An operation amplifier (Op Amp) is basically a multistage, high gain (A v>105) direct coupled

amplifier with two differential inputs and a single ended output and which uses feedback to
control its overall response characteristics.

Many analog circuits, both linear and nonlinear, are constructed using IC Op Amp as the
basic building block. This IC Op Amp, along with a few external discrete components may
be used for the following linear analog systems:

1. analogs computers
2. voltage-to-current converters
3. current-to-voltage converters
4. amplifier for various specific rises such as dc instrumentation, tuned amplifier, video
amplifier etc.
Op Amps may also be used in the nonlinear analog systems such as

1. amplitude modulators
2. logarithmic amplifiers
3. anti-logarithmic amplifier
4. analog multipliers
5. sample-and-hold circuits
6. comparators
7. square wave generators
8. triangular wave generators etc.

Brief History
● In 1947, the first operational amplifier developed from vaccum tubes by John
R. Ragazzini of Columbia University.
● With the development of silicon-based transistor, the concept of ICs became
a reality. In the early 1960s, Robert J. Wildar of Fairchild Semiconductor
fabricated opamp, the μA702.
● In 1968, the μA741 was released, leading it to wide production.

Modern day op-amps are available in:

 1. The metal can package (TO) with 8 pins
2. The dual-in line package (DIP) with 8/14 pins
3. The flat package of flat pack with 10/14 pins

Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier

The block diagram of operational amplifier is shown in figure 1.

Input Stage:

1. Increases the CMRR.

2. High gain requirement is adjusted.
3. Most of the gain is adjusted.
4. Provides the input impedance very high.
Intermediate Stage:

1. Driven by output of 1st

2. Adjust the half gain of 1st
3. Error voltage is cancelled in this stage.
Level Shifting:

1. Suppress the dc level downward to zero volt with respect to ground

2. Consisting of current amplifiers as emitter followers.
3. Also minimizes the error by suppressing dc level to ground.
Output Stage:

1. This stage increases the output voltage swing and the current in supplying capability of
the amplifiers.
2. Provides low output impedance.

OP-AMP Symbol | Symbol of Operational Amplifier

Standard triangular symbol for an OP-AMP is shown in Figure 2(a) though the one shown in
figure 2(b) is also used often. In figure 2(b), the common ground line has been omitted. It
also does not show other necessary connection such as for dc power and feedback etc.

The OP-AMP’s input can be single-ended or double-ended (or differential input) depending
on whether input voltage is applied to one input terminal only or to both. Similarly,
amplifier’s output can also be either single-ended or double-ended. The most common
configuration is two input terminal and a single output.

Polarity Convention of Op-amp:

In figure 2(b), the input terminals have been marked with minus (-) and plus (+) signs. These
are meant to indicate the inverting and non-inverting terminals only (figure 3). It simply
means that a signal applied at negative input terminal will appear amplified but phase-
inverted at the output terminal as shown in figure 3(b). Similarly, signal applied at the
positive input terminal will appear amplified and in phase at the output. Obviously, these
plus and minus polarities indicate phase reversal only.
 Characteristics of Ideal Operational Amplifiers
An ideal op-amp would exhibit the following electrical characteristics:

1. Open loop Voltage Gain A0 is infinity.

2. Infinity input resistance Ri so that almost any signal source can be drive it and there is
no loading of the preceding stage.
3. Zero output resistance R0 so that the output can be drive an infinity number of other
devices.
4. Perfect Balance, i.e. the differential voltage in inverting and non-inverting terminals be
zero.
5. Zero output voltage when input is zero.

6. Infinity bandwidth so that any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz can

be amplified without attenuation.

7. Infinity common-mode rejection ratio so that the output common-mode noise voltage is
zero.
8. Infinity slew rate so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input
voltage changes.
9. Zero drift of characteristics with temperature.

Characteristic of Practical Op-amp

There are practical op-amps that can be made to approximate some of these
characteristics using a negative feedback arrangement. In practical, the input resistance,
output resistance, and bandwidth can be brought close to ideal values by this method.
 The practical op-amp has the following characteristics:

1. The open loop voltage gain A0 is maximum and finite, typical value for practical op-amp
is considered to be 200,000.
2. The input impedance Zi is maximum and is finite i.e. in the order of 100k or more.
3. The output impedance Z0 is minimum not zero, in the order of 100 or less.
4. The CMRR is maximum and finite.
5. Bandwidth is maximum and finite i.e. it can amplify dc to 1 MHz signal.
6. Slight drift of characteristics due to the change in temperature not null.
7. Two terminal may be virtually ground not Vd = 0 exactly, for all conditions.
8. Maximum slow-rate and has the finite value.
9. Output is negligible due to dc-bias, when the input is zero.

Construction
The inner schematic of a typical operational amplifier looks likes this:

Operational
Amplifier (Op-amp Circuit)
The terminal with a (-) sign is called inverting input terminal and the terminal
with (+) sign is called non-inverting input terminal.

The V+ and V− power supply terminals are connected to the positive and negative
terminals of a DC voltage source respectively. The common terminal of the V+ and V− is
connected to a reference point or ground, else twice the supply voltage may damage the
op-amp.

Types of Op-Amps
An op-amp has countless applications and forms the basic building block of
linear and non-linear analogue systems. Some of the types of op-amp
include:

● A differential amplifier, which is a circuit that amplifies the difference

between two signals.
● The instrumentation amplifier, which is usually built from three op-amps and
helps amplify the output of a transducer (consisting of measured physical
quantities).
● The isolation amplifier, which is like an instrumentation amplifier, but having
tolerance to common-mode voltages (that destroy an ordinary op-amp).
● A negative-feedback amplifier, which is usually built from one or more op-
amps and a resistive feedback network.
● Power amplifiers to amplify small signals received from an input source such
as microphone or antenna.

Op-Amp Operation
Ideally, an op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two,
also called differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp V out is
given by the equation:

Vout = AOL (V+ – V–)

where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier.

In a linear operational amplifier, the output signal is the amplification factor,

known as the amplifier’s gain (A) multiplied by the value of the input signal.
 Op-Amp Parameters
● Open-loop gain is the gain without positive or negative feedback. Ideally, the gain
should be infinite, but typical real values range from about 20,000 to 200,000 ohms.
● Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current. It is assumed to be
infinite to prevent any current flowing from the source to the amplifiers.
● The output impedance of an ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be zero. This
impedance is in series with the load, thereby increasing the output available for the
load.
● The bandwidth of an ideal operational amplifier is infinite and can amplify any
frequency signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies. However, typical bandwidth is
limited by the Gain-Bandwidth product, which is equal to the frequency where the
amplifier’s gain becomes unity.
● The ideal output of an amplifier is zero when the voltage difference between the
inverting and the non-inverting inputs is zero. Real world amplifiers do exhibit a small
output offset voltage.

Some other important electrical parameters to consider are:

● Input offset voltage: It is the voltage that must be applied between the input
terminals of an op-amp to nullify the output.
● Input offset current: It is the algebraic difference between the currents into
the (-) input and (+) input.
● Input bias current: It is the average of the currents entering into the (-) input
and (+) input terminals of an op-amp.
● Input resistance: It is the differential input resistance as seen at either of the
input terminals with the other terminal connected to ground.
● Input capacitance: It is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at
either of the input terminal with the other terminal connected to ground.
● Slew rate: It is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage
caused by a step input voltage. The slew rate improves with higher closed
loop gain and DC supply voltage. It is also a function to temperature and
generally decreases with an increase in temperature.

An op-amp only responds to the difference between the two voltages

irrespective of the individual values at the inputs. External resistors or
capacitors are often connected to the op-amp in many ways to form basic
circuits including Inverting, Non-Inverting, Voltage Follower, Summing,
Differential, Integrator and Differentiator type amplifiers. An op-amp is easily
available in IC packaging, the most common being the μA-741.

https://youtu.be/bc8YrxqhtJo
Inverting op-amp gain
The circuit for the inverting op-amp circuit is shown below. This circuit has the output 180° out
of phase with the input and also provides a virtual earth input.

The op amp circuit is quite straightforward using few electronic components: a single feedback
resistor from the output to the inverting input, and a resistor from the inverting input to the
input of the circuit. The non-inverting input is taken a ground point. This op amp circuit uses
only two additional electronic components and this makes it very simple and easy to
implement.
Basic inverting operational amplifier circuit
It is easy to derive the op-amp gain equation. The input to the op-amp itself draws no current
as far as our calculations are concerned as the impedance of each input both e amplifier will be
well above 100kΩ and possibly well over 1MΩ. This means that any current flowing into the
chip can be ignored.

From this we can see that the current flowing in the resistors R1 and R2 is the same, because
no current is flowing out of the junction between the two resistors.

Using ohms law Vout /R2 = -Vin/R1. Hence the voltage gain of the circuit Av can be taken as:
Av=−R2/R1Av=-R2/R1
As an example, an amplifier requiring a gain of ten could be built by making R 2 47 k ohms and
R1 4.7 k ohms.

Non-Inverting op-amp gain

The circuit for the non-inverting op-amp is shown below. It offers a higher input impedance
than the inverting op amp circuit. Like the inverting op amp circuit, it only requires the addition
of two electronic components: two resistors to provide the required feedback.

The non-inverting amplifier also has the characteristic that the input and output are in the same
phase as a result of the signal being applied to the non-inverting input of the op amp.
Basic non-inverting operational amplifier circuit

The gain of the non-inverting circuit for the operational amplifier is also easy to determine
during the electronic circuit design process. The calculation hinges around the fact that the
voltage at both inputs is the same.

This arises from the fact that the gain of the amplifier is exceedingly high. If the output of the
circuit remains within the supply rails of the amplifier, then the output voltage divided by the
gain means that there is virtually no difference between the two inputs.

We can assume that for the purpose of our calculation, the input to the operational amplifier
draws no current as the impedance of the chip inputs will be well above the resistor values
used.

This means that the current flowing in the resistors R 1 and R2 is the same. The voltage at the
inverting input is formed from a potential divider consisting of R 1 and R2, and as the voltage at
both inputs is the same, the voltage at the inverting input must be the same as that at the non-
inverting input.
This means that Vin = Vout x R1 / (R1 + R2). Hence the op amp gain equation for the voltage gain
of the circuit Av can be taken as:
Av=1+R2R1Av=1+R2R1
As an example, an amplifier requiring a gain of eleven could be built by making R 2 47 k ohms
and R1 4.7 k ohms.
Op-amp gain is very easy to determine. The calculations for the different circuits is slightly
different, but essentially both circuits are able to offer similar levels of gain, although the
resistor values will not be the same for the same levels of op amp gain.

Op amp slew rate basics

The slew rate of an op amp or any amplifier circuit is the rate of change in the output voltage
caused by a step change on the input.

It is measured as a voltage change in a given time - typically V / µs or V / ms.

Effect of op amp slew rate

A typical general purpose device may have a slew rate of 10 V / microsecond. This means that
when a large step change is placed on the input, the electronic device would be able to provide
an output 10 volt change in one microsecond.

The figures for slew rate change are dependent upon the type of operational amplifier being
used. Low power op-amps may only have figures of a volt per microsecond, whereas there are
fast operational amplifiers capable to providing rates of 1000 V / µsecond.

Slew rate calculation & formula

It is relatively easy to calculate the slew rate of an amplifier that is required for a given
application or electronic circuit design from a knowledge of the maximum voltage and
frequency required.

To give distortion free operation, the slew rate of the amplifier, the simple formula below can
be used.
 Slew rate = 2 π f VSlew rate = 2 π f V
Where
    slew rate is measured in volts / second, although actual measurements are often given in
v/µs
    f = the highest signal frequency, Hz
    V = the maximum peak voltage of the signal.
As an example, take the scenario where an op amp is required to amplify a signal with a peak
amplitude of 5 volts at a frequency of 25kHz. An op amp with a slew rate of at least 2 π x 25 000
x 5 = 0.785V/µs would be required.

Differential and Summing Amplifiers

Differentiator and Integrator Operational Amplifier Circuits

Op amp summing amplifier
The op amp summing amplifier or virtual earth mixer uses the non-inverting amplifier
configuration.

The key change to the inverting amplifier is that several series resistors are added to the virtual
earth or virtual ground point formed at the inverting input.

The output from any given input can be calculated from the formula below:

Where:
    Av=voltagegain
    R2 is the feedback resistor value
    R1x is the value of the resistor for input x

Op amp differentiator basics

A differentiator circuit is one in which the voltage output is directly proportional to the rate of
change of the input voltage with respect to time.
This means that a fast change to the input voltage signal, the greater the output voltage change
in response.

As a differentiator circuit has an output that is proportional to the input change, some of the
standard waveforms such as sine waves, square waves and triangular waves give very different
waveforms at the output of the differentiator circuit.

Op amp differentiator circuit

It can be seen that the op amp circuit for an integrator is very similar to that of the
differentiator. The difference is that the positions of the capacitor and inductor are changed.

In its basic form the centre of the circuit is based around the operational amplifier itself. In
addition to this a couple of other electronics components are required: a capacitor is connected
from the input of the whole circuit to the inverting input of the operational amplifier. A
feedback resistor is then used to provide the negative feedback around the op amp chip - this is
connected from the output of the operational amplifier to its inverting input. The non-inverting
input is connected to ground.
Electronic circuit design equations
In order to develop the electronic component values for the differentiator circuit, it is necessary
to determine the performance that is required.

The voltage output for the operational amplifier differentiator can be determined from the
relationship below:

Vout =−R C (dVin/dt)
Where:
    Vout = output voltage from op amp differentiator
    Vin = input voltage
    t = time in seconds
    R = resistor value in the differentiator in Ω
    C = capacitance of differentiator capacitor in Farads
    dVin/dt = rate of change of voltage with time.

As mentioned, differentiators have issues with noise and sometimes instabilities at high
frequencies as a result of the gain and also the internal phase shifts within the operational
amplifier.

These issues can be overcome by adding some HF roll off. Only two additional electronic
components are required to achieve this.
The choice of the electronic components: the capacitor C2 and resistor R2 depends very much
upon the conditions - the level of noise and the differentiator bandwidth needed. The larger
values of the electronic components provide increased stability and noise reduction at the cost
of bandwidth.

The value of R2 can be calculated from the equation:

Although not always included, the capacitor C2 can be added for further noise reduction. A
suitable starting value for this can be estimated from the equation below.

With the additional electronic components,, C2 and R2, the circuit starts to become an
integrator at high frequencies (f » 1 / 2 π R1 C1 ). This occurs as a result of the feedback flatness
and the overall compensation within the operational amplifier itself.

Electronic integrator basics

In most op amp circuits, the feedback that is used is mainly resistive in nature with a direct
resistive path forming at least part of the network. However for the integrator this is not the
case - the component providing the feedback between the output and input of the op amp is a
capacitor.

As the name of the op amp integrator implies, it performs a function that is an electronic
equivalent to the mathematical integration function. In fact electronic integrator circuits can be
used in analogue computers.

In terms of their operation, the circuit produces an output that is proportional to the integral of
its input voltage with respect to time.

This means that the output voltage at any time is determined by the start output voltage, the
length of time the input voltage has been present and the value of the input voltage.

The basic idea behind an integrator circuit is shown below. Although there are a few changes
for the op amp integrator circuit, this concept is what is behind its operation.

From the diagram, it can be seen that while the input remains at zero, so does the output.
However when a step input voltage is applied to the input, the output rises. When the step
input returns to zero, the output remains at the voltage it last attained.

Operational amplifier integrator circuit

The basic operational amplifier integrator circuit consists of an op amp with a capacitor
between the output and the inverting input, and a resistor from the inverting input to the
overall circuit input as shown.
One of the first points to note is that as the signal is applied to the inverting input, the output of
the circuit is the inverse of a basic CR integrator network.

Op amp integrator design calculations

The primary calculation required for the circuit is to determine the output voltage for a given
input voltage for a given time.
Where:
    Vout = output voltage from op amp integrator
    Vin = input voltage
    T = time after start of application of voltage in seconds
    R = resistor value in integrator in Ω
    C = capacitance of integrator capacitor in Farads
    c = constant of integration and in this case is the output starting voltage.

The negative sign in the equation reflects the inversion resulting from the use of the inverting
input of the op amp.