(Prepared by Madam Hajar Alshurdin) : 4.1 Functional Groups 4.2 Macromolecules

2/12/2022
CHAPTER 4
[PREPARED BY MADAM HAJAR ALSHURDIN]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 Functional Groups
4.2 Macromolecules
4.3 Carbohydrates
4.4 Lipids
4.5 Proteins
4.6 Nucleic Acids
| by HAJAR ALSHURDIN
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4.1 Functional groups

CONTENT CHAPTER 4 4.5 Proteins
Hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, Amino acids, peptide formation,
sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl polypeptide chains, levels of protein
4.2 Macromolecule (Basic processes – structure, (primary/ secondary/
condensation & hydrolysis) tertiary/ quaternary), protein
4.3 Carbohydrates denaturation and renaturation
Monosaccharides, disaccharides and 4.6 Nucleic acids
polysaccharides Functions of nucleic acids,
4.4 Lipids nucleotides, bases.
Fatty acids and glycerol Introduction to double helix structure
Simple lipids (steroids, (Watson-Crick model)
prostaglandins), Complex lipids Types of RNA and functions (mRNA,
(triacylglycerol, phospholipids, tRNA, rRNA)
sphingolipids, waxes)
LESSON OUTCOMES
describes the importance of functional
groups to organic molecules
identify the biological macromolecules

with its physical and chemical properties
classify the physiological roles of

biological macromolecules and its
examples
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BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
❑ Organisms (animals and plants) are made up of chemicals that
are based mostly on the element carbon.
❑ Properties of organic molecule depends on the arrangement of
carbon skeleton and functional groups attached to the skeleton.
❑ Most organic molecules consist of carbon chains; carbon
bonded to carbon or to other molecules.
❑ Carbons can form up to 4 covalent bonds.
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
❑ The variation in carbon
skeletons
❑ May bond with
functional groups with
specific properties.
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4.1
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Functional Groups
Definition: Groups of atoms that occur within organic molecules
and give specific chemical properties to those molecules.
Location: Can be found along the "carbon backbone" of
macromolecules
Play an important role in the formation of molecules like
DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
These functional groups can affect in:
❑ Chemical reactions
❑ Molecular shape & structure
❑ Specific properties (function)
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Functional Groups
❑ Formed by chains and/or rings of carbon atoms with the occasional
substitution of an element such as nitrogen or oxygen.
❑ Molecules with other elements in their carbon backbone are
substituted hydrocarbons.
❑ When functional groups are shown, the organic molecule is sometimes
denoted as "R”.
In order to condense the structure and

focus on the hydroxyl group
the oxygen and hydrogen bound to the second carbon (in figure),
everything besides the hydroxyl group will be replaced with an R.
The are seven (7) functional groups that are most important
in the biological processes.
hydroxyl carbonyl
(-OH) (C=O)
carboxyl Functional amino
Groups
(-COOH) (-NH2)
phosphate sulfhydryl
(-OPO32-) (-SH)
methyl
(-CH3)
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Properties of Functional Groups

❑ All six functional groups can be chemically reactive.
❑ Usually classified as hydrophobic or hydrophilic depending on
their charge or polarity.
✓ Hydroxyl group
✓ Carbonyl group
✓ Carboxyl group
HYDROPHILIC
✓ Amino group
✓ Phosphate group
✓ Sulfhydryl group
✓ Methyl group HYDROPHOBIC
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Properties of Functional Groups

❑ Hydrophobic functional group
❑ The non-polar methane molecule (methyl group).
❑ Hydrophilic functional groups
❑ Carboxyl group ionizes to release hydrogen ions (H+) from the COOH
group resulting in the negatively charged COO- group; this contributes
hydrophilic nature of whatever molecule it is found on.
❑ found in amino acids and on fatty acid heads that form triglycerides and
phospholipids.
❑ Carbonyl group, have a partially negatively charged oxygen atom that
may form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, again making the
molecule more hydrophilic.
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HYDROXYL GROUP (-OH)

❑ Hydrogen atom bind covalently with oxygen atom, forming a polar covalent
bond to the carbon skeleton. (C-OH)
❑ Due to polar covalent bonds, hydroxyl groups improve the solubility of
organic molecules.
❑ Organic compounds with hydroxyl groups are ALCOHOLS and their names
typically end with -ol.
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CARBONYL GROUP (C=O)

❑ An oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond.
❑ If the position of carbonyl group is on ❑ If the position of carbonyl group is on
the end of the carbon skeleton, the the middle of the carbon skeleton, the
compound is an ALDEHYDE. compound is a KETONE.
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CARBOXYL GROUP (-COOH)

❑ Carbon atom form a double bond with an oxygen atom
and a single bond to a hydroxyl group.
❑ Compounds with carboxyl groups are CARBOXYLIC ACIDS.
❑ Carboxyl group acts as an acid.
❑ because acid can donate up a hydrogen ion (H+).
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AMINO GROUP (-NH2)

❑ Nitrogen atom attached to two hydrogen atoms and
the carbon skeleton.
❑ Organic compounds with amino groups are AMINES.
❑ The amino group acts as base. Amino acids, the building
❑ because ammonia can pick up a hydrogen ion blocks of proteins, have
amino and carboxyl groups.
(H+) from the solution.
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SULFHYDRYL GROUP (-SH)

❑ Sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone.
❑ Organic molecules with sulfhydryl groups are THIOLS.
❑ Sulfhydryl groups help stabilize the structure of proteins.
❑ Eg: amino acid Cysteine
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PHOSPHATE GROUP (-OPO32-)

❑ Phosphorus bound to four oxygen atoms
(three with single bonds and one with a double bond).
❑ Phosphate groups are ANIONS with two negative charges.
❑ Organic compound with phosphate group is Organic phosphate.
❑ One function of phosphate groups is to transfer energy
between organic molecules.
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METHYL GROUP (-CH3)

❑ Contain a carbon atom surrounded by three hydrogen atoms.
❑ Organic compounds with methyl groups are Methylated compounds.
❑ Fats, oils, waxes, hormones.
❑ Ability to form non-polar covalent bonds and hydrophobicity.
❑ Acts as a recognizable tag on biological molecules.
❑ Functions of methyl groups are:
❑ affects the expression of genes when bonded to DNA or to proteins that bind to DNA
❑ affects the shape and function of male and female sex hormones.
Methyl Methylated
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Summary of
Functional Groups
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4.2
MACROMOLECULES
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Organic Compound
Chemical compounds that contain carbon (C) originate from living things
Carbohydrates
1
Proteins
3
2
Lipids 4
Nucleic Acids
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Important Terms
MONOMER POLYMER LARGER POLYMER
Small, simple molecules Larger molecules that Macromolecules

that are linked together to formed by combination
form larger molecules. of monomers.
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CONDENSATION &
HYDROLYSIS
REACTION
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CONDENSATION / DEHYDRATION
Chemical process by which 2 molecules (monomers)
are JOINED together to make a larger, more
complex molecule (polymers)
with the loss of water.
It is the basis for the SYNTHESIS of all the

important biological macromolecules
(carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)
from their monomers.
AH + BOH --> AB + H2O

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EXAMPLE Formation of the disaccharide maltose from 2 glucose molecules.
2 glucose molecules are

A disaccharide is produced by In maltose, a glycosidic bond
COMBINED using a
joining 2 monosaccharide is formed between opposite
condensation reaction,
(single sugar) units. sides of the 2 glucose units
with the removal of water.
Glucose Glucose Maltose
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Opposite reaction
HYDROLYSIS to condensation.
A large molecule (polymer) is SPLIT into smaller

sections (monomer) by breaking a bond, adding
-H to one section and -OH to the other.
Since it involves the addition of water, this

explains why it is called hydrolysis, meaning
splitting by water.
AB + H2O --> AH + BOH

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HYDROLYSIS
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HYDROLYSIS
EXAMPLE Digestion of the disaccharide maltose forming 2 glucose molecules.
2 glucose molecules are

The enzyme maltase efficiently Water is a participant in the process,
SPLIT using a hydrolysis
catalyses the hydrolysis of maltose adding -H and -OH groups either
reaction, with the addition
into 2 glucose molecules. side of the glycosidic bond.
of water.
Maltose Glucose Glucose
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A whole view of
MACROMOLECULES
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4.3
CARBOHYDRATES
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Properties 01 Large group of organic compounds.

Also called as saccharides / sugar.
Containing the elements carbon,

02 hydrogen, oxygen. Has carbonyl group,
and multiple hydroxyl groups.
Produced through photosynthesis by

03 green plants and bacteria.
Empirical formula (CH2O)n

04 Elemental composition Cx(H2O)y
Where, y = 3,4,5,6,7
Consist of sugar, glycogen, starch

05 and cellulose.
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Functions of Carbohydrate
Glycogen
provide an accessible
source and store of provide energy
energy in human & source and
animals. energy storage in
human & animals.
Starch
Cellulose
Common as food
storage in plant. Important materials of cell wall
for structural support in plant.
Fibre in the human diet.
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Classification of Carbohydrates
MONOSACCHARIDE POLYSACCHARIDE
DISACCHARIDE
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Classification of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide
Hundreds of
Simple sugar Combination of monosaccharides
2 monosaccharides join together forming a
long chain
Glucose Maltose Starch
Fructose Sucrose Glycogen
Galactose Lactose Cellulose
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MONOSACCHARIDES | by HAJAR ALSHURDIN
Chemical Properties
Terminology Sweet
Greek- mono = single, Solid crystalline
saccharum = sugar Low molecular mass
Soluble in water
Example
(CH2O)n
Glucose
Fructose
Description Galactose
Simplest carbohydrates, Classification
cannot be further n= 3 (triose)
hydrolyzed Also classified based on n= 4 (tetrose)
All are reducing sugar number of carbon backbone n= 5 (pentose)
?
& position of carbonyl group n= 6 (hexose)
?
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MONOSACCHARIDES
4 1 4 1
3 2 3 2
Hexose (6 carbons)
Galactose is differed from glucose due to the way the
-OH is located in the 4th carbon.
When both combine, it forms disaccharide lactose.
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Glucose Galactose
Molecular formula C6H12O6 C6H12O6
−1 −1
Molar mass 180.16 g mol 180.156 g mol
Glucose can exist in both Galactose can exist in both

open chain and cyclic form. open chain and cyclic form.
Structure It has five hydroxyl groups that are In the open chain form, galactose has as a
arranged in a specific way along the six- carbonyl at the end of the chain.
carbon backbone. It has four isomers.
Gums, sugar beets, dairy products, gums

Sources Juices, fruits, sugars, etc.
and mucilage.
α-D-glucose: 146 °C
Melting point 167 °C, 440 K, 333 °F
β-D-glucose: 150 °C
Galactose cannot be easily broken down.

Glucose is broken down in the body and
Broken down then used as body fuel and energy.
It is goes through the Leloir pathway in the
body.
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Carbohydrates have a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups.

The position of carbonyl group determine the type of sugar.
(positional isomer)
ALDOSE KETOSE
The position of carbonyl The position of carbonyl
group is at the end of group in the middle of
carbon backbone carbon backbone
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DISACCHARIDES
Chemical Properties
Terminology
Small, Sweet
Greek- di = double, Solid crystalline
saccharum = sugar Soluble in water
Example
C12H22O11
Maltose
Sucrose
Description Lactose
Consist of two Reaction
monosaccharides linked
• Molecules of water is removed
via GLYCOSIDIC BOND
• Reversed reaction (breakdown)
(C-O-C) by condensation
is called hydrolysis
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DISACCHARIDES
Formation Reaction Source & Function

Malt sugar in germinating barley
glucose + glucose Maltose + water
grains
Sugar-cane; main sugar form that

glucose + fructose Sucrose + water
is transport in plants.
Milk sugar; found in the milk of

glucose + galactose Lactose + water
mammals; source of energy
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DISACCHARIDES
Formation Reaction
+ H2O
H2O
Glycosidic bond
CONDENSATION
The bond linking the two monosaccharide
to form disaccharide
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+ H2O
H
+ H2O
+ H2O
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Reducing &
Non-reducing Sugar
Reducing sugar
Sugar which can reduce Cu2+ ion into Cu+
blue colour in Benedict solution
will turn to brick red colour after heating
Monosaccharides
Reducing sugar Maltose
Lactose
Sucrose Non-reducing sugar
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POLYSACCHARIDES
Description Chemical Properties
Combination of many Large

monosaccharide Not sweet
(more than two) by Insoluble in water
condensation
Example
Cx(H2O)y Cellulose
Starch storage
Glycogen polysaccharides
Structure
Other
variable in length,
branched or unbranched, Modified glucose for structural polysaccharides
folded, straight or coiled Peptidoglycan (bacterial cell wall)
Chitin (fungal cell wall & exoskeleton of insects)
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POLYSACCHARIDES | by HAJAR ALSHURDIN
Starch
Cellulose Glycogen
Amylose Amylopectin
Compositio
β-glucose α-glucose α-glucose α-glucose
n
Composed 2000-200,000
2000-3000 glucose 200-1500 glucose 2,000-120,000 glucose
subunits glucose
Long straight chain, thin
Long straight chain,
Structure Parallel linked via Branches Branches
folded
hydrogen bond (stable)
Shape
Structural component Energy storage

Function - elements of cell wall Energy storage of glucose in plants - stored in liver and muscle in
in plants animal
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POLYSACCHARIDES
Chitin
Derivative of carbohydrate
Chitin is a naturally occurring

polysaccharide existing in arthropods; the
outer shells of crustaceans, insect
exoskeletons.
It also can be found in fungal cell walls.
It is the second most abundant natural

polymer after cellulose.
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REFERENCES
Main reference
Campbell, N. A., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S.
A., & Minorsky, P. V. (2017). Biology: a global approach.
Pearson Higher Ed.
Other references
Qin, Y. (2016). 3–A brief description of textile
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-
fibers. Medical Textile Materials. Jiaxing:
biology1/chapter/functional-groups-2/
Woodhead Publishing, 23-42.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
biology/chapter/synthesis-of-biological-
macromolecules/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/mic
sanjacinto- robiology/chapter/carbohydrates/
biology1/chapter/synthesis-of-
biological-macromolecules/ https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-
molecular-biology/23-carbohydrates-and-
https://microbenotes.com/carbohydrates/. lipids/sugar-subunits.html
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THANK
YOU
Prepared & Presented by Mdm Hajar

Alshurdin
51
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(Prepared by Madam Hajar Alshurdin) : 4.1 Functional Groups 4.2 Macromolecules

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2/12/2022

[PREPARED BY MADAM HAJAR ALSHURDIN]

4.1 Functional groups

identify the biological macromolecules

classify the physiological roles of

In order to condense the structure and

carboxyl Functional amino

Properties of Functional Groups

Properties of Functional Groups

HYDROXYL GROUP (-OH)

CARBONYL GROUP (C=O)

CARBOXYL GROUP (-COOH)

AMINO GROUP (-NH2)

SULFHYDRYL GROUP (-SH)

PHOSPHATE GROUP (-OPO32-)

METHYL GROUP (-CH3)

MONOMER POLYMER LARGER POLYMER

Small, simple molecules Larger molecules that Macromolecules

It is the basis for the SYNTHESIS of all the

AH + BOH --> AB + H2O

2 glucose molecules are

Glucose Glucose Maltose

A large molecule (polymer) is SPLIT into smaller

Since it involves the addition of water, this

AB + H2O --> AH + BOH

2 glucose molecules are

Maltose Glucose Glucose

Properties 01 Large group of organic compounds.

Containing the elements carbon,

Produced through photosynthesis by

Empirical formula (CH2O)n

Consist of sugar, glycogen, starch

Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide

MONOSACCHARIDES | by HAJAR ALSHURDIN

Glucose can exist in both Galactose can exist in both

Gums, sugar beets, dairy products, gums

Galactose cannot be easily broken down.

Carbohydrates have a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups.

Formation Reaction Source & Function

Sugar-cane; main sugar form that

Milk sugar; found in the milk of

Sucrose Non-reducing sugar

Combination of many Large

POLYSACCHARIDES | by HAJAR ALSHURDIN

Structural component Energy storage

Chitin is a naturally occurring

It also can be found in fungal cell walls.

It is the second most abundant natural

Prepared & Presented by Mdm Hajar

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