Physical Science

Quarter 3 – Module 1:
Formation of Heavy Elements
Have you also wondered
what stars are made of?
What keeps them
shining so bright? Are
there also stars that do
not spark? You might
also be asking the same
questions ever since
you were little that until
now you still seek
answers for. Well, this
module will help you
understand some of the
important concepts
about stars. Are you
ready? Let’s go!

What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer in each item and write it on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. Which of the following is the most accepted theory about the formation of
the universe that explains why it continues to expand?
a. big bang theory c. steady state theory
b. divine creation theory d. oscillating theory
2. Which of the following is not considered as light elements?
a. helium c. lithium
b. hydrogen d. iron
3. Which of the following is TRUE about nucleosynthesis?
a. It is the division of atomic particle
b. The combination of elements to form compound
c. It is the creation of everything including all matter in universe

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 d. It is the process of creating new atomic nuclei from pre-existing
nuclei
4. Which process is responsible for the formation of light elements such as
Hydrogen and Helium?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis c. supernova nucleosynthesis.
b. stellar nucleosynthesis d. terrestrial nucleosynthesis
5. Which element is the lightest and at the same time the most abundant in
outer space?
a. hydrogen c. lithium
b. helium d. iron
6. How do heavier elements formed?
a. Though combustion c. Through nuclear
fusion
b. Through nuclear fission d. Through nuclear
synthesis 7. Which element can be formed when three atoms of helium
are fused?
a. carbon c. oxygen
b. hydrogen d. silicon
8. Which of the following elements DOES NOT belong to the group?
a. beryllium c. iron
b. silicon d. oxygen
9. Which process is responsible for the formation of elements at the center of
star?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis c. stellar nucleosynthesis
b. nuclear fusion d. supernova nucleosynthesis
10. How Elements heavier than iron are formed?
a. big bang nucleosynthesis c. stellar nucleosynthesis
b. solar nucleosynthesis d. supernova nucleosynthesis
11. Which element will be formed when Carbon atom is combined with Helium
atom?
a. magnesium c. oxygen
b. neon d. silicon
12. Why do average stars have longer life span than massive star?
a. They have less fuel to burn c. They burn their fuel at faster rate
b. They have more fuel to burn d. They burn their fuel at slower rate

13. Which phase of star life cycle is our sun?

a. main sequence star c. red giant
b. planetary nebula d. white dwarf
14. Which of the following contains only heavy elements?
a. carbon, lithium, neon
b. carbon, silicon, magnesium
c. carbon, beryllium, helium
d. helium, carbon, hydrogen

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 15. In which stage do massive stars explode and release large amount of
energy?
a. main sequence
b. protostar
c. super nova
d. white dwarf

Lesson 1
Stellar Nucleosynthesis:
Rise of the Stars!

The world where we live today is just a small part of our universe. In your previous
years, you have learned about the different theories of the origin of the universe that
eventually led to the formation of galaxies, solar system and other heavenly bodies.
This lesson will focus on one of those wonderful things present in outer space, the
stars. Although stars are millions of light years away from us, we can still see them
twinkling in the night sky. Let’s find out how they emit light and what keeps them
shining for a long time.

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4
 What’s New

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
The word “stellar” means star and the formation of elements in the
center of the star is called stellar nucleosynthesis. Carl Sagan said that
“We are made of star stuff.” What did he mean by that? If we know how some
important heavy elements were formed same as stars, that maybe a clue.
Label the sequence of star life cycle. Use the hints/clues found in the table below
this diagram.

Star Life Cycle

7. ______ 6. ______

Average Massive Star

Star

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 Hints/ Clues Average Star
1. The star is unable to generate heat when it runs out of hydrogen
in its core leading to its contraction and expansion. It cools down
and glows red. The Helium fused into Carbon. The star is now
RED GIANT
2. Red giant star becomes exhausted of nuclear fuel, the outer
material is blown off into space leaving the inert Carbon. The
remnant is known as WHITE DWARF.
3. Giant cloud of gas and dust known as NEBULA.
4. It is formed from nebula due to the gravity that pulled Hydrogen
gas together until it spins faster and faster and becomes ignited.
A PROTOSTAR rises.
5. MAIN SEQUENCE STAR starts to form when nuclear fusion
occurs at the core of the star, it begins to contract, glow and
become stable. Hydrogen is converted into Helium.
6. This is said to be the remain of the white dwarf that cooled down
and no longer emits light and heat. The hypothetical BLACK
DWARF.

Massive star
1. It is believed that a NEUTRON STAR is formed from supernova
explosion. This is also the smallest star
2. Explosion of star or SUPERNOVA releases large amount of energy.
Because of that, elements are dispersed into the space.
3. BLACK HOLE is a region in space where gravity is too strong that
no matter can escape from it.
4. A more massive main sequence star evolves, cools and expands
faster than low mass star and will turn into RED SUPER GIANT
star, the largest known star. Carbon fusion still occurs and Oxygen
formed.

What is It

Were you able to label all the stages of star? Review the hints/clues in the previous
activity. You will notice that following the sequence will reveal what happens in each
stage of star.

To understand further, answer the following questions below.

1. What element from space is pulled by gravity and turn into a protostar?
______________________________________________________________________

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 2. What will happen if a low massive main sequence star runs out of hydrogen
fuel?
_______________________________________________________________________

3. How are heavy elements such as Carbon, Oxygen and Neon formed during star
formation?
_______________________________________________________________________

4. Why is it impossible for any matter such as light and radiation to escape from
a black hole?
________________________________________________________________________

5. Why do you think massive star has shorter life span than average star?
________________________________________________________________________

Look at the diagrams below. These will explain how stars are formed into
different stages because of nuclear fusion (combination of nuclei to form
heavier one) among heavy elements.

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8
Tri alpha process happens in red giant star once they leave the stage of
main sequence star. This is how three Helium-4 are converted into Carbon.

A star accumulates more mass and continues to grow into red super giant.
Alpha particle fusion happens at its core and creates more heavy elements
until Iron. This is known as the Alpha ladder process.

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10
 What’s More
Match the terms in column A with its description in Column B
A B
________1. Alpha ladder
process
________2. Big bang
nucleosynthesis
________3. CNO cycle
________4. Neutron capture
________5. Proton- proton chain
________6. R- process
________7. S- process
________8.Stellar
Nucleosynthesis
________9.Supernova
Nucleosynthesis
_______10. Tri alpha process
a. There is faster rate of
capturing neutron before it
undergoes radioactive decay
b. Nuclear fusion that happens in
red super giant star and
creates more heavy elements
until Iron.
c. Happens when there is a slow
rate of capturing neutron while
there is a faster rate of
radioactive decay
d. Process wherein light elements
such as Helium and Hydrogen
form.
e. This is how three Helium-4 is
converted into Carbon in red
giant star
f. A process where elements
heavier than Iron are formed.
g. Nuclear fusion reaction where
Hydrogen is converted to
Helium
h. Addition of neutron to form
heavier nuclei
i. Process by which elements are
created within the star
j. This happens in massive star
which convert Hydrogen into
Helium.
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 What I Have Learned

Read the paragraph then fill in the blanks with the correct
word/s.

It all starts with 1. ____________, cloud of gas and dust particle in outer
space. Due to the force of gravity, the 2. ____________ gas is pulled together and
eventually became a protostar. Nebular fusion occurs at the center of the
protostar and becomes stable. During this time, hydrogen is converted into 3.
_____________ forming main sequence star. The size of the star can be average
or massive. A massive main sequence star that runs out of hydrogen fuel will
begin to expand and cool down. This is 4. ________________, the biggest star in
the universe. The red super giant continues to fuse with heavy elements and
stops when 5. ___________ is converted in the core of the star. At this point, red
super giant will become a supernova after hundreds of years.

What I Can Do

Now, you have learned how stars are formed and evolve from one
stage to another and its connection with heavy elements from Carbon through
Iron. There are many processes that stars have to undergo before they evolve
from one stage to another.
For your next task, you will write a story which relates the events of your life
from past, present and future to the life cycle of a star. Use also those elements
which could symbolize something or anything in your story. (Use another sheet
of paper for this task).
Rubrics for Story of Your Life
Criteria Excellent Poor
Fair ( 3pts)
(5pts) (1pt)

Work shows
Overall effort time, effort and
neatness that Work shows Lacks effort and
enhances the time and effort cleanliness
overall written put into
output. it

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 The student's The project
output contains contains No background or
background and discussion of contextual
Background context and world events
context information is
shows how but it is unclear included.
world events how
have they have
significantly affected the
affected his/her student's life.
life.

The student The student The student

does not commits 1- 3 commits more
Grammar
commit error grammar than 4 mistakes
and
when it comes mistakes and in grammar and
Spelling
to grammar and spelling. spelling
spelling.

Student includes Student includes Information

information very included is not
about birth, few details. related to the
Content friends, Output is task or no
family, hobbies somewhat tied attempt was
and is able to up with the topic made.
tie his/her story
to
the topic given.

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 Assessment
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write
the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following is NOT an evidence of star formation?
a. hydrogen c. infrared Radiation
b. helium d. rocks 2. How is
the energy of star produced?
a. By combustion c. by nuclear fission
b. By decomposition d. by nuclear fusion
3. Which phase of star will be created after the end of red giant?
a. black hole c. supernova
b. red super giant d. white dwarf 4.
Which is known as the biggest stars in the universe.
a. main sequence star c. red super giant
b. red giant d. white dwarf
5. Which of the following gases are major components of star?
a. carbon and oxygen c. hydrogen and carbon
b. helium and carbon d. hydrogen and helium 6.
Which of the following statements is FALSE?
a. The core of red giant star is made up of carbon
b. The average star has shorter life span
c. The more massive the star is the faster it burns its fuel
d. No elements heavier than Iron can be produced in a massive
star 7. Which is the first stage of a star’s life cycle?
a. black hole c. protostar
b. nebula d. white dwarf
8. In main sequence star, Hydrogen fuses and converted to Helium. What
element is produced from Helium gas at its core??
a. carbon c. neon
b. iron d. silicon
9. Which is the second most abundant element in the universe?
a. carbon c. hydrogen
b. helium d. oxygen

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10. What object is formed from gas and dust particles which are pulled
together by gravity and no nuclear fusion has happened yet?
a. nebula c. protostar
b. main sequence star d. red supergiant star 11.
Who stated that we are made of star stuff?
a. Carl Sagan c. Galileo Galilei
b. Edwin Hubble d. Stephen Hawking
12. Which of the following is the sign that a protostar will transform into the
next stage?
a. When the it starts to spin faster
b. When it starts to glow
c. When Hydrogen nuclear fusion begins
d. When it increases temperature igniting the Hydrogen 13. When
does a star become unstable?
a. When it runs out of fuel
b. When it contracts and expands
c. When its core is converted to Iron
d. When the outer shell of star is pulled by the gravity from the
center 14. Which fusion of elements does Iron come from?
a. carbon fusion c. magnesium fusion
b. neon fusion d. silicon fusion

15. Which is a huge luminous ball of hot gas such as Hydrogen and Helium.
a. comet c. planet
b. moon d. star

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5
 Physical Science
Quarter 3 – Module 2:
Concept of Atomic Number Led to the Synthesis
of New Elements in the Laboratory

What I Know

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the

chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. It is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the
repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using
magnetic and electrical fields.
a. Spectroscopy c. Particle
Accelerator
b. Particle Decelerator d. Microscope
2. He created a classification of elements based on their atomic weight.
a. Rutherford c. Millikan
b. Dalton d. Mendeleev
3. It is a one-dimensional point which contains a huge mass in an
infinitely small space.
a. Nucleosynthesis c. Singularity
b. Dilation d. R-process
4. He noticed that shooting electrons at elements caused them to
release x-rays at unique frequencies.
a. Mendeleev c. Moseley
b. Millikan d. Serge
5. He synthesized element with atomic number 43 using a linear
particle accelerator.
a. Ernest Rutherford c. Dmitri Mendeleev
b. Ernest Lawrence d. John Dalton
6. This is known as the origin and production of heavy elements.
a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova
Nucleosynthesis 7. This is known as the origin of light elements.
a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d.Supernova
Nucleosynthesis 8. Process that can produce elements up to #83 -
Bismuth.
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 a. Nuclear Fission c. S Process
b. R-Process d. S Process
9. This is also known as Nucleosynthesis.
a. S Process c. Nuclear Fission
b. R-Process d. Proton-Proton Reaction 10. This
occurs in the main sequence of stars.
a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova Nucleosynthesis
11. It is also known as nuclear fusion and the formation of new nuclei
actions in the early stages of development of the universe.
a. Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. S-Process d. Singularity
12. In this process, there’s a buildup of a VERY heavy isotope, then as
beta-decays occur, you march up in atomic number and produce
heavy product.
a. S Process c. Nuclear Fission
b. R-Process d. Proton-Proton Reaction
13. He successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction, a process of
transforming one element or isotope into another element.
a. Chadwick c. Mendeleev
b. Moseley d. Rutherford
14. It was created by bombardment of molybdenum by deuterons
(heavy hydrogen, H12), by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in 1937.
a. Oxygen c. Technetium
b. Helium d. Uranium
15. These are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103.
a. Super Heavy Elements c. Lightest Element
b. Gases Elements d. Halogens

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Lesson
Physical Sciences: Concept of Atomic
1 Number that Led to the Synthesis of New Elements
in the Laboratory

Elements are made up of tiny particles, the neutron, proton and electron.
H and Helium are the elements that exist in the early beginning. Early in
the Big Bang, it was a tiny elementary particle. As the Universe expanded
and cooled, there was a period of proton-proton chain reaction wherein
protons were fuse into Helium. The Universe ran into a problem. Red giant
cores get past this via the Triple-Alpha process, but the Universe expands
right through this possibility and the density/temperature are quickly too
low to synthesis any additional elements.

What’s In

You learned earlier how all matter in the universe is made

from tiny building blocks called atoms. All modern scientists accept the
concept of the atom, but when the concept of the atom was first proposed
about 2,500 years ago, ancient philosophers laughed at the idea. It has
always been difficult to convince people of the existence of things that are
too small to see. We will spend some time considering the evidence
(observations) that convince scientists of the existence of atoms.
Do you have any idea how the different elements on the periodic table were
formed, known and identified? Let’s have a short review.

There is what we call Big Bang Theory that has some key stages: Singularity,
Inflation, Nucleosynthesis and Recombination: Let us differentiate them.
Singularity is a one-dimensional point which contains a huge mass in an
infinitely small space, where density and gravity become infinite and space-
time curves infinitely, and where the laws of physics as we know them cease
to operate. The basic homogeneity in distribution of matter in the universe
was established as a consequence of the first phase of inflation.
Nucleosynthesis was the nuclear fusion and the formation of new nuclei
actions in the early stages of development of the universe. Recombination
- the formation of the capture of free electrons by the cations in a plasma.

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 What’s New

Activity I.I Making Your Own Periodic Table

Make your own periodic table using the hypothetical elements that are given
in the clues. Explain the word/s that will be formed if you arrange the symbols
of the elements correctly.
a. P and Pr both have one electron each. Pr has a bigger atomic size.
b. Od, Ri, and E are in the same series as P, C, and I. In terms of atomic
size, P is the biggest while C is the smallest. E is a metal while I is a
non-metal. Od is smaller than Ri in atomic size.
c. O has a bigger atomic size than E in the same group. Y is also a bigger
atom than C in the same group. R is more nonmetallic than Pe but
more metallic than Ti.

What is It

Key Points

• The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged

particles) in an atom.
• Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who
demonstrated that the atomic number, the number of protons in an
atom, determines most of the properties of an element.
• In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear
transmutation reaction a process of transforming one element or
isotope into another element.
• In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding
to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Elements with atomic
numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using particle accelerators.
• A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons
to overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic
nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize
new elements.

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• Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of
uranium) are called transuranium elements They were discovered
in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

Dmitri Mendeleev created a classification of elements based on their

atomic weight. He found that organizing the elements at the time by their
calculated weight demonstrated a periodic pattern of both physical and
chemical properties, such as luster, physical state, reactivity to water,
and others.
Activity 1.1 Making Your Own Periodic Table shows how theoretical
elements where arrance accordiing to its atomic weight. For example, H
has an atomic mass of 1.00794 amu, which makes hydrogen the lightest
element on the periodic table. Hydrogen, H, was named by Laviosier and
is the most abundant element on the periodic table. It is followed by He,
Li, Be and so on and so fort because atomic weight is used to arrange
elements from lightest to heaviest.

Hello there, let me help you about how elements form

with the atomic concept.
By the way, He is Henry Moseley. He was an English
physicist whose experiment demonstrated that the
major properties of an element are determined by the
atomic number, not by the atomic weight, and
firmly established the relationship between atomic number and the
charge of the atomic nucleus.

Henry Moseley was a researcher at Rutherford’s laboratory.

In 1913, Moseley used Rutherford’s work to advance the understanding of

the elements and solve the problem with Mendeleev’s periodic table.

Moseley noticed that shooting electrons at elements caused them to

release x-rays at unique frequencies. He also noticed that the frequency
increased by a certain amount when the “positive charge” of the chosen
element was higher.

By arranging the elements according to the square root of the frequency

they emitted, he was able to draw out an arrangement of elements that
more correctly predicted periodic trends.

10
 Mention the experimental evidence he gave to an existing hypothesis: that
the elements’ atomic number, or place in the periodic table, was uniquely
tied to their “positive charge”, or the number of protons they had. This
discovery allowed for a better arrangement of the periodic table, and
predicted elements that were not yet discovered. His method of identifying
elements by shooting electrons and looking at x-rays became a very useful
tool in characterizing elements, and is now called x-ray spectroscopy.

He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an

element. He bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements and
measured their X-ray spectral lines. His results clearly showed that
frequency of the X-rays given off by an element was mathematically
related to the position of that element in the Periodic table. The frequency
is proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic number.

When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers,

there were four gaps in the table. These gaps corresponded to the atomic
numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were later synthesized in
the laboratory through nuclear transmutations.

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear

transmutation reaction — a reaction involving the transformation of one
element or isotope into another element. The first nuclide to be prepared
by artificial means was an isotope of oxygen, 17O. It was made by Ernest
Rutherford in 1919 by bombarding nitrogen atoms with α particles:

147N +42α  178O + 11H

However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged,
so they tend to repel each other. Therefore, instead of using fast-moving
alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic nuclei are often
bombarded with neutrons (neutral particles) in particle accelerators.

James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, as a previously

unknown neutral particle produced along with 12C by the nuclear
reaction between 9Be and 4He:

49 +42  126 + 10

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 The first element to be prepared that does not occur naturally on the
earth, technetium, was created by bombardment of molybdenum by
deuterons (heavy hydrogen, H12), by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in
1937:

12 +4297 2 01 +4397

The first controlled nuclear chain reaction was carried out in a reactor at
the University of Chicago in 1942. One of the many reactions involved
was:

23592 + 10 → 8735 + 14657 + 310 The

Discovery of the Missing Elements

Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table
corresponding to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of these
elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle accelerators.
A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to
overcome the repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei
by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to synthesize new
elements. In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized
element with atomic number 43 using a linear particle accelerator. He
bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-moving neutrons. The newly
synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word
"technêtos" meaning “artificial.” Tc was the first man-made element.

The bombarding of Mo with deuteron formed technicium which is the first

artificially made element.

4297 +21  4397 + 10

In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered element

with atomic number 85. They bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with
fastmoving alpha particles in a cyclotron. A cyclotron is a particle
accelerator that uses alternating electric field to accelerate particles that
move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field. Element-85 was
named astatine from the Greek word “astatos” meaning unstable.

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The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered
through studies in radioactivity. Element-61 (Promethium) was
discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium while element87
(Francium) was discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.

The Synthesis of the Elements

The invention of the device called cyclotron paved the way for
Chemical Evolution of the Universe

So we need to find the sources of the vast

majority of elements in the Periodic Table
of elements.
We already know about some of the
sources.

Chemical Evolution
transmuting one element into another artificially. The high -energy
particles that are produced from the cyclotron upon hitting heavy target
nuclei produce heavier nuclei.

The Universe ran into the Be problem. Red giant cores get past this via
the Triple-Alpha process, but the Universe expands right through this
possibility and the density/temperature are quickly too low to synthesis
any additional elements.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

• The oldest stars in the Galaxy are deficient in the abundance of

elements heavier than Helium (but show the predicted amount of He)
• The current record holder has Fe/H about 130,000 times smaller
than the solar value.
• Not quite down to Big Bang abundances, but we are getting pretty
close and still looking.
• Low-mass stars synthesize `new’ He, C, O during the mainsequence,
RGB, HB and AGB phases.
• These freshly minted elements are brought to the surface via
convection and redistributed via stellar winds and planetary nebulae
into the interstellar medium to be incorporated into later generations
of stars.

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Chemical Evolution II
• For more massive stars, `equilibrium’ fusion reactions produce
elements all the way up to Fe.
• Freshly made elements are delivered via stellar winds or, sometimes
more spectacularly via supernova explosions

Chemical Evolution III

What about the trans-Fe elements?
• Equilibrium fusion reactions of light elements don’t proceed past Fe
because of Fe’s location at the peak of the curve of binding energy.
• However, in certain circumstances, supernovae for example,
nonequilibrium reactions can build elements beyond Fe in the
Periodic Table. Many of these are radioactive, but some are stable.
Neutron Capture Elements

• There are two principle paths to building the elements heavier than Fe.
Both use the addition of neutrons to existing `seed’ nuclei (neutrons
have no charge so are much easier to add to positivelycharged nuclei).
S-process (slow addition of neutrons) R-process (rapid addition of
neutrons)
The S-process

• The S-process stands for the Slow addition of neutrons to nuclei. The
addition of a no produces heavier isotope of a particular element.
However, if an electron is emitted (this is called betadecay), the
nucleus moves one step up the periodic table.
• `Slow’ here means that rate of no captures is low compared to the
beta-decay rate.
• It really is slow. Sometimes 100’s of years go by between neutron
captures.
The s-process acting
Ag to Sb. in the range from

Here a neutron
changed into a
proton by emitting an electron

• The S-process can produce elements up to #83 - Bismuth. There are

peaks in the Solar System abundance of heavy elements at 38Sr,
56Ba and 82Pb. These are easily understood in the context of the
Sprocess and `magic’ numbers of neutrons.
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• The site of the S-process is AGB start during and between shell
flashes. The no source is a by-product of C13+He4 -> O16
• 43Tc is an s-process nucleus and proof that it is in operation in AGB
stars.

The R-process

• The R-process is the Rapid addition of neutrons to existing nuclei.

Rapid here means that many neutrons are added before a betadecay
occurs.
• First build up a VERY heavy isotope, then, as beta-decays occur, you
march up in atomic number and produce the REALLY HEAVY STUFF.
• For this to happen, a big burst of neutrons is needed. The most
promising place with the right conditions is in a SNII explosion right
above the collapsed core.

• We see an overabundance of R-process elements in the oldest stars.

As the early chemical enrichment of the Galaxy was through SNII, this
is evidence of SNII as the source of r-process elements.
• If we look at the Crab Nebula or other SNII remnants we don’t see
rprocess elements.
• We DO see regions of enhanced O, Si, Ne and He which appear to
reflect the `onion skin’ structure of the massive star progenitor.

Crab Nebula
1Diagram (How R-
Process Occur)
https://www.nasa.
gov/mission_pages/hub
ble/multimedia/crab_
nebula.html

15
The Transuranic Elements

In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic
number 92. Early in 1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element
having an atomic number 93could be created. He used a particle
accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and created an element
with an atomic number 93 which he named neptunium.

Transuranic elements are synthetic elements with atomic numbers higher

than that of Uranium (Z = 92).

23892 + 10 → 23993 + −01

Plutonium (Z = 94)

238 + 21 → 23993 + 210

92

238 → 23994 +1 + −01

93

At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan,

Kennedy, and Wahl. They bombarded uranium with deuterons (particles
composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron. Element-94 was
named plutonium.

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of

uranium) are called transuranium elements. Hence, neptunium and
plutonium are both transuranium elements. They are unstable and decay
radioactively into other elements. All these elements were discovered in
the laboratory as artificially generated synthetic elements. They are
prepared using nuclear reactors or particle accelerators. In the next
lesson, you will learn the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of
these transuranium elements.

Stellar nucleosynthesis

This is the process by which elements are created within stars by

combining the protons and neutrons together from the nuclei of lighter
16
 elements. Fusion inside stars transforms hydrogen into helium, heat, and
radiation. Heavier elements are created in different types of stars as they
die or explode.

The Superheavy Elements

Superheavy elements are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103.

These are produced by bombarding heavy nuclear targets with
accelerated heavy projectiles.

Bohrium (Z = 107) – projectile used was Cr

209 + 5424 → 261107 ℎ + 210

83

Following are the equations of several nuclear reactions that have

important roles in the history of nuclear chemistry:

• The first naturally occurring unstable element that was isolated,

polonium, was discovered by the Polish scientist Marie Curie and her
husband Pierre in 1898. It decays, emitting particles:

21284 → 20882 + 42

What’s More

Activity 1.1 Write the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of

each of the following new elements:

a. Curium (Z = 96) was formed by reacting Pu – 239 with alpha particles

42He. It has a half-life of 162 days.
b. Mendelevium (Z = 101) was formed by reacting En-253 with alpha
particles.
c. Meitnerium (Z = 109) was formed by cold fusion which involves the
combination of Bi and Fe nuclides at ordinary temperature

Activity 1.2 Create a timeline using illustrations and text showing on

how elements form with the concept of atomic number.
17
 Timeline Rubric

Category 10 points 7 points 5 points 3 points

Facts Facts were
Content/ Facts Facts were Facts were were often
accurate for accurate for accurate inaccurat e
for most for
all almost all
(~75%) of events
events events
the
reported on reported on reported on
events
the timeline the timeline. the
reported on
timeline.
the
timeline.
Some
All graphics All graphics graphics
are are are Several
Graphics effective effective, effective graphics are
and but there and their not effective.
balanced appear to use is
with text be too few or balanced
use. too many. with text
use.
The overall
The overall appearance
appearance of the The The
Readability of the timeline is timeline is
timeline is timeline is
somewhat difficult to
relatively
pleasing pleasing read.
readable.
and easy to and easy to
read. read.
The timeline The
The contained timeline The
timeline at least 8-9 contained timeline
Requirements contained events at least 6- contained
10 events related to fewer than
7 events
related to
the topic related to 5
the topic
being the topic events.
being
studied. being
studied.
studied.

18
 Assessment

Directions: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the

chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. He successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction, a
process of transforming one element or isotope into another element.
a. Chadwick c. Mendeleev
b. Moseley d. Rutherford
2. This is also known as Nucleosynthesis.
a. S Process c. Nuclear Fission
b. R-Process d. Proton-Proton Reaction
3. This is known as the origin and production of heavy elements.
a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova
Nucleosynthesis
4. It was created by bombardment of molybdenum by deuterons (heavy
hydrogen, H12), by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in 1937.
a. Oxygen c. Technetium
b. Helium d. Uranium
5. Process that can produce elements up to #83 - Bismuth.
a. Nuclear Fission c. S Process
b. R-Process d. S Process
19
6. This is known as the origin of light elements.
a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova
Nucleosynthesis
7. It is also known as nuclear fusion and the formation of new nuclei
actions in the early stages of development of the universe.
a. Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. S-Process d. Singularity
8. In this process there’s a buildup of a VERY heavy isotope, then as
beta-decays occur, you march up in atomic number and produce
heavy product.
a. S Process c. Nuclear Fission
b. R-Process d. Proton-Proton Reaction 9. These
are elements with atomic numbers beyond 103.
a. SuperHevy Elements c. Lightest Element
b. Gases Elements d. Halogens
10. This occurs in the main sequence of stars.
a. Stellar Nucleosynthesis c. R-Process
b. Primordial Nucleosynthesis d. Supernova
Nucleosynthesis
11. It is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the
repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by
using magnetic and electrical fields.
a. Spectroscopy c. Particle Accelerator
b. Particle Decelerator d. Microscope
12. He created a classification of elements based on their atomic
weight.
a. Rutherford c. Millikan
b. Dalton d. Mendeleev
13. It is a one-dimensional point which contains a huge mass in an
infinitely small space.
a. Nucleosynthesis c. Singularity
b. Dilation d. R-process
14. He noticed that shooting electrons at elements caused them to
release x-rays at unique frequencies.
a. Mendeleev c. Moseley
b. Millikan d. Serge
15. He synthesized element with atomic number 43 using a linear
particle accelerator.
a. Ernest Rutherford c. Dmitri Mendeleev
b. Ernest Lawrence d. John Dalton
20
21
 Physical Science
Quarter 3 – Module: 3
Polarity of Molecules

What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. ____ refers to the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons.

a. Electron affinity c. Ionization energy
b. Electronegativity d. Electromotive force
2. Which of the following statements is TRUE about polar bonds?
a. They are present in metals.
b. They are responsible for the formation of ionic compounds.
c. They always result to the formation of polar molecular compounds.
d. They may result to nonpolar covalent compounds depending on
molecular geometry.
3. What type of chemical bond holds the atoms of water molecule together?
a. Hydrogen bond c. Polar covalent bond
b. Ionic bond d. Nonpolar covalent bond
4. Which of the following molecule is nonpolar?
a. NaCl c. CO2
b. HCl d. NH3
5. What is the electronegativity difference of C - O?
a. 0 c. 1.0
b. 0.5 d. 1.5
6. Supposedly a hypothetical molecule has an electronegativity difference of 0.5,
what is the type of chemical bond present?
a. Ionic c. Polar covalent
b. Hydrogen d. Nonpolar covalent
7. What is the molecular shape of BeF3?
a. Linear c. Tetrahedral
b. Trigonal d. Trigonal bipyramidal
8. A molecule can have a polar bond and still be nonpolar overall. The statement
is ___

2
 a. True c. Maybe
b. False
9. A polar covalent bond would form in which of the following pairs of atoms? a.
Cl-Cl
b. Mg-O
c. N-H
d. C-S
10. A molecule shape is a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms or bonding
groups around a central atom. The molecular shape is governed by the valence
shell electron repulsion (VSEPR) theory.
a. The first and second statements are true.
b. The first and second statements are false.
c. The first statement is true while the second statement is false.
d. The first statement is false while the second statement is true.

True or False: Write TRUE if the statement is correct, otherwise write FALSE.

11. The general trend of electronegativity as you move from top to bottom of the
periodic table is increasing.
12. Flourine has the greatest electronegativity while cesium and francium have
the least electronegativity value.
13. Water, with a bent molecular shape, is classified as a polar molecule.
14. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) has six bonded electrons and no lone pair in its
central atom.
15. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) exhibits a linear geometry.

16. Lesson
1 Polarity of Molecules

It is interesting to have a quick glance at the lessons you have learned about
compounds and chemical bonds when you were in Grades 8, 9 and 10. Can you still
recall them? Great!

In Grade 8, you learned that atoms combine to form molecules or compounds

thus making them more stable by achieving a stable configuration satisfying the
Octet Rule. On the other hand, you learned about chemical bonds or intramolecular
forces and its three types such as ionic, covalent and metallic and the writing of
Lewis dot symbol in Grade 9. While in your Grade-10 Science, you have learned the

3
concepts of electronegativity and you were briefly introduced to the topic polarity of
molecules using the electronegativity values.

Studying this module will certainly increase your understanding about the
polarity of molecules. This module is packed with interesting activities which will
make you enjoy your Chemistry lessons even more. So, are you ready to delve on an
exciting quest for chemistry learning? You may start now by doing the activity below.
Goodluck and happy learning!

What’s In

Chemical bonds are formed when atoms lose, accept or share

electrons. An ionic bond occurs when there is a transfer of one or more valence
electrons form one atom to another. It exists between metal and nonmetal atoms
where metal loses electron/s while nonmetal accepts the electron/s donated by
metal. On the other hand, when two nonmetal atoms combine, neither of them loses
or gains electron Instead, electron pairs are being shared by both atoms and the type
of chemical bond formed is called covalent bond.
Tell whether the compound below is an ionic compound (IC) or covalent
compound (CC) based on the type of chemical bond present.

____1. NaCl _____6. N2O

____2. CO2 ________7. PCl5

____3. CaCl2 _____8.KBr

____4. CCl4 _____9. HCl

____5. Fe2O3 _____10.AlCl3

ANSWER: NaCl, CaCl2, Fe2O3,KBr, and AlCl3 are all ionic compound because
the atoms involved are combination of metal and nonmetal. On the other hand, CO2,
CCl4, N2O, PCl5 and HCl are covalent compounds because the atoms involved are
both nonmetals.

4
It’s good that you were able to recall the difference between ionic bond and covalent
bond.

You have learned that a covalent is a shared pair of electrons between two atoms.
But are the electrons equally shared by the combing atoms? How does a polar
covalent bond differ from a nonpolar covalent? Did you know that
electronegativity of an atom can be used to further classify covalent bond into
polar and nonpolar?

As you perform the activity below, you will find out that substances have different
polarities, and this explains why there are substances that do not mix while
others do.

What’s New

Activity1: Polarity
Experiment Materials:
• Water
• Vinegar
• Oil
• Alcohol
•6 glasses
•spoon Procedure:

1. Obtain 6 clean glasses and prepare the following set-up.

Set-up 1: 1 cup water + 5 tablespoons vinegar
Set-up 2: 1 cup water + 5 tablespoons oil
Set-up 3: 1 cup water + 5 tablespoons alcohol
Set-up 4: 1 cup vinegar + 5 tablespoons oil
Set-up 5: 1 cup vinegar + 5 tablespoons alcohol
Set-up 6: 5 tablespoon oil + 5 tablespoons alcohol

2. Thoroughly stir each mixture and observe carefully.

Note: •Do not forget to wash and dry the spoon after each use.
• Properly label each set-up.
• Samples with oil should first be mixed with dishwashing liquid
before disposing down the sink

5
 Guide Question:

a. Which of the following set-ups mixed well? Which did not?

b. What can you infer from the result of this activity?

Or if not feasible, this activity may be performed instead.

Calculate the electronegativity difference and give the type of bond that exists
between the atoms in each of the following pairs.

EN of the EN of the 2nd

Molecule first atom atom ∆ EN

1. NaCl
2. NH3
3. CH4
4. H2
5. H2O

What is It

The polarity of molecules is determined by the two factors: the polarity of bonds
based on the electronegativity difference of the atoms involved and the geometrical
shape of the molecules which can be predicted via valence shell electron pair
repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

A. Polarity of Bonds and Electronegativity

In your grade 9 chemistry, you have tackled the lesson on the periodic properties
of elements such as atomic size, metallic property, ionization energy, electron
affinity and electronegativity. Can you still recall the definition of
electronegativity? If not, no problem because I will define it for you.
Electronegativity (EN) measures the relative tendency of an atom to attract
electrons to itself when chemically combined with other atom. Take a look at the
electronegativity values of some elements on Fig.1. What have you noticed?
Correct! It increases within period (from left to right) and decreases within a group
(from top to bottom). Take note also that the higher the value of EN, the more it
tends to attract electron towards itself.
So what is the connection of electronegativity to the polarity of bonds? We could
use the electronegativity values of the atoms involved to get the absolute
electronegativity difference (∆EN) which will help us in predicting what type of
chemical bond (ionic, polar covalent or nonpolar covalent) that would exist

6
 between them. Table 1 shows the type of bond based on the electronegativity
difference of bonded atoms.

Figure 1. Pauling Electronegativity values of some elements

Table 1. Type of bond based on electronegativity difference (∆EN) of bonded atoms

Electronegativity
Type of Bond
Difference
Ionic
Polar Covalent
0.5 to 1.6
Nonpolar Covalent

For example, you are asked to predict what type of bond is present between the
following pairs of atoms by determining their electronegativity difference.

1. Ca and Cl
2. Cl and Cl
3. H and Cl
4. S and O
5. C and N Solution:
1. ENCa = 1.0 (∆EN) = 1.0 – 3.0 = │-2.0│= 2.0 ionic bond ENCl = 3.0
2. ENCl = 3.0 (∆EN) = 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 nonpolar covalent bond ENCl = 3.0
3. ENH = 2.1 (∆EN) = 2.1 – 3.0 = │-0.9│= 0.9 polar covalent bond

ENCl= 3.0

7
 4. ENS= 2.5 (∆EN) = 2.5 – 3.5 = │-1.0│= 1.0 polar covalent bond

ENO = 3.5
5. ENC= 2.5 (∆EN) = 2.5 – 3.0 = │-0.5│= 0.5 polar covalent bond ENN =
3.0
Using the above examples, let us know more about polar and nonpolar covalent
bonds. A polar covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared unequally by
two atoms in a compound. The bonded pair of atoms form an electric dipole
(represented by ). Dipole means “two poles” which means that a molecule has
one positive end and one negative end. In this type of bond, the atom with the higher
EN value becomes the partial negative pole (symbolized as ẟ-) while the atom with
the lower EN value becomes the partially positive (symbolized as ẟ+) pole. Always bear
in mind that the direction of the arrow is always pointing from a more electropositive
pole to the more electronegative pole. Take HCl for example, H is has higher EN than
Cl, thus the direction of the arrow is from H pointing to Cl and there is unequal
electron density as represented by a size of the circle (refer to figure 2). On the other
hand, a nonpolar covalent bond develops if both atoms equally share a pair of
electrons between them.
This occurs when the bonding atoms have approximately equal EN value or equal
ability to attract electrons to each side. Nonpolar covalent bond is an example of
bond formed when two chlorine atoms combine.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Polar bond between H and Cl and (b) nonpolar bond between two Cl
atoms
B. Polarity of Molecules and Molecular Geometry
You just have learned how to predict the type of bond polarity simply by
calculating the electronegativity difference of atoms (specifically two atoms). The
next question is, how about for those molecules consisting of more than two
atoms like H2O, CCl4, NH3 and CO2? For polyatomic molecules, both the bond
polarity and molecular shape determine the overall molecular polarity. In terms
of molecular geometry, the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory
would help us to determine the spatial arrangement of atoms in a polyatomic
molecule.
You can predict the shape or molecular geometry of a substance using the
following steps:

8
 Step 1: Determine the central atom of a molecule. The central atom is the least
electronegative element.
Step 2: Draw the appropriate Lewis dot structure for the molecule.
Step 3: Count the number of bonding pairs of electrons and non-bonding (or
lone pairs) around the central atom.
Step 4: Determine the electron pair orientation using the total number of
electron pairs.
Step 5: Name the shape of based on the location of the atoms

Figure 3. Different Molecular Shapes Consider

the examples below:

Example 1: Predict the molecular geometry of BCl3

Step 1: ENB = 2.0 ENCl= 3.0 therefore, B will be the central atom and three
Cl atoms are attached to it. By looking at the chemical formula, you will also
have an idea that boron will be the central atom and three atoms of choline are
attached to it.
Step 2:

Step 3: The central atom has three electron pairs: 3 bonded pairs and no lone
pair
Step 4: The electron pair orientation for three electrons is trigonal planar.
Step 5: The molecular shape of BCl3 is trigonal planar.
Example 2: Predict the molecular geometry of CO2
Step 1: ENC= 2.5 ENO= 3.0 therefore, C will be the central atom and two O
atoms will be the attached to it. (Use may also use the chemical formula to
predict which atom will be the central atom

Step 2:

9
 Step 3: For the purpose of determining the position of the bonding pairs, let
us count the double bonds as one bonding pair. Therefore, CO2 has
two bonding pairs of electron.
Step 4: The electron pair orientation for two electron pairs is linear.
Step 5: The molecular shape of CO2 is linear.
Example 3: Predict the molecular geometry of CHCl3.

Step 1: ENC = 2.5, ENH= 2.1 and ENCl= 3.0. Because carbon is less
electronegative than chlorine and hydrogen is normally terminal
atom, C must be the central atom.

Step 2:

Step 3: There are four bonding electron pairs.

Step 4: The electron pair orientation for four electron pairs is tetrahedral.
Step 5: The molecular shape of CHCl3 is linear.

Now that you have learned how to determine the molecular geometry, let us now
go on to our discussion of polarity of molecules based on molecular shapes. You
may study the diagram below and we will use it as our guide.

Figure 4. Flowchart to determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar

10
 Going back to our previous examples, let us try to determine the polarity of
molecules of BCl3, CO2 and CHCl3.
For both BCl3 and CO2, the atoms are symmetrically arranged (trigonal planar
and linear) and the attached atoms to the central atom are also the same. You
must also take note that in a symmetrical molecule, the sum of the bond dipole
is equal to zero (because they cancel out) which leads to the formation of nonpolar
molecule. Therefore, both BCl3 and CO2 are nonpolar. On the other hand, CHCl3,
although it has a symmetrical arrangement (tetrahedral), the atoms attached to
the central atom are not all the same (3 chlorine atoms and 1 hydrogen atom).
This causes CHCl3 to become a polar molecule.
Now, let us see if you fully understood our discussion. I want you to try answering
the exercises below.

Identify which molecule is polar and which is nonpolar given the Lewis structure
and molecular shapes of the following molecules.
Molecule Lewis Structure Molecular Geometry Molecular Shape
(based on VSEPR)

1. NH3 Trigonal
pyramidal

2. H2O Bent or angular

3. CCl4
Tetrahedral

4. Linear

If you were able to answer that NH3 and H2O are polar molecules because the
bond dipole cannot be cancelled because of the presence of lone pairs on the

11
 central atom and CCl4 and HBr are nonpolar molecules, you are correct. Job well
done! You may now proceed to the rest of this module.

What’s More

Lewis ∆ Bond Molecular Polarity of Molecule Structure

EN Polarity Geometry Molecule

1. PCl5

2. BeCl2

3. CH4

4. OF2

5. SF6

So far, we have discussed how polarity of molecules is being determined. At this

point, you will perform the activity below to find out if you fully understood our
topic. If you think you need to go back to the discussion part of this module while
answering this activity, please feel free to do so.
What I Have Learned

In your own words, differentiate polar and nonpolar covalent bond.

1. What is electronegativity and how can it be used in in determining the polarity
of molecules?
2. Is it possible for a molecule to have a polar bond but have an overall polarity
of nonpolar?
3. Differentiate bonding and non-bonding electrons.

What I Can Do

Answer the following questions below:

1. Ammonia (NH3) is polar molecule while boron trifluoride (BF3) is a nonpolar

molecule. Explain the difference in the polarity of these compounds.
12
2. Suppose that AB 3E, a hypothetical molecule, is discovered. Predict whether
the molecule is po lar or nonpolar by determining its molecular shape.

Note: A – corresponds to central atom, B

- terminal atom

E – lone pair (nonbonding electrons)

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on
a separate sheet of paper.
1. The following molecules have polar covalent bonds EXCEPT?

a. NH3 c. BCl3

b. CS2 d. HBr

2. Which of the following bonds is the MOST polar?

a. H-Cl c. H-H

b. C-Cl d. N-F
3. What is the molecular shape of CHBr3?

a. Linear c. Trigonal bipyramidal

b. Trigonal planar d. Tetrahedral

4. A nonpolar covalent bond would form in which of the following pairs of atoms?

a. Na-Cl c. P-N

b. Ca-O d. C-S

5. From the given Lewis structure of NH3, how many nonbonding pair/s of
electron are around the central atom?
a. 0 c. 2

b. 1 d. 3

6. Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?

a. Polar covalent bonds can be present in a nonpolar molecule.

b. Polar covalent bond is present if the electronegativity difference between

atoms is equal or less than 0.4.

13
 c. Polarity of bond and molecular geometry are the two factors that affect
the polarity of molecules.
d. Polar bond forms when electrons are unequally shared by two atoms in a
compound.
7. What do you call the relative ability of a bonded atom to attract shared electron
pairs?
a. Electron affinity c. Ionization energy

b. Electronegativity d. Metallic property

8. Which description below correctly describes polar molecules?

a. Have polar bonds present.

b. The polar bonds are arranged so that they do not cancel.

c. Lone pairs on the central atom are arranged so that they do not cancel.

d. Lone pairs on the central atom are arranged so that they can be cancelled
out.
9. Which of the following molecules is tetrahedral?

a. H2O b. SF6
c. CH4 d. BF3

10. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about CO2?

a. Has an electronegativity difference of 1.0

b. Polar bond is present

c. Has a linear molecular shape

d. Is a polar molecule
True or False: Write TRUE if the statement is correct, otherwise write FALSE.
11. S and O are bonded by a polar covalent bond because its electronegativity
difference value is 1.0.
12. Atoms with high electronegativity have a greater tendency to attract electrons
toward itself.
13. Polarity of molecules are determined both by polarity of bonds and molecular
geometry.
14. Among C-Cl, H-Cl, C-H and Cl-Cl, only Cl-Cl is polar.

15. Methyl alcohol, CH3OH, is a nonpolar molecule.

14
 Additional Activities

Analyze the following statements and determine if it is correct or

wrong.

1. SiCl4 is a nonpolar molecule.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. H2S has a linear molecular geometry.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. PF5 is a polar molecule.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

15
16
 Physical Science

Quarter 3 – Module 4:
Polarity of Molecules and Its
Properties

What I Know

Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. Which of the following is TRUE of polar molecules?

i. Have high boiling point iii. low surface tension ii.
Have high melting point iv. High vapor pressure
a. I only
b. I and II only
c. II and III only
d. IV only
2. Which of the following intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) is
arranged from strongest to weakest?
a. H- bonding – dipole-dipole – London forces

b. London-forces – dipole-dipole – H-bonding

c. Dipole-dipole – London forces – H- bonding

d. H-bonding – London forces – dipole-dipole

For numbers 3-6, consider the choices below:

a. boiling point c. Viscosity
b. solubility d. vapor pressure
3. Refers to the resistance of a liquid to flow.
4. Is temperature at which the liquid starts to boil.
5. Defined as the pressure exerted by a substance when in its gaseous state.

17
6. The ability of a substance to be dissolved in another substance to form a
solution.
7. The following are examples of viscous substances EXCEPT:
a. blood c. vinegar
b. honey d. syrup

8. Which of the following is NOT TRUE about water?

a. has high surface tension

b. has high boiling point

c. has low viscosity

d. becomes denser when freezes

9. Which of the following substances will most likely be miscible in water?
a. Benzene (C6H6)

b. Ethyl alcohol (C2H6O)

c. carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)

d. toluene (C6H5CH3)
10. Which of the following will dissolve in polar solvents?
a. nonpolar solvents and ionic compounds
b. c. nonpolar solvents and ionic compounds
d. all of the above

True or False: Write T if the statement is true, otherwise write F.

11. The floating of ice on liquid water is an indication that ice has higher
density than liquid water.
12. The volatility of a substance depends on its vapor pressure.
13. Alcohol is less volatile than vinegar.
14. Between water (H2O) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), water has higher
boiling point.
15. Vapor pressure is inversely proportional to the strength of intermolecular
forces present.

18
 Lesson 1

Properties of Molecules based on its Polarity

From the previous module, you learned how to determine the polarity of bonds
using the concept of electronegativity. Also, you learned that polarity of molecules
is affected by both the polarity of bonds and its molecular shape or geometry.

What’s In

Let us have some warm up exercise for our nerve cells before we
proceed to the presentation of our lesson. You will perform a simple activity that
will help you recall some basic concepts related to polarity of molecules. Have some
fun!

WORD CRYPTOGRAM
Directions: Unscramble the letters by placing the correct letter sequence in the
shaded boxes to come up with the correct answer for each number. Use the
numbered boxes to complete the answer to the riddle below.

1.
L E C M O U L E

1 5 6
2.
O P A L R O D N B

3 9

19
 3.
O N L E A P I R

2 14 8 16

4. N A R O P O L N B D O N

7 12

5.
A C E G T R O T L I Y E I T E N V

11 15 4 10 17

6. M A T O

13

RIDDLE: It shows the three-dimensional arrangement of bonding groups of

atoms around a central atom.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Can you define the following words/terms that you have decoded?

What’s New

Analyze the lyrics of the song, “Tubig at Langis”, and answer the questions
below.

TUBIG AT LANGIS
Sharon Cuneta

Tubig at langis, ang katayuannati’yyan ang kawangis

Pilitinmangmagsam’y may mahahapis

20
 Ganyang-ganyantayongdalawa
Ang panuntunan’ymagkaiba
Langis at tubig, ‘di mapagsama ng tunaymangpag-ibig
Hinanakit ang s’yanglagingmananaig
Mahal na mahal man kita
May mahal ka namangiba

Chorus:
Tubig at langis
Idarang man sainit, ‘di rin tatamis
Dahil ang halo’yluha’tpaghihinagpis
Ang kirot ay di maalis kung labis
Bakitnanaig ang dusasaligayasa ‘ting daigdig ?
May dasalbaakonghindiN’yanarinig ?
Papelnatinsapag-ibig
Ako’ylangis, ika’ytubig

Repeat Chorus:
Bakitnanaig ang dusasaligayasa ‘ting daigdig ?
May dasalbaakonghindiN’yanarinig ?
Papelnatinsapag-ibig
Ako’ylangis, ika’ytubig
Ako’ylangis, ika’ytubig

Guide Question:
1. What is the message of the song?

2. If you add oil to the water, what will happen? Will it create a single
homogenous phase or will it form two layers? Why?
3. Why do you think water and oil cannot be mixed even when heated? Support
your answer.

What is It

A. Polarity, Solubility, and Miscibility

One of the practical applications of polarity of molecule in real-life scenario is
manifested on the solubility and miscibility of substances to form solution.

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Solubility is defined as the ability of a solid substance to be dissolved in a given
amount of solvent while miscibility is the ability of the two liquids to combine or
mix in all proportions, creating a homogenous mixture.
The general rule to remember about the solubility and miscibility of molecular
compounds can be summarized in a phrase, “like dissolves like” or “like mixes with
like”. This means that polar substances will only be dissolved or mixed with polar
substances while nonpolar substances will be soluble or miscible with another
nonpolar substance.
Now I want you to try the exercises below in order to assess how much you have
understood the solubility (and miscibility) rule of substances in relation to their
polarity.
Which of the following substances below will most likely mix with each other? a.

water (H2O) and chloroform (CHCl3)

b. benzene (C6H6) and chloroform (CHCl3)

c. water (H2O) and vinegar (CH3COOH)

d. acetone (C3H6O) and toluene (C6H5CH3)

e. carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and water (H2O)

What chemistry concept did you used in answering the question above? If you
answered polarity of molecules, then you are on the right track. Great job! Benzene
and chloroform are both nonpolar compounds while water and vinegar are both
polar compounds, thus they are miscible to each other. However, the rest is a
combination of polar and nonpolar molecules and therefore will not mix and instead
will form two layers even if shaken or carefully stirred.
B. Bond Strength and Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds
From the previous module, you learned the intramolecular forces of attraction, the
attractive force that binds atoms together. In this module, you will learn another
type of attractive force, the intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) which exists
between molecules.

In this lesson, we will not discuss IMFA in so much detail because it will be tackled
to you in the next module. We will just focus on the following salient points of IMFA
and its effect on the physical properties of covalent compounds:

1. There are several types of IMFA and below they are arranged from
STRONGEST to WEAKEST.
Ion-dipole → H-bonding→ dipole-dipole→dipole-induced dipole→
London forces of attraction
2. The strength of IMFA greatly affects the physical properties of substances
such as boiling point, melting point, vapor pressure, surface tension, etc.

22
Before we move further, try to perform the exercise below to test your ability to
analyze concepts and principles that you have learned from the discussion.
Put a check (/) to those properties applicable for polar molecule. ____1.
High boiling point ____7. High vapor pressure
____2. Low boiling point ____8. Low vapor pressure
____3. High melting point ____9. High surface tension
____4. Low melting point ____10. Low surface tension
____5. High volatility ____11. H-bonding & dipole-dipole present
____6. Low volatility ____12. London dispersion is present

How well did you perform in this exercise? Continue reading for you to find out the
correct answers for this activity.
From the above discussion you learned that there are several types of IMFA and
their relative strength as compared to other types. Strong intermolecular forces tend
to yield solids and liquids while weak intermolecular forces favor formation of gases.
Table 1 shows the comparison of the various types of IMFA while table 2 shows the
physical properties of polar and nonpolar molecules as affected by the type of IMFA
present.
Table 1. Summary of Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA)
Type of IMFA Interacting Substances Examples
Ion-dipole Ion (cation or anion) NaCl dissolved in H2O;
and a polar molecule Ca2+ and PCl3
Hydrogen bonding Polar molecules H2O, NH3, CH3OH
containing H
chemically bonded to a
small and
highly electronegative
nonmetal atom such as
N,
O, and F
Dipole –dipole Polar molecules CH3F and H2S; HCl;
Dipole-induced dipole Polar and nonpolar HI and CH4
molecules
London forces All substances and O2, N2, He gas, Br2
solely for nonpolar
molecules and noble
gases

Table 2. General Properties of polar and nonpolar molecules

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 Polar molecules Nonpolar molecules
• IMFA type: Hbonding • IMFA type: London
and dipoledipole dispersion

• exist as solids or liquids • exist as gases at room

at room
temperature
• High boiling point
• High melting point
• High surface tension
• Low vapor pressure
• Low volatility
• Soluble in water
temperature
• Low boiling point
• Low melting point
• Low surface tension
• High vapor pressure
• High volatility
• Insoluble in water

Let us define the physical properties of substances:

A. Boiling point: temperature at which the vapor pressure and atmospheric

pressure of a liquid substance are equal.

B. Melting point: temperature at which solid becomes liquid. At this point, the
solid and liquid phases exist in equilibrium.

C. Surface tension: energy needed to increase the surface area by a unit amount;

D. Viscosity: the resistance of the liquid to flow

E. Vapor pressure: pressure exerted by a substance in its gaseous state.

F. Volatility: measures the rate at which a substance vaporizes (changes from

liquid to gas)

In the simplest sense, boiling point, melting point, viscosity and surface tension
increase as the strength of intermolecular forces increases. On the other hand,
vapor pressure and volatility decrease with increasing strength of IMFA. London
dispersion forces increase as the molecular mass of a substance increases. Unlike
in H-bonding, as the molar mass increases, the boiling point, melting point,
viscosity and surface tension decrease.

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 What’s More

Activity 1. Strength of IMFA and Physical Properties of

Covalent Compounds
For each pair of molecules, identify the one with the higher boiling point (BP),
melting point (MP), viscosity (V), surface tension (ST) and vapor pressure (VP).
Briefly explain your choice.
BP MP V ST VP

Methane, CH4 carbon tetrachloride,

CCl4

Dihydrogen sulfide, H2S water,

H2O

Methanol, CH3OH ethanol,

CH3CH2OH

Acetic acid, CH3COOH acetone,

CH3OCH3
Adapted from Punzalan and Monserat (2016)

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 What I Have Learned

1. Distinguish intramolecular forces of attraction and intermolecular forces of

attraction.

2. In your own words, explain the Solubility Rule.

3. Compare and contrast polar and non-polar molecules based on its physical
properties.

4. What relationship can you derive between the strength of IMFA and the
physical properties of covalent molecules?

What I Can Do

A. Using the concept of bond polarity and solubility, explain why water (H2O) and
vinegar are miscible, but vinegar and oil are immiscible.

B. Using the concept of intermolecular forces of attraction, explain why butter

melts at room temperature but solidifies when refrigerated.

C. Explain the importance polarity of molecules to biological processes such as

in the structure of proteins and phospholipids.

Assessment

Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the
chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following IMFAs is considered as the weakest?

a. H-bonding
b. Ion-dipole
c. Dipole-dipole

26
 d. London forces
2. The boiling point of water is greater than dihydrogen sulfide because of ______.
a. Dipole-dipole bond
b. H-bonding
c. London dispersion
d. Ion-dipole

3. Which of the following substances will dissolve most likely in water? a. a. Oil
b. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
c. Vinegar (CH3COOH)
d. Hexane (C6H14)
4. Which of the following molecules has high melting point?
a. CHCl3
b. CCl4
c. BCl3
d. BeCl2
5. ______ refers to the energy required to increase the surface area by a unit
amount.
a. Viscosity
b. Surface tension
c. Vapor pressure
d. Density
6. Which of the following statements is TRUE about nonpolar molecules
a. Have high boiling point
b. Have high melting point
c. Have low surface tension
d. Have low vapor pressure
7. Which of the following substances is miscible in hexane (C6H14)?
a. Acetone (C3H6O)
b. Vinegar (CH3COOH)
c. Chloroform (CHCl3)
d. Methanol (CH3OH)
8. The following are intermolecular forces of attraction EXCEPT:
a. H-bond
b. Dipole-dipole
c. Covalent bond
d. London forces
9. Which of the following properties has indirect relationship with the strength
of IMFA?

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 a. Boiling point
b. Melting point
c. Surface tension
d. Vapor pressure

10. In which of the following solvents would molecular iodine (I2) be most soluble?
a. Vinegar
b. Water
c. Ethyl alcohol
d. Carbon tetrachloride

True or False: Write T if the statement is true, otherwise write F.

11. H-bonds are broken when ice melts.
12. Molecules with H-bonds have higher boiling point than molecules with
dipoledipole bond.
13. In covalent molecules, vapor pressure decreases with decreasing strength of
intermolecular forces.
14. When the attractive forces holding particles together are greater, you have to
get to a higher temperature to break those forces, so the melting point is
higher.
15. The strength of dispersion (London) forces tends to increase with increased
molecular weight.

Additional Activities

1. Briefly explain why water is considered as the universal solvent.

2. Using the concept of IMFA, account for the difference in boiling point and
melting point of the following molecular substances:

Boiling point
Substance Melting point (0C)
(0C)
Helium gas, He -269 -272

Methane, CH4 -162 -184

H2O 100 0

Ethanol, C2H5OH 78 -117

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29
 Physical Science
Quarter 3 – Module 5:
Intermolecular Forces
What I Know

Read and analyze each question. Choose the letter that

corresponds to your answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. Which of the following bonds show a dipole-dipole attraction?

a. FBr c. N2
b. Cl2 d. I2
2. When KCl interacts with H2O, what force of attractions involved between K+
and H2O?
a. Hydrogen bond c. Ion-Dipole force
b. Dipole-Dipole force d. Dispersion force
3. What is the intermolecular force exists between molecules of Br2?
a. Dipole-Dipole force c. Hydrogen bond
b. Dispersion force d. Ion-Dipole force
4. A force of attraction between polar molecules that holds hydrogen atom?
a. Ion-Dipole force c. Covalent bond
b. Dipole-Dipole force d. Hydrogen bond
5. Which of the following among the intermolecular forces is weakest?
a. Dispersion force c. Ion-Dipole force
b. Dipole-Dipole force d. Covalent bond

Lesson

1 Intermolecular Forces

The intermolecular forces are the attractive force or interaction between

molecules. There are four kinds of intermolecular forces namely:
hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole force, ion-dipole force and dispersion or
London force. Each kind of intermolecular forces causes different
physical properties on substances.

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 What’s In

What is the name of this reptile as shown in the picture below? How does lizard walk upside
down on the wall?

The Lizard’s feet are covered with thousands of extremely tiny fibers that will attract to the
surface that uses a variety of intermolecular forces. In addition, why do some materials tend to
break easily and fragile? Possibly, the bonds that holds the molecules to these materials are
weak, so this can be associated to London force or dispersion force. On the other hand, there
are also materials that hard to break, the molecules of the materials are tightly bonded. These
materials possessed ion-dipole force.

What’s New
Intermolecular Forces and Its type
In chemistry, there are always interactions between and among atoms and molecules. These
attractive forces that holds particle such molecules together are called intermolecular forces.
There are four general types of intermolecular forces: hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole, ion-dipole
and dispersion or London forces. The dispersion force is the weakest while ion-dipole is the
strongest among the intermolecular forces.
1. Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is an attractive force in polar molecules containing hydrogen (H) atom
bonded to a strongly electronegative atom such as Fluorine (F), Oxygen (O) and Nitrogen (N). The
molecules which are linked by hydrogen bonds have high boiling points since, hydrogen bonds
are hard to break. Examples of polar molecules with hydrogen bond are water (H2O) and
ammonia (NH3).

H2O NH3

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2. Dipole- Dipole Force
The dipole-dipole force is an interaction between polar molecules. A dipole is two charges
separated by a distance. Therefore, dipole-dipole force is a result of molecules with positive end
in one side and negative end on the other side. The dipole-dipole force can have along range of
interaction and can be strong, if the dipole moment is high. If this is the case, the dipole moment
between molecules is also high. Example, F-Se: F(4.)--Se (2.4) has electronegativity difference of
1.6 therefore it is polar.
F—Se-------F—Se 3. Ion-Dipole Force
An ion-dipole force is an attractive force between ionic molecules and polar molecules. The cation
or the positive ion attracts the negative end of a neutral polar molecule. For instance, the
potassium chloride (KCl) dissolves in water (H2O), a polar molecule. The positive charge (cation)
of KCl (K+ , Cl-) will be separated then it will attract the opposite charged, in this case the water
molecule.

K+-----------

4. Dispersion Force or London Force

The London force was named after to Fritz Wolfgang London, a German Physicist and Professor
at Duke University. He provided a significant interpretation for the existence of temporary
dipoles. The dispersion force or London force is a result of interaction between non-polar
molecules. This force of attraction is considered as the weakest kind of intermolecular forces.
For example, London force between the molecules of Br2.
Br—Br-------Br—Br

What I Have Learned

1. The intermolecular force is an attraction between molecules.

2. The hydrogen bond is a result of attractive force of polar molecules with a present of
hydrogen atom.
3. The dipole-dipole force is an interaction between polar molecules, which one end is positive
pole and the other end is negative pole.
4. The ion-dipole force is an interaction between ions and polar molecules.
5. The dispersion and London force is responsible in the interaction between non-polar
molecules.
6. The ion-dipole force is the strongest and the London force is the weakest among the
intermolecular forces.

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 What’s More

Fill in what is missing in each box. Choose your answer from the
list below. Use a separate paper for your solution and answer.
Polar molecule with H atom attached on F, O and N.
N2 and N2 Dipole-Dipole force
Ion-Dipole force Two polar molecules
Hydrogen bond Two non-polar
molecules
Positive charge and non-polar HF and NH3
molecule Dispersion force
Na+ and O2 H2O and NH3

Intermolecular Attraction Example

Forces between….

What I Can Do

Determine whether the following molecules whether polar and non-polar and
Identify the intermolecular forces that linked between them. Use another
sheet of paper for your answer.
1. SO2
2. F2
3. PCl3
4. ICl
5. O2

33
 Assessment

Multiple Choice. Read and analyze each question. Write the letter that
corresponds to your answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. This type of force exists between polar molecules.
a. Dipole- Dipole force c. Hydrogen bond
b. Dispersion Force d. Ion-Dipole force
2. Which of the following forces is the strongest?
a. London force c. Dipole-Dipole force
b. Hydrogen bond d. Ion-Dipole force
3. Which of the following forces is the weakest?
a. Hydrogen bond c. Dipole-Dipole force
b. Ion-Dipole force d. London force
4. Which of the following forces is not an intermolecular force?
a. Dipole-Dipole force c. Hydrogen bond
b. Covalent bond d. Ion-Dipole force
5. What is the intermolecular force present in I2?
a. Ion-Dipole force c. Dispersion force
b. Dipole-Dipole force d. Covalent bond

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