EXPLANATORY NOTES FOR SOIL DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION

Geotechnical logging is carried out in general accordance with the British Standard (BS 5930:2015). The soils should be described in terms of material and mass characteristics; that is in terms of nature, state and structure in accordance with BS
5930:2015. Table A show the recommendations for field identification and description of soils and provides assistance for field description and soil classification. The terminology used by Advisian to describe the condition of soils for logging purposes
is summarized in the following sheets.

Table A FIELD IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF SOILS

SOIL GROUP Very coarse soils Coarse soils Fine soils

PRINCIPAL BOULDERS COBBLES GRAVEL SAND SILT

SOIL TYPE
CLAY

Particle Size Large boulder Boulder Cobble Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine Coarse Medium Fine
(mm)
>630 630-200 200-63 63-20 20-6.3 6.3-2.0 2.0-0.63 0.63-0.2 0.2-0.063 0.063-0.02 0.02-0.0063 0.0063-0.002 <0.002

Visual Only seen completely in pits or exposures. Easily visible to naked eye; particle shape can Visible to naked eye; no cohesion when dry; Only coarse silt visible with hand lens; exhibits Dry lumps can be broken but not powdered
identification Difficult to recover whole from boreholes. be described; grading can be described. grading can be described. little plasticity and marked dilatancy; slightly between the fingers; dry lumps disintegrate
granular or silky to the touch; disintegrates in under water but more slowly than silt;
water; lumps dry quickly; possesses cohesion smooth to the touch; exhibits plasticity but
but can be powdered easily between fingers.1 no dilatancy; sticks to the fingers and dries
slowly; shrinks appreciably on drying usually
showing cracks.1

Density/ No terms defined

Classification of relative density on the basis of N values (Table B), or field assessment using Consistency determined from field tests (Table D). Strength derived from measurements (Table
Consistency
hand tests may be made ( Table C) E)

Describe spacing of features such as fissures, shears, partings, isolated beds or laminae, desiccation cracks, rootlets, etc. (Table F)
Discontinuities Fissured: Breaks into blocks along unpolished discontinuities.

Sheared: Breaks into blocks along polished discontinuities.

Describe thickness of beds in accordance with geological definition. (Table F)

Bedding Alternating layers of materials are Inter-bedded or Inter-laminated and should be described by a thickness term if in equal proportions, or by a thickness of and spacing between subordinate layers where unequal.

Terms used to reflect

Secondary For mixtures involving very coarse soils see For mixtures involving coarse soils (slightly to very, and SAND and GRAVEL) For mixtures coarse and fine soils (slightly to Silty CLAY secondary fine constituents
Constituents Table G, Table H, Table I and Table J see Table K very) see Table L where this is important see
Clayey SILT
Table L
Terms can include: glauconitic / micaceous / shelly / organic / calcareous. For example: slightly (glauconitic) / (glauconitic) / very (glauconitic)
Mineralogy Carbonate content: slightly calcareous – weak or sporadic effervescence from HCI / calcareous – clear but not sustained effervescence from HCI / highly calcareous – strong, sustained effervescence from HCI.
Organic soils contain secondary finely divided or discrete particles of organic matter, often with distinctive smell, might oxidize rapidly. For example: slightly organic – grey / organic – dark grey / very organic – black
Very angular/Angular/Sub-angular/Sub-rounded/Rounded/Well-rounded
Particle shape A dominant shape can be described, for example: Cubic/Flat/Elongate

Tertiary Example terms include: shell fragments / pockets of peat / gypsum crystals / pyrite nodules / calcareous concretions / flint gravel / brick fragments / rootlets / plastic bags
constituents Qualitative proportions can be given: with rare / with occasional / with numerous/ frequent/ abundant. Proportions are defined on a site or material specific basis, or subjectively

Geological Name in accordance with published geological maps, memoirs or sheet explanations. For example: RIVER TERRACE DEPOSITS / GLACIAL SAND AND GRAVEL / MADE GROUND / LANGLEY SILT MEMBER / WEATHERED CHARMOUTH
unit MUDSTONE FORMATION / CLAY-WITH-FLINTS / LOWESTOFT FORMATION / EMBANKMENT FILL / ALLUVIUM / TOPSOIL / LAMINATED BEDS, WOOLWICH FORMATION / SHERWOOD SANDSTONE GROUP

1 Refer to Sheet 6 for description of field tests, Table O for field descriptions and Table P for definition of plasticity, Table M for secondary organic matter and Table N for colour

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Table B RELATIVE DENSITY OF GRANULAR SOILS

Term Symbol Classification based on uncorrected SPT N-values for use of borehole logs

Very loose Vl 0-4

Loose L 4-10
Medium dense Md 10-30
Dense D 30-50
Very dense Vd >50
1 Where relative density term has been determined from SPT N values, the density term is put at the start of the soil description

Table C RELATIVE DENSITY OF COARSE SOILS IN OBSERVATION PITS AND TRENCHES

Density term Symbol Penetration of light horizontal Penetration of

Excavation by spade or pick1 blows of geological pick geological pick by
pushing

100 mm (full depth) 75 mm–100 mm (full

Loose L Very easy to excavate with a spade
length)
Fairly easy to excavate with a spade or to 50 mm–100 mm 25 mm–75 mm
Medium dense Md
penetrate with a crowbar
Difficult to excavate with a spade or to 25 mm–50 mm 10 mm–25 mm
Dense D
penetrate with a crowbar
Very difficult to excavate with a spade or to 5 mm–25 mm 2 mm–10 mm
Very dense Vd penetrate with a crowbar. Requires a pick
for excavation
Very dense Vd Difficult to excavate with a pick <5 mm <2 mm
1 See BRE, 1993
2 If the density is assessed in this manner, the results should be included together with the test method on the field log. The application of a
relative density term should be provided as extra information after the main description, not as the first sentence of the description. For
example, the material observed in an exposure could be described as “• Grey silty SAND. Assessed as loose as fairly easy to excavate with a
spade”

Table D CONSISTENCY OF COHESIVE SOILS

Term Symbol Field Guide

Very soft Vs Finger easily pushed in up to 25 mm. Exudes between fingers.

Soft S Finger pushed in up to 10 mm. Moulded by light finger pressure.
Thumb makes impression easily. Cannot be moulded by fingers, rolls in the hand to a 3 mm thick thread without
Firm F
breaking or crumbling.

Stiff St Can be indented slightly by thumb. Crumbles in rolling a 3 mm thick thread, but can then be remoulded into a lump.

Very stiff Vst Can be indented by thumb nail. Cannot be moulded but crumbles under pressure.

1 These subdivisions can be approximate, particularly in material of low plasticity.

2 The description of materials of higher consistency than very stiff should use rock strengths and material names.
3 Soils varying around the boundary between soil (very stiff consistency) and rock (extremely weak strength) can be described as for example,
“very stiff CLAY/extremely weak MUDSTONE”. A boundary on the log at rockhead if it is a simple transition is preferable.

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Table E STRENGTH OF COHESIVE SOILS (USED IF MEASURED BY SPECIFIC MEANS, E.G. HAND VANE TESTS,
POCKET PENETROMETER)

Term based on Symbol Undrained Strength Classification, Su, in kPa (From BS EN ISO 14688-2:2004, 5.3, Table 5)
measurement

Extremely low El <10

Very low Vl 10–20
Low L 20–40

Medium M 40–75

High H 75–150

Very high Vh 150-300

Table F SCALE OF SPACING OF BEDDING AND DISCONTINUITIES

Scale of bedding Scale of spacing of

Mean thickness or spacing (mm)
thickness term discontinuities term

Very thickly Very widely >2000

Thickly Widely 600-2000
Medium Medium 200-600
Thinly Closely 60-200
Very thinly Very closely 20-60
Thickly laminated Extremely closely1 6-20
Thinly laminated <6
1 Mean spacing is <20 mm

Table G TERMS FOR VERY COARSE SOILS

Estimated boulder or cobble content of very

Fraction Main Name
coarse fraction

BOULDERS Over 50% of boulder size (>200 mm)

Over 50% of material is very coarse (>63
mm)
COBBLES Over 50% of cobble size (200 mm- 63 mm)

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Table H TERMS FOR MIXTURES OF VERY COARSE SOILS

Term Secondary constituent by weight

BOULDERS with occasional cobbles up to 5 % cobbles

BOULDERS with some cobbles 5% to 20% cobbles

BOULDERS with many cobbles 20% to 50% cobbles

COBBLES with occasional boulders up to 5 % boulders

COBBLES with some boulders 5% to 20% boulders

COBBLES many boulders 20% to 50% boulders

Table I TERMS FOR MIXTURES OF VERY COARSE SOILS WITH SECONDARY FINER MATERIAL (COARSE AND
FINE SOIL)

Term Secondary constituent by weight

BOULDERS (or COBBLES) with a little finer material Up to 5% finer material

BOULDERS (or COBBLES) with some finer material 5% to 20% finer material

BOULDERS (or COBBLES) with much finer material 20% to 50% finer material

1 Ignoring the very coarse fraction; the principal soil type name of the finer material can also be given in capital letters, e.g. COBBLES with some
sandy CLAY

Table J TERMS FOR MIXTURES OF FINER AND VERY COARSE SOILS

Term Secondary constituent by weight

FINER MATERIAL with low boulder or cobble content up to 5% very coarse particles

FINER MATERIAL with medium boulder or cobble content 5% to 20% very coarse particles

FINER MATERIAL with high boulder or cobble content 20% to 50% very coarse particles

1 The description of “finer material” is made, ignoring the very coarse fraction

Table K TERMS FOR MIXTURES OF COARSE SOILS

Approximate proportion of secondary

Term Principal soil type
constituent

Slightly sandy or slightly gravelly Up to 5%

Sandy or gravelly GRAVEL or SAND 5% to 20 %

Very sandy or gravelly Over 20%

SAND and GRAVEL About equal proportions

1 These terms should be used to describe the composition of the coarse fraction; percentages are by weight of the whole material less boulders
and cobbles, and are approximate estimates in a field description.
2 The appropriate adjectives should be used before the principal soil type. Further details should be provided at the end of the main description,
after a full stop for clarity, e.g. “Medium dense brown very gravelly coarse SAND. Gravel is subangular fine and medium of sandstone and
mudstone”.

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Table L TERMS FOR MIXTURES OF COARSE AND FINE SOILS

Approximate proportion of secondary constituent

Term Principal soil type

Coarse soil Coarse and/or fine soil

Slightly clayey/silty/sandy/gravelly <5%

SAND and/or GRAVEL
clayey/silty/sandy/gravelly - 5% - 20%1

very clayey/silty/sandy/gravelly >20%1

2
very sandy/gravelly >65%

sandy/gravelly SILT or CLAY3 35%-65% -

slightly sandy and/or slightly gravelly <35%

1 Or described as fine soil depending on engineering behaviour.

2 Or described as coarse soil depending on assessed engineering behaviour.
3 Can be silty CLAY or clayey SILT.

Table M SECONDARY ORGANIC MATTER IN IN ORGANIC SOIL

Term Colour Weight % of dry mass (based on BS EN ISO

Organic content
14688-2)

Slightly
Grey Low organic content 2-6
organic
Organic Dark grey Medium organic content 6-30
Very organic Black High organic content >30

Table N COLOUR

Lightness Chroma (secondary

Hue (primary descriptor)
descriptor)

Red
Pink
Reddish
Orange
Pinkish
Yellow
Orangish
Cream
Light Yellowish
Brown
Dark Brownish
Green
Greenish
Blue
Bluish
White
Greyish
Grey
Black
1 Hue can be preceded by lightness and/or chroma
2 This colour scheme is for soil and rock logging descriptions

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 FIELD ASSESSMENT OF FINE GRAINED SOILS

In accordance with BS 5930:2015, the boundary between silts and clays is made using simple hand tests. To begin the field assessment, a
representative sample of the material for examination should be selected and all particles larger than medium sand be removed. This soil should be
moulded into a ball about 25 mm diameter until it is soft but not sticky, like putty; water should be added or the ball allowed to dry out as necessary
in order to achieve the correct consistency. Criteria for making field assessment of fine soil including dry strength, dilatancy and toughness tests are
described below.

PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFYING FINE GRAINED SOILS

CRITERIA FOR DESCRIBING DRY STRENGTH CRITERIA FOR DESCRIBING DILATANCY CRITERIA FOR DESCRIBING TOUGHNESS

• Remould the soil into several balls with a diameter
of about 12 mm and allow them to dry naturally.
• Test the strength of the dry balls or lumps by
crushing between the fingers. Note the strength as
non, low, medium, high or very high.
• The presence of high-strength water-soluble
cementing materials, such as calcium carbonate,
might cause high dry strengths. The presence of
calcium carbonate can be detected from the
intensity of the reaction with dilute HCl
FEEL TEST
• Smooth the soil ball into a pat in the palm of one
hand with the thumb, the blade of a knife or a small
spatula.
• Shake horizontally, striking the side of the hand
vigorously against the other hand several times.
Alternatively the pat can be manipulated between
the fingers of both hands.
• Squeeze the pat between thumb and fingers.
• Record the speed with which water appears while
shaking, and disappears while squeezing as none,
slow or rapid.
TEST FOR BEHAVIOUR IN AIR AND WATER
• Shape the test pat into an elongated pat and roll by
hand on a smooth surface or between the palms into
a thread about 3 mm in diameter. If the sample is too
wet to roll easily, it should be allowed to dry. Fold the
sample threads and reroll repeatedly until the thread
crumbles at a diameter of about 3 mm when the soil
is near the plastic limit. Record the pressure required
to roll the thread. Also record the strength of the
thread. After the thread crumbles, the pieces should
be lumped together and kneaded until the lump
crumbles. Record the toughness of the material
during this kneading.
• Describe the toughness of the thread and lump as
low, medium or high.

• Smear the soil between the fingers or with a blade
and note the feel as smooth or silky and whether
the surface polishes
COHESION TEST
• Compress it into a ball or pat between the fingers
and note whether it ruptures or deforms
• Prepare a ball of soil and place it in a bucket or tub
of clean water and note the speed at which the ball
disintegrates.
• Smear moist soil over a smooth surface (e.g. glass
or plastic) or the back of the hand and note the rate
of drying and whether the soil can be brushed off

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Table O FINE SOIL CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON FIELD ASSESSMENT

Soil Description CLAY Silty CLAY Clayey SILT SILT

Dilatancy None None to slow Slow Slow to rapid

Toughness High Medium Low to medium Low or thread cannot be formed

Plasticity High Medium Low Non-plastic

Dry Strength High to very high Medium to high Low to medium None to low

Feel Smooth, sticky (when wet) Smooth Silky Silky, gritty

Behaviour in water Disintegrates slowly if at all Disintegrates slowly Disintegrates Disintegrates rapidly

Behaviour in air Dries slowly with shrinkage Dries slowly with shrinkage Dries quickly, brushes off Dries quickly, brushes off

Cohesion Deforms without rupture. Deforms without rupture. Moisture drains Slumps, moisture drains
Maintains shape and moisture Maintains shape and moisture
during handling. during handling
1 The naming of a soil as CLAY or SILT should be based on these hand tests. When the various hand tests give conflicting results, use one of the hybrid terms “silty CLAY” or “clayey SILT”.

Table P TERMS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLASTICITY OF FINE GRAINED SOILS

Description Criteria

Non plastic A 3 mm thread cannot be rolled at any water content.

Low The thread can barely be rolled and the lump cannot be formed when drier than the plastic limit
The thread is easy to roll and not much time is required to reach the plastic limit. The thread cannot be rerolled after
Medium
reaching the plastic limit. The lump crumbles when drier than the plastic limit.
It takes considerable time rolling and kneading to reach the plastic limit. The thread can be rerolled several times after
High
reaching the plastic limit. The lump can be formed without crumbling when drier than the plastic limit.

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Table Q SAMPLE TESTS (for logging sheets)

Symbol Term

SS Standard Penetration Test (blows per 150 mm and N value) HB – hammer bouncing; RW – rod weight
ST 63 mm diameter Thin Walled Tube Sample
GB Grab Sample
Tv Torvane Test
PP Pocket Penetrometer Test
Bs Bulk Sample

DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (blows per 150 mm)

Disturbed Sample Interval (laboratory test results can be provided or alternatively type of test indicated “X”)

Table R Commonly used Terminology/Symbols (for logging sheets)

Abbreviation Definition

C Cohesion (Shear Box Test)

CBR California Bearing Ratio

GS Specific Gravity
k Coefficient of Permeability

m Metres

mm Millimetres

MDD Maximum Dry Density

NMC Natural Moisture Content

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

PSA Particle Size Analysis

RC Rock Core

RQD Rock Quality Designation

SPT Standard Penetration Test

Ø Angle of Shear Resistance (Shear Box or Triaxial Test)

----------- Denotes gradational or approximate boundaries

Denotes certain boundaries

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 EXPLANATORY NOTES FOR ROCK DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION

Geotechnical logging is carried out in general accordance with the British Standard (BS 5930:2015). The rock should be described in terms of engineering
significance; these include strength, weathering effects and the discontinuities. The discontinuities are the most significant of these (unless the discontinuity
spacing is wide with respect to the engineering structure) and so particular attention should be paid to their description.
The geological aspects of a rock should be described using terms from geological science. Geological classification of rock materials should be made to
appreciate the geological origin and structure of an area, to establish geological correlation between boreholes, and to distinguish boulders from bedrock.
The terminology used by Advisian to describe the condition of rocks and associated materials for logging purposes is summarized below.
Table S TERMS FOR DESCRIPTION OF ROCK STRENGTH

Term for use in field or Definition for field use Definition on basis of Unconfined
based on measurement Strength measurements (MPa)

Extremely weak Can be indented by thumbnail. 0.6 – 1.0

Crumbles under firm blows with point of geological hammer. Can be peeled
Very weak 1–5
by a pocket knife.
Can be peeled by a pocket knife with difficulty. Shallow indentations made by
Weak 5 – 25
firm blow with the point of geological hammer.
Cannot be scraped with pocket knife. Can be fractured with a single firm blow
Medium strong 25 - 50
of geological hammer.
Strong Requires more than one blow of geological hammer to fracture. 50 – 100
Very strong Requires many blows of geological hammer to fracture. 100 – 250
Extremely
Can only be chipped with geological hammer. >250
strong
1 Some extremely weak rocks will behave as soils and should be described as soils

2 The strength of a rock material determined in the uniaxial compression is dependent on the water content of the specimen, anisotropy and the test
procedure adopted, all of which should be reported. Simple index tests should be used in the field to provide additional data and as a check on the
manually assessed strengths.

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCK FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES

A full factual description should be given of the degree, extent and nature of weathering effects at material or mass scales. This may enable subsequent
classification and provide information for separating rock into zones of like character. Typical indications of weathering include:

• Changes in colour
• Changes in fracture state
• A reduction in strength
• Presence, character and extent of weathering products

These features should be described using standard terminology, quantified as appropriate, together with non-standard English descriptions as necessary to
describe the results of weathering. At the mass scale, the distribution and relative proportions of fresh rock and discoloured, decomposed or disintegrated
rock, and the effects of weathering on discontinuities should be recorded. The weathering should be described as per the six distinct grades provided in
Table R (BSI BS EN ISO 14689-1)
Table T WEATHERING CLASSIFICATION GRADES

Grades Classifier Typical characteristics

0 Fresh No visible sign of rock material weathering; perhaps slight discoloration on major discontinuity
surfaces.
1 Slightly weathered Discoloration indicates weathering of rock material and discontinuity surfaces.

Less than half of the rock material is decomposed or disintegrated. Fresh or discoloured rock is
2 Moderately weathered
present either as a continuous framework or as core stones.
More than half of the rock material is decomposed or disintegrated. Fresh or discoloured rock is
3 Highly weathered
present either as a discontinuous framework or as core stones.
All rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil. The original mass structure is still
4 Completely weathered
largely intact.
All rock material is converted to soil. The mass structure and material fabric are destroyed. There is a
5 Residual soil
large change in volume, but the soil has not been significantly transported.
1 Special cases may include rocks whose weathering state does not follow the other patterns indicated here, such as karst in carbonates and the
particular effects of arid climates and other rock types may be better described in terms of cementation Table S

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Table U CEMENTATION CLASSIFICATION

Term Symbol Definition

Uncemented Uc Clean grains exhibiting soil properties

Very weakly cemented Vwk Cement on some grains, collapsing feel under very light finger pressure
Weakly cemented Wk Cement on many grains, collapsing feel under finger pressure, breaks down to individual grains
Moderately weakly Cement on most grains, breaks down to lumps under finger pressure, can crush to individual grains under
Mwk
cemented knife blade
Moderately cemented Mo Cement on most grains, can break fragments off by hand and crush to small lumps under knife blade
Well cemented We Practically all grains cemented together, cannot break fragments off by hand, dull sound under hammer
Most primary pores filled with cement, requires firm blow with hammer to break off fragments, rings when
Very well cemented Vwe
struck
1 The above field classification system uses terms commonly adopted by Advisian on major geotechnical engineering projects

Table V TERMS FOR DESCRIPTION OF THICKNESS AND SPACING OF STRUCTURE

Thickness term Spacing term Thickness or spacing

Very thickly Extremely wide >6 m

Very thickly Very wide 2m–6m
Thickly Wide 600 mm – 2 m
Medium Medium 200 mm – 600 mm
Thinly Close 60 mm – 200 mm
Very thinly Very close 20 mm – 60 mm
Thickly laminated (Sedimentary)

Extremely close 6 mm – 20 mm
Narrowly (Metamorphic and Igneous)

Thinly laminated (Sedimentary)

Extremely close <6 mm

Very narrowly (Metamorphic and Igneous)

1 A spacing of less than 20 mm or a bed thinner than 6 mm is still large in some deposits. Where finer features are observed, their spacing or
thickness can also be given in mm, or additional terms used. For example, a parting is a bed which is only one or two grains thick.

2 For sedimentary rocks, structures such as bedding may be described as “thick beds” or “thickly bedded”, for example “thickly bedded
SANDSTONE”. For igneous and metamorphic rocks, the appropriate descriptive term for the structure should be used, for example, “narrowly
foliated GNEISS”, “very thinly flow-banded DIORITE”.

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Table W AID TO IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES

Grain size Bedded rocks (mostly sedimentary) Igneous rocks: generally massive structure and crystalline Metamorphic rocks
texture

mm Grain size CONGLOMERATE At least 50% of grains At least 50% of SALINE Foliated Massive
description are of carbonate ROCKS Grain size
grains are of Pyroxenite
Rounded boulders, cobbles description
volcanic rock GRANITE1 DIORITE1,2 GABBRO1,2 GNEISS
and gravel cemented in a
finer matrix Peridotite
Well-developed but
20 – 6.3 Breccia Calcirudite Fragments of often widely spaced
volcanic ejecta in a foliation sometimes
Angular rock fragments in a finer matrix. with schistose bands
6.3 - 2 Rounded grains
RUDACEOUS finer matrix COARSE
AGGLOMERATE These rocks are sometimes porphyritic and Migmatite
Angular grains are then described, for example, as
VOLCANIC porphyritic granite Irregularly foliated:
BRECCIA mixed schists and
gneisses

LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE (undifferentiated)

2 – 0.63 Coarse SANDSTONE Angular or
Grain size boundaries approximate

MICRO - MICRO - SCHIST MARBLE

rounded grains commonly DOLERITE3,4
GRANITE1 DIORITE1,2
cemented by clay, calcitic or
Well-developed QUARTZITE
iron minerals

Increasing grain size -->

MEDIUM undulose foliation:
0.63 - 2 Medium Quartzite generally much mica GRANULITE
These rocks are sometimes porphyritic and
ARENACEOUS

HALITE are then described as porphyries

Quartz grains and siliceous Cemented PHYLLITE HORNFELS
ANHYDRITE
cement Calcarenite volcanic ash
GYPSUM Slightly undulose AMPHIBOLITE
TUFF
4,5 4,5
0.2 – 0.063 Fine Arkose RHYOLITE ANDESITE BASALT5 foliation; sometimes
spotted SERPENTINE
Many feldspar grains
FINE SLATE
Greywacke These rocks are sometimes porphyritic and
are then described as porphyries Well-developed
Many rock chips
plane cleavage
Fine grained (foliation)
0.063 –
Calcareous Mudstone

Calcisiltite TUFF
0.002 SILTSTONE MYLONITE

cryptocrsyalline
Amorphous or
Mostly silt
CHALK

OBSIDIAN VOLCANIC GLASS Found in fault zones,

ARGILLACEOUS
<0.002 mainly in igneous
MUDSTONE Very fine grained
Calcilutite and metamorphic
TUFF
areas

Flint: occurs as bands of nodules in the Chalk COLOUR

Amorphous or COAL
Chert: occurs as nodules and beds in limestone and CRYSTALLINE
cryptocrystalline LIGNITE Pale Dark
calcareous sandstone
Granular cemented – except amorphous rocks CARBON -
ACID
INTERMEDIATE BASIC ULTRA
SILICEOUS ACEOUS
Much
Some quartz Little or no quartz BASIC
SILICEOUS MAINLY SILICEOUS
SILICEOUS CALCAREOUS quartz

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Composed of closely interlocking mineral grains. Strong when fresh; not porous
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Mode of occurrence: 1. Batholiths, 2. Laccoliths, 3. Sills, 4. Dykes, 5. Lava flows, 6. Veins.
Granular cemented rocks vary greatly in strength; some sandstones are stronger than many igneous rocks. Bedding might not show in
hand specimens and is best seen in outcrop. Only sedimentary rocks, and some metamorphic rocks derived from them, contain fossils. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Calcareous rocks contain calcite (calcium carbonate) which effervesces with dilute hydrochloric acid Generally classified according to fabric and mineralogy rather than grain size. Most metamorphic rocks are distinguished by
foliation which might impart fissility. Foliation in gneisses is best observed in outcrop. Non-foliated metamorphics are difficult to
recognize except by association.
Advisian 3
Most fresh metamorphic rocks are strong although perhaps fissile.
Discontinuities are breaks, fractures or planes of weakness in the rock mass; the discontinuities present in the ground (natural) are the most important,
but discontinuities can also be induced by the creation of the exposure. The various types are detailed In Table V
Table X DIFFERENT TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY

Type of discontinuity Definition

Joint A discontinuity in the body of rock along which there has been no visible displacement. Joints are
synonymous with fissures in soils.
Fault A fracture or fracture zone along which there has been recognizable displacement.

Bedding fracture A fracture along the bedding (bedding is a surface parallel to the plane of deposition).

Cleavage fracture A fracture along a cleavage (cleavage is a set of parallel planes of weakness often associated with mineral realignment).

Induced fracture Cement on most grains, can break fragments off by hand and crush to small lumps under knife blade

Incipient fracture Practically all grains cemented together, cannot break fragments off by hand, dull sound under hammer
1 The recording of induced and incipient discontinuities is important as they can indicate weakness within the mass, but they should not be
included within the assessment of fracture state, see Table W. If incipient or induced fractures are included in the fracture state, this should be
clearly stated on the borehole log.

KEY TO DEFECT DESCRIPTIVE TERMS USED ON BOREHOLE LOGS

These are to be used separate to the rock description i.e. the defect description section of borehole logs. Table W highlights indices for rock
discontinuity description.

Type:
J – Joint
F – Fault
Fb – Bedding fracture
Fc – Cleavage fracture
M – Induced fracture
Fi – Incipient fracture

Orientation:
The convention of three-digit dip direction/two-digit dip should be used, e.g. 015°/26°. In cores, only dip related to the normal to the core axis should
normally be determined unless core orientation or downhole measurement methods have been used.

Roughness:

Intermediate scale (cm)

Un – Undulating, wavy surface
St – Stepped, well defined steps present
Pl – Planar, no variation in orientation

Small scale (mm)

S – Smooth, surface appears and feels smooth
R – Rough, some ridges and angle steps are evident, asperities are clearly visible and surface feels abrasive
Str – striated, should only be used where there is clear evidence of shear displacement

Type of Infilling: Amount of Infilling:

Cl – Clay Cn – Clean, no visible coating or infilling
Ca – Calcite Su – Surface stain, no visible coating or infilling but surfaces are discoloured
Ch – Chlorite Vn – Veneer, a visible coating or infilling too thin to measure, may be patchy
Fe – Iron Oxide Co – Coating, visible coating or infilling up to 1 mm thick
Gy – Gypsum Fi – Filled, coating or infilling greater than 1 mm thick with amount in millimeters.
H – Healed Thick soil infilling to be described as seams if boundaries roughly parallel, or crushed
Mn –Manganese oxide seams if composed of rock fragments e.g. brecciated
Gr – Gravel
Py – Pyrite
Sul – sulphide
Qz – Quartz
Sd – Sand
CA – Calcrete
Si – Silt
Uk - Unknown

Notes: Cores with defect spacing in the range very close to extremely close can be collectively denoted as “highly fractured” where considered
appropriate.
:

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Table Y TERMINOLOGY AND CHECKLIST FOR ROCK DISCONTINUITY DESCRIPTION

Orientation
Discontinuity Spacing Persistence Type of Termination Roughness Wall strength Aperture Filling Seepage No. of sets

Intermediate scale (cm)

and small scale (mm)

Discontinuous Schmidt hammer

Stepped Can be described or
summarized in cores
Dip amount Cannot normally be Cannot normally be Cannot be described in
where sets of
only in cores described in cores Rough described in cores cores
different dip are
present
Smooth
Continuous in cores Point load test
Striated

Extremely wide >6 m Termination Clean

Very wide 2 m – 6 m Undulating Extremely wide >1 m Surface staining (colour)

Wide 600 mm – 2 m Very high > 20 m Rough Very wide 0.1 m – 1.0 m Moisture on rock surface

Medium 200 – 600 mm Smooth

Wide 0.01 m – 0.1 m
High 10 m – 20 m Dripping water
Soil infilling (as per soil
X (outside of exposure) Striated Other index tests
description)
Take number
of readings Planar Moderately wide
of dip
Close 60 – 200 mm Medium 3 m – 10 m 2.5 mm – 10 mm
direction/ Water flow measured per
Rough
dip ,e.g. time unit on an individual
015/18° Mineral coatings (e.g. calcite, discontinuity or set of
R (within rock) discontinuities
Smooth chlorite, gypsum , etc.)
Very close 20 – 60 mm Low 1 m – 3 m Open 0.5 mm – 2.5 mm
Striated

Partly open Record orientation

Large scale (m) Small flow 0.05 l/s – 0.5 l/s and spacing of
Extremely close
0.25 mm – 0.5 mm individual sets and
Very low 1 m – 3 m Other (specify)
< 20 mm all
D (against discontinuity) details for each set
Report as Waviness
ranges and Tight 0.1 mm – 0.25 mm Medium flow 0.5 l/s – 5 l/s
on stereonet Curvature
if appropriate
Record width and continuity of
Straightness
Record also size of Visual infill
Very tight < 0.1 mm Large flow >5 l/s
discontinuity Measure amplitude and assessment
wavelength of feature

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DISCONTINUITY STATE
Various criteria can be used for quantitative description of the fracture state of rock cores; these are the total core recovery (TCR), solid core recovery
(SCR), fracture index and rock quality designation (RQD). The definitions of these terms are given in BS EN ISO 22475-1. The fundamental definition is
that solid core has a full diameter, uninterrupted by natural discontinuities, but not necessarily a full circumference and is commonly measured along
the core axis or other scan line (see DIN 4022-1 and Laubscher, 1990 [67]). By this definition, core is solid unless intersected by more than
one joint set with different strike directions. The measurement of the discontinuity state should be made using the indices defined in Table W. The
measurement of discontinuity state of rotary cores and in-situ exposures should follow the general procedures in this clause; RQD and fracture index
can be determined from scanlines where appropriate.

Table Z TERMS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITY STATE (see Figure 1)

Standard indices definition (BS 5930:2015)

TCR (%) Length of core recovered (solid and non-intact) expressed as a ratio of the length of core run.
Length of solid core recovered expressed as a ratio of the length of core run. Solid core has a full diameter,
SCR (%) uninterrupted by natural discontinuities, but not necessarily a full circumference and is commonly measured along the
core axis or other scan line.
RQD (%) Length of solid core each pieces longer than 100 mm expressed as a ratio of the length of core run.
Count of the number or spacing of fractures over an arbitrary length of core of similar intensity of fracturing recorded
Fracture
as minimum/mode/maximum. Commonly reported as Fracture Spacing (If, mm) or as Fracture Index (FI, number of
index
fractures per metre). Where core is non-intact in the ground, the abbreviation NI may be used.
1 As the total core recovery (TCR) records the proportion of core recovered and is read with the description, solid core recovery (SCR) and rock
quality designation (RQD). The TCR of itself gives little information on the character of the core or the rock from which it was recovered. This
measurement is required to ensure that all depth related records such as boundaries, markers and samples are correct.

Figure 1 Application of fracture state terms for rock cores

Key

1. Drilling induced fractures

2. At least one full diameter
3. No single full diameter
4. At least one full diameter

5. Non-intact

6. No recovery
Note: All features shown are natural discontinuities unless stated otherwise

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Additional Comments Regarding Rock Logging (from BS 5930:2015)

The overall description should match the style and coverage as appropriate of the examples of rock descriptions given below:

Example rock descriptions

An example of a description of a rock mass seen in a section of drill core might be “Very strong thinly flow banded dark greyish
green fine-grained quartz DOLERITE. Joints dipping 5 degrees very widely spaced with red penetrative staining to 10 mm and locally
weathered to moderately strong to 5 mm penetration”. The borehole log also includes the indices giving the fracture state.

An example of the description of a rock mass seen in a trial pit might be “Very stiff fissured thickly laminated to very thinly bedded
brown mottled grey CLAY varying to very weak grey mottled brown MUDSTONE. Occasional gypsum crystals up to 5 mm, and rare
pyritized wood fragments. Fissures very closely spaced (20 mm to 40 mm) with brown oxidation penetrating up to 3 mm. (Class B
London Clay Formation)”.

An example of the description of a rock mass seen in a quarry face might be “Medium strong very thinly bedded reddish brown fine
and medium grained SANDSTONE. Rare moderately weak light green siltstone elliptical inclusions up to 20 mm by 5 mm.
(Weathered Sherwood Sandstone Group). Small blocky jointing. Joint set 1 – 045/75, medium spaced, medium persistence,
terminations outside exposure, curved planar rough, weak friable up to 5 mm penetration moderately wide open, clean. Joint set 2 –
110–130/80–90, closely spaced, low persistence, terminations outside exposure and against discontinuity, planar smooth weak
friable up to 3 mm penetration, tight, clean. Bedding fracture set 3 – 180–190/0–10, medium spaced, high persistence, no
termination seen, straight stepped smooth, slightly polished, moderately open up to 1 mm infilled with firm grey clay. Joints
generally dry, local small flows”. If this is from a cored borehole, the log should also include the indices giving the fracture state;
comparable information can also be obtained from scanlines on an exposure.

Such a description could refer to the rock mass in a specified location in a quarry. An account of the whole quarry would require
many such descriptions perhaps displayed on engineering geological maps, plans and sections. Data on the orientation of
discontinuities can be displayed and analysed using stereonets (see Norbury, Child and Spink, 1986 [72]) or rosette diagrams.

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