VR/AR/XR app developers.
Vuforia features a drag-and-drop interface that significantly facilitates the
processes of AR development and rendering.

For reference:
https://youtu.be/MtiUx_szKbI

Open VR
Open VR is a software development kit (SDK) and an API that was developed
by Valve in order to support HTC Vive and other VR headset related devices.

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It is an API and runtime that allows access to VR hardware from multiple
vendors without requiring that applications have specific knowledge of the
hardware they are targeting.

Oculus Rift
Oculus SDK is considered to be the best VR SDK for Rift since it includes
various eng5ine-specific kits, samples, assets as well as audio packages in
order to help build VR apps very quickly and easily in your preferred
development environment.

Stream VR
SteamVR Unity Plugin manages three main things for developers: loading 3d
models for VR controllers, handling input from those controllers, and
estimating what your hand looks like while using those controllers.

Scripting Languages
C# and C/C++ are commonly regarded as the top programming languages for
XR development. Scripts are used to set/change the behaviour of game
objects in the scene.

C#
Inspired by its predecessors C and C++, C-sharp (C#) is a programming
language developed by Microsoft, capable of a wide range of tasks, but most
importantly, it's the programming language used by the game engine by Unity
Technologies.

C# unity documentation:
https://docs.unity3d.com/Manual/ScriptingSection.html

C# programming guide:
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/csharp/programming-guide/
VRML

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VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) is a language for describing
three-dimensional ( 3-D ) image sequences and possible user interactions to
go with 6them. Using VRML, you can build a sequence of visual images into
Web settings with which a user can interact by viewing, moving, rotating, and
otherwise interacting with an apparently 3-D scene. For example, you can
view a room and use controls to move the room as you would experience it if
you were walking through it in real space.

Apartment ground plan in VRML

To view a VRML file, you need a VRML viewer or browser, which can be a
plug-in for a Web browser you already have. Among viewers you can
download for the Windows platforms are blaxxun's CC Pro, Platinum's Cosmo
Player, WebFX, WorldView, and Fountain. Whurlwind and Voyager are two
viewers for the Mac.

Some other resources

● https://www.youtube.com/c/DilmerV
● https://www.youtube.com/c/CircuitStreamEdu
● https://www.youtube.com/c/DineshPunni
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gB1F9G0JXOo&t=9177s

Note: Along with the content given in this doc you are supposed to read
some basics of getting started with XR in unity and C# language from
the links attached.

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 1

Study Material for AI/ML/DL

Artificial Intelligence(AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as

opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by animals including humans.

Leading AI textbooks define the field as the study of "intelligent agents":

any system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize
its chance of achieving its goals.

Sub-fields:

1. Learning

● Learning is one of the fundamental building blocks of AI solutions.

● From a conceptual standpoint, learning is a process that improves

the knowledge of an AI program by making observations about
its environment.

● From a technical/mathematical standpoint, AI learning processes

focus on processing a collection of input-output pairs for a
specific function and predict the outputs for new inputs.

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 Machi2ne Learning(ML): Study of computer algorithms that can
improve automatically through experience and use of data.

Machine learning algorithms build a model based on some sample

data (collection of known inputs and outputs,known as the training
set). The model can then predict outputs for a new set of inputs.

Example: Suppose we want to predict the housing prices of a locality.

From the data available to us, we have identified the major factors
that affect the housing prices (For example, square feet area, no. of
BHKs, etc). This step is called data preprocessing, and these
‘factors’ are called the Features of our model. Suppose we have only
two features, and we call them x1 and x2, and the output(housing
price) is y. For some values of x1 and x2, we know the value of y.

We can create a model of the housing price in this fashion:

y=a1x1+a2x2+b
(a1,a2 are called “weights”, as they represent the contribution of the
respective features to the output, and b is called the output).

From the known values of (x1,x2,y), we can find out suitable values of
a1,a2 and b. This step is called Training, which can be done using a
variety of learning algorithms. After training, our model may look
like:
y=1000x1-5x2+76
And now we can predict y for new values of x1 and x2.

Broad Classification of machine learning algorithms:

1. Supervised Learning: These algorithms consist of a target /

outcome variable ( dependent variable) which is to be predicted
from a given set of predictors (independent variables).

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 Supervised Learning mainly aims at two kinds of problems:
Numerical Regression,which can be used to predict a
continuously varying output (e.g Housing prices), and
Classification, which can be used for discrete outputs, such as
Yes/No, and classification into groups.

Some algorithms: Linear and Logistic regression, Decision

Trees,KNN,Support Vector Machines (SVM).
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2. Unsupervised Learning: In these algorithms, we do not have

any target or outcome variable to predict / estimate. It is
used for clustering populations in different groups, which is
widely used for segmenting customers in different groups for
specific intervention.
Some algorithms: K-means clustering

3. Reinforcement Learning: These algorithms train the machine

to make specific decisions. The machine is exposed to an
environment where it trains itself continually using trial and
error.
Some algorithms: Markov Decision Process.

Additional References(ML):

■ Introduction to Machine Learning by Andrew Ng:

https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning

Note: For now, the octave/matlab tutorials and the

programming assignments can be skipped. It is highly
recommended to understand the basic procedures of ML,
and the various algorithms from a mathematical

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 standpoint (Gradient descent, Loss functions, etc). Weeks
1,2 and 3 are relevant for Machine Learning.

■ ML Algorithms:
https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2017/09/common-m
achine-learning-algorithms/

(Note: The most important algorithms at this stage are

Linear and logistic regression, rest of the algorithms can
just be skimmed through, but it’s good to have a basic
understanding of what the algorithms are trying to
achieve.)

Deep Learning(DL): Deep Learning is a subset of ML, and it

attempts to mimic the behavior of the human brain, allowing it to
learn from various amounts of data.
Deep learning makes use of multi-layered Neural Networks. A
Neural Network is essentially a group of interconnected nodes,
where a node transmits 4outputs to other nodes, based on the
inputs received by that node from the other nodes. (similar to
how a biological neuron transmits information.) Neural
Networks are also referred to as Artificial Neural
Networks(ANNs), in contrast to the ‘Biological’ NNs.

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 Deep learning differs from machine learning in the sense that
they work on unstructured/unprocessed data. Machine
learning requires data preprocessing, to gather the features
which will be used to predict the output.
Deep Learning eliminates this preprocessing step. In a
sense, during their training, the features of the model are
automatically figu5red out, given a large collection of (known)
inputs and outputs (i.e the training set).

A large variety of DL applications involve working with

images(Image classification, Object detection/classification,
etc), and they involve the use of Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNNs).

Additional References(DL):

■ Introduction to Machine Learning by Andrew Ng:

https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning

Note: The basics of DL, NNs and their architectures are

discussed from week 4 onwards. It is recommended to
just get an intuitive ‘feel’ of the architectures and the

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 layered structures, the training process (back-propogation
etc).Mathematical depth isn’t required at this stage for DL.

■ To get some intuition on DL :

https://www.3blue1brown.com/topics/neural-networks

■ Basic CNN architectures:

https://towardsdatascience.com/basics-of-the-classic-cnn-
a3dce1225add

(Too much depth isn’t required, just try to get a very basic
understanding of what the layered structures are trying to
achieve)

AI Sub Fields (contd):

2. Computer Vision

Computer Vision enab6les computers and systems to derive

meaningful information from digital images, videos and other
visual inputs — and take actions or make recommendations based
on that information.
If AI enables computers to think, computer vision enables them to
see, observe and understand.

https://www.ibm.com/in-en/topics/computer-vision#:~:text=Computer
%20vision%20is%20a%20field,recommendations%20based%20on%
20that%20information.

3.Natural language Processing:

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 Allows machines to read and understand human language. Used in
various kinds of chatbots, interactive systems, etc.

https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/02/basics-of-natural-langu
age-processing-nlp-basics/

4. Perception

Machine perception is the ability to use inputs from the sensors to

deduce aspects of the environment. They are used in speech
recognition, facial and object recognition, robotics applications.

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 WEB DEVELOPMENT STUDY MATERIAL

There are loads of resources available but just to get you the gist of what you should be knowing these
are some references you could follow.

You are free to use any resource of your preference but they should avail you with the following content.

JavaScript
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/JavaScript_basics

HTML
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/HTML_basics

Css
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/Getting_started_with_the_web/CSS_basics

Web Api’s
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Client-side_web_APIs/Introduction

HTTP
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP

GIT
https://docs.github.com/en/get-started/using-git/about-git

Other helpful references

https://www.w3schools.com
https://www.youtube.com/c/TraversyMedia1
Introduction to HTML, CSS, JavaScript & How websites work? | Web Development Tutorials #1

For any queries contact ->

Sarthak : 7651816317 Dev:7260096721

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MECHANICAL STUDY MATERIAL

Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is the science describing the body's movement in the air. It is a branch of
dynamics which deals with the motion of air and other gasses, with the forces acting upon
an object in motion through the air, or with an object which is stationary in a current of air.

Airfoils
An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air through which it
moves. The blades of a propeller are so designed that when they rotate, their shape and
position cause a higher pressure to be built up behind them than in front of them so that
they will pull the aircraft forward.

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Aerodynamic Forces acting on Airfoils –
1. Lift : the force that pushes the aircraft upward
2. Drag : the force that exerts a braking action.

Composites
A composite is a material which is produced from two or more constituent materials. These
constituent materials have notably dissimilar chemical or physical properties and are
merged to create a material with properties, unlike the individual elements. Simply put,
composites are a combination of components. In our industry, composites are materials
made by combining two or more natural or artificial elements (with different physical or
chemical properties) that are stronger as a team than as individual players.
The component materials don’t completely blend or lose their individual identities; they
combine and contribute their most useful traits to improve the outcome or final product.
Composites are typically designed with a particular use in mind, such as added strength,
efficiency, or durability.

CAD Modeling
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or workstations) to aid in the
creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. This software is used to
increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve
communications2 through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD
may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves,
surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including

automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design,
prosthetics, and many more. Common applications for CAD modeling include AutoCAD,
Solidworks, Inventor.

3D printing
3D printing, or additive manufacturing, is the construction of a three-dimensional object
from a CAD model or a digital 3D model. The term "3D printing" can refer to a variety of
processes in which material is deposited, joined or solidified under computer control to

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create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together, typically layer by
layer.Nylon is a synthetic thermoplastic linear polyamide, is a well known 3D Printing
filament, it is well known 3D printing filament because of its flexibility, durability,low
friction and corrosion resistance. ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), Resin, Polylactic
Acid(PLA).

Finite Element Analysis

The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is the simulation of any given physical
phenomenon using the numerical technique called Finite Element Method (FEM).
Engineers use FEA software to reduce the number of physical prototypes and
experiments and optimize components in their design phase to develop better
products, faster while saving on expenses. Some commonly used software for
FEA is Ansys, Abaqus.

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 Stress strain Analysis
Stress–strain analysis is an engineering discipline that uses
many methods to determine the Stresses and strains in materials
and struct4ures subjected to forces.

Stress and strain play an important role in determining whether

the component can withstand the application’s loading conditions.

There are five fundamental types of loading:

Compression,tension,shear,torsion and bending.

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 3D Stress analysis

In the above designation, the first subscript x indicates the plane on which
the stresses are acting and the second subscript (y or z) indicates the
direction of the component. For example, τ𝑥𝑦 is the stress component on
the x plane in y direction.
σ𝑥 , τ𝑥𝑦, τ𝑥𝑧 on x plane
σ𝑦 , τ𝑦𝑥 , τ𝑦𝑧 on y plane
σ𝑧 , τ𝑧𝑥 , τ𝑧𝑦 on z plane

Observe that the three visible faces of the rectangular element have their
outward drawn normals along the positive x, y and z axes respectively.
Consequently, the positive stress components on these faces will also be
directed along the positive axes. The three hidden faces have their
outward drawn normals in the negative x, y and z axes. The positive
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stress components on these faces will, therefore, be directed along the
negative axes. For example, the bottom face has its outward drawn
normal along the negative y axis. Hence, the positive stress components

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 on this face, i.e., sy, tyx and tyz are directed respectively along the
negative y, x and z axes.

In the Elastic region, Hooke’s Law

is followed i.e.

σ
E= ε

E: - Modulus of elasticity (aka Young’s

modulus)

σ: - stress

ε: - strain

Factor of Safety (FOS)

The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress of the component
material to the working stress.

A factor of safety is related to the safety of people. It reduces the risk of failure
of a component by adding some cushion in design. Also, there always will be
some hidden circumstances or unknown parameters that cannot be considered
accurate in design. To ensure the safety of those items, each component is
designed to bear more loads than its actual operating loads.

FOS =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠