Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313

www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Multiaxial fatigue and failure analysis of helical

compression springs
L. Del Llano-Vizcaya a, C. Rubio-González a,*, G. Mesmacque b,
T. Cervantes-Hernández a
a
Centro de Ingenierı́a y Desarrollo Industrial, Pie de la cuesta No. 702, Desarrollo San Pablo, Querétaro, Qro. 76130, Mexico
b
Laboratoire de Méchanique de Lille, Université de Lille 1, Villeneuve d’Ascq 59650, France

Received 28 September 2005; accepted 24 October 2005

Available online 10 February 2006

Abstract

Multiaxial fatigue criteria are applied to the analysis of helical compression springs. The critical plane approaches,
Fatemi–Socie and Wang–Brown, and the Coffin–Manson method based on shear deformation, were used to predict fatigue
lives of the springs under constant amplitude loading. Experimental fatigue lives are compared with the multiaxial fatigue
criteria predictions. The stress analysis was carried out in the finite element code ANSYS, and the multiaxial fatigue study
was performed using the fatigue software nCode. A failure analysis was conducted in order to determine the fatigue crack
initiation point and a comparison of that location with the most damaged zone predicted by the numerical analysis is
made. The Fatemi–Socie critical plane approach gives a good prediction of fatigue life. While the Wang–Brown criterion
overestimates spring fatigue life, the Coffin–Mason model gives conservative results.
Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Spring fatigue failure; Failure analysis; Fatigue design

1. Introduction

Uniaxial fatigue under complex loading history has been studied, and a number of cycle-counting algo-
rithms are available. Fatigue analysis under multiaxial, variable amplitude, non-proportional loading has
been receiving significant attention only recently [1]. Experimental evaluation of multiaxial criteria under
irregular loading has been performed in [2,3] and an application to analyze standing contact fatigue has been
presented in [4]. The effect of the stress amplitude on the cause of fatigue crack initiation in spring steel has
been analyzed in [5], but using hour-glass-shaped specimens. A correlation of microstructure and fatigue
properties of two high-strength spring steels has been obtained in [6] these steels are used for automotive
diaphragm springs.

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 442 211 9800x264; fax: +52 442 211 9834/9839.
E-mail address: crubio@cidesi.mx (C. Rubio-González).

1350-6307/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2005.10.011
1304 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313

It is usual to predict fatigue life of mechanical springs based on fatigue endurance to torsion [7,8]. However,
as noted in [9], during fatigue testing of compression springs with large index (coil radius to wire radius ratio),
the dominant fatigue cracks are initiated and propagated by oscillation of the principal tensile stress, rather
than by the maximum shear stress. Furthermore, the likely fatigue crack origin is located on the outer surface
of the helix where the maximum amplitude of the principal tensile stress occurs. Another factor affecting fati-
gue life is the residual stress state, mainly in springs manufactured by cold coiling [10–12]. In [11] an experi-
mental investigation was conducted to assess the stress relief influence on helical spring fatigue properties. It
has been shown experimentally that the spring fatigue limit depends on the residual stress field. The smaller the
residual stress, the greater the fatigue endurance, however that value reaches a limit when approximately the
74% of the initial residual stress has been released. Failure analysis of helical compression springs due to cor-
rosion fatigue is made in [13].
In this work, the applicability of multiaxial fatigue criteria to compression spring analysis is investigated.
The goal is to determine which type of criteria, and the methodology behind them, provides the best potential
to estimate the fatigue life of mechanical springs. Fatemi–Socie, Wang–Brown and Coffin–Manson criteria are
applied in the analysis. Predicted lives are compared with experimental results in order to assess the different
criteria. Material fatigue properties are estimated from monotonic uniaxial tension test results. The multiaxial
fatigue analysis in performed applying the commercial software nCode using as input the stress analysis results
obtained in the finite element software ANSYS.
First the experimental procedure and results are described. Next the multiaxial fatigue criteria used in
this work are covered along with the procedure applied in the analysis. Then a failure analysis is per-
formed in order to assess the failure location and to compare that location with the most damaged zone
predicted by numerical analysis. Finally the predicted and experimental fatigue lives are compared and
discussed.
To determine the stress generated in the spring, consider a helical spring subjected to an axial load F, see
Fig. 1(a). Now imagine that the spring is sectioned at some point, Fig. 1(b). Internal forces are generated to
maintain the remaining portion shown in Fig. 1(b) in equilibrium. A direct shear force F and a torque T
appear. The maximum shear stress on the wire can be calculated by the following equation [7,8]:
Tr F
smax ¼  þ ð1Þ
J A

F F

L T
d
F

F
a D b

Fig. 1. (a) Helical spring with axial load and (b) free body diagram.
 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313 1305

where J is the polar moment of inertia, A is the cross-section area and r is the wire radius. The first term cor-
responds to torsion contribution and the second term is the direct shear stress. Considering a wire with circular
cross-section of diameter d (=2r), the last equation may be reduced to
8FD 4F 8FD
s¼ 3
þ 2¼K 3 ð2Þ
pd pd pd
where D is the mean coil diameter, K is the Wahl factor and C is the spring index defined by
0:5 D
K ¼1þ ; C¼
C d
When the external load F is variable, the induced stress is variable as well. The mean stress sm and the ampli-
tude sa are defined by:
8F m D
sm ¼ K s ð3Þ
pd 3
8F a D
sa ¼ K b ð4Þ
pd 3
where Ks and Kb are correction factors due to curvature [7,14] and Fm and Fa are the mean load and load
amplitude, respectively.

2. Experimental work

The methodology used in the experimental work is described in the following. First the spring geometry is
described as well as the material. Then the procedures used in the fatigue tests and residual stress measure-
ments are presented.
Fig. 1(a) shows the geometry of the samples used in the tests. The wire material was AISI MB, a high car-
bon steel, whose mechanical properties and chemical composition are shown in Table 1. Mechanical proper-
ties were determined using straight wire samples without forming process. Chemical composition was
determined using a spark emission spectrometer. The springs were fabricated by cold coiling with no further
treatment except the stress relief heat treatment. Springs had in total 9.5 coils and dimensions were as follows;
length: L = 153.6 mm, wire diameter: d = 5.7 mm and outside coil diameter: 44.4 mm. This kind of springs is
used in mining industry equipment. The heat treatment was conducted on an electrical furnace with automatic
temperature control at 400 °C during 20 min.
A fatigue testing machine was designed to determine the S–N curve of the helical compression springs. The
principle of operation of that equipment is based on the slider-crank mechanism. The mechanism allows force
application along the spring axis. The equipment especially developed to this end was used to perform these
tests. Fatigue tests were conducted under a constant mean stress, sm = 254.9 MPa, with a variable stress
amplitude sa. To do this, the preload and connecting rod amplitude displacement were adjusted for each test,
such that the desired values of sm and sa were obtained according to Eqs. (3) and (4). Spring constant was
measured before each test. Once the spring is mounted on the equipment to a desired value of sa, the test
was run until spring fracture. When the failure occurred, the number of cycles was registered and another test
with a new spring was performed with a different value of sa. Following this procedure the S–N curve was
constructed (stress amplitude sa – Number of cycles to failure).

Table 1
Mechanical properties and chemical composition of the wire material
Mechanical properties Chemical composition
Yield stress (MPa) 1350 C 0.82%
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 1670 Mn 0.64%
Young’s modulus (GPa) 177 P 0.0006%
Hardness (HRC) 41 S 0.0008%
Reduction in area 0.325 Si 0.37%
1306 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313

The residual stresses in the springs were measured [11] using an X-ray diffraction equipment Phillips X’Pert
PRO operating in point focus geometry. The sin2 W method was employed [15]. A ceramic Cu long fine focus
X-ray tube set to 45 kV and 40 mA was used for the X-ray generation. Residual stress was measured on the
inner and outer surfaces of coil segments. The residual stress component along the coil segment (along the
helical direction) was measured. The coil segments were cut from the middle of springs without fatigue dam-
age. In calculating residual stress, lattice d-spacing vs. sin2 W plots were used with 15 different W angles. From
the diffraction pattern the peak used in the analysis was 2h = 116.39° corresponding to the plane {3 1 0}. The
Young’s modulus used in the analysis was E = 177 GPa. Prior to the residual stress measurement the coil seg-
ments were cleaned.

2.1. Experimental results

The fatigue curve was determined for a spring group heat treated at 400 °C during 20 min for stress release.
Results are shown in Fig. 2, the arrow in that plot means that the test was stopped before spring failure. As
shown in this figure the fatigue limit was approximately sc = 141 MPa.
Results of residual stress measurements are shown in Table 2. Note that the wire before spring forming con-
tains tensile residual stresses of magnitude 312 MPa. When the spring is formed the residual stresses increases,
having compressive residual stresses in the exterior and tensile residual stresses in the inner surface of the wire
coil, recall that the spring was cold coiled. Once the heat treatment is carried out, the level of residual stresses
decreases to approximately 124 MPa on the interior.
An X-ray diffraction analysis was conducted in order to identify the phases present in the spring material.
All the peaks observed correspond to ferrite. It was observed as well, that the heat treatment did not affect the
diffraction pattern. That is, ferrite was the dominant phase even after the stress relief heat treatment.

3. Multiaxial fatigue criteria

The fatigue lives under constant amplitude axial loading and torsional loading were correlated by the
Coffin–Manson equations:

Fatigue life of compression springs

150
149
Stress amplitude (MPa)

148
147
146
145
144
143
142
141
140
1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07
Cycles N

Fig. 2. Fatigue life of compression springs. Stress relief at 400 °C, 20 min.

Table 2
Residual stresses on the spring
Residual stress (MPa)
Interior Exterior
Wire without forming 312
Spring without heat treatment 681.9 593
Spring with heat treatment 400 °C–20 min 124 63.2
 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313 1307

De r0f
¼ ð2N f Þb þ e0f ð2N f Þc for axial loading ð5Þ
2 E
Dc s0f b c
¼ ð2N f Þ 0 þ c0f ð2N f Þ 0 for torsional loading ð6Þ
2 G
where De and Dc are, respectively, the strain range in axial fatigue and the shear strain range in torsional fa-
tigue. Nf is the number of cycles to failure, E is the Young’s modulus and G is the shear modulus. r0f and e0f are
the axial fatigue strength coefficient and fatigue ductility coefficient, respectively; b and c are the axial fatigue
strength exponent and fatigue ductility exponent, respectively. s0f and c0f area the shear fatigue strength coef-
ficient and shear fatigue ductility coefficient, respectively; and b0 and c0 are the shear fatigue strength exponent
and shear fatigue ductility exponent, respectively. These two equations are used as the basis for establishing
the fatigue parameter vs. life relations for multiaxial fatigue in what follows.
Critical plane approaches have been widely accepted among researchers in multiaxial fatigue analysis. In
these approaches, the fatigue life prediction is based on the continuum mechanics variables on the physical
crack plane, called critical plane.
The critical plane theory was first proposed by Brown and Miller [16] for shear fracture materials, in which
the failure criterion was given in a generalized functional form of shear strain and normal strain on the critical
plane. The reasoning behind was that the shear strain governs crack initiation and growth, and that normal
strain assists crack growth. A specific form of the parameter based on the critical plane theory was proposed
by Kandil, Brown and Miller (KBM) [17]
Dcmax
þ sDen ¼ C ð7Þ
2
where Dcmax is the maximum shear strain range, Den is the normal strain range acting on the Dcmax plane and S
is a material constant.
Wang and Brown (WB) [1,18] replaced the normal strain range Den by the normal strain excursion en for
variable amplitude loads. The parameter vs. life relation is given by
Dcmax r0  2r0n b c
þ sen ¼ ½1 þ m þ ð1  mÞs f ð2N f Þ þ ð1:5 þ 0:5sÞe0f ð2N f Þ ð8Þ
2 E
where Dcmax is the shear strain range, r0n is the mean normal stress, m is the Poisson’s ratio, and r0f , e0f , b, c and s
are fatigue properties of the material that are determined from axial and torsional fatigue tests.
A shear fracture parameter was proposed by Fatemi and Socie (FS) [1,19]. This parameter uses de maxi-
mum normal stress on the critical plane in contrast to the normal strain in the KBM parameter. The addi-
tional hardening and mean stress effects are taken into account through the normal stress. Using the
torsional fatigue data, it can be expressed as
 
Dcmax rn;max s0 b c
1þk ¼ f ð2N f Þ 0 þ c0f ð2N f Þ 0 ð9Þ
2 ry G
where Dcmax is the maximum shear strain range, rn,max is the maximum normal stress on the plane of Dcmax, ry
is the yield strength and k is a constant determined experimentally from axial and torsional fatigue data.

Table 3
Strain-life properties obtained from monotonic tension test properties
Parameter (Manson) Universal slopes (M) Modified universal slopes (MM) (Muralidharan)
r0f 1.9Rm 0:623R0:823m E0:168
b 0.12 0.09
e0f 0:76e0:6f 0:0196e0:155f ðRm =EÞ0:53
c 0.6 0.56
K0 r0f =ðe0f Þ0:2 r0f =ðe0f Þ0:2
n0 0.2 0.2
Relationships proposed by Manson (M) and modified by Muralidharan (MM) [19].
1308 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313

Table 4
Strain-life properties obtained by the relations given in Table 3 and used in the fatigue analysis
Parameter Universal slopes Mason Modified universal slopes Muralidharan
r0f ðMPaÞ 3173.000 2174.487
b 0.120 0.090
e0f 0.434 0.214
c 0.600 0.560
K 0 (MPa) 3749.511 2959.216
n0 0.200 0.200

Table 5
Axial and shear strain-life properties [1]
Axial Shear
r0
Fatigue strength coefficient r0f s0f  pfffiffi3
Fatigue strength exponent b b0  p
b ffiffiffi
Fatigue ductility coefficient e0f c0f  3e0f
Fatigue ductility exponent c c0  c
Modulus E G

Fig. 3. Finite element model of the compression spring.

Fig. 4. (a) Photograph of a tested helical compression spring showing fracture and (b) magnified image of the fracture surface.
 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313 1309

3.1. Material fatigue constants

The first method of approximating the strain life relationship from monotonic properties was proposed by
Manson (M) and later modified by Muralidharan (MM) [20]. The procedure is usually referred to as the
method of universal slopes and can be applied to any metal. However it requires knowledge of the parameter
RA (reduction in area). Relations using both methods, M and MM are given in Table 3, where Rm is the ulti-
mate tensile strength, ef is the true fracture strain calculated from ln(1/(1  RA)).

Fig. 5. Beach marks (indicated by arrows), crack initiation (A) and fast fracture (F).

Fig. 6. (a) Fracture plane orientation with respect to the spring wire axis. (b, c) Magnified view showing the initiation point which was a
defect produced by the manufacturing process.
1310 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313

Comparison of approaches using Mason’s properties

approach
10000000

Numeric Approach
1000000

100000

10000
10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Experimental Value

XY Mason YZ Mason Fatemi-Socie Mason Wang-Brown Mason

Fig. 7. Comparison of the predicted and experimental spring fatigue lives using the Mason’s approach to correlate strain-life properties
from monotonic uniaxial tension test properties.

Material fatigue properties used in the multiaxial fatigue analysis were obtained from the monotonic uni-
axial tension test through the methods (M) and (MM) and are shown in Table 4. Shear strain-life properties
were obtained from the corresponding axial strain-life using the relationships given in Table 5 [1]. In addition,

Comparison of approaches using Modified Mason’s

properties approach
10000000
Numeric Approach

1000000

100000

10000
10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Experimental Value

XY Mason Modificado YZ Mason Modificado

Fatemi-Socie Mason Modificado Wang-Brown

Fig. 8. Comparison of the predicted and experimental spring fatigue lives using the Modified Mason’s approach to correlate strain-life
properties from monotonic uniaxial tension test properties.
 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313 1311

it was considered in the analysis s = l and k = 0.6 for Wang–Brown and Fatemi–Socie models (Eqs. (8) and
(9)), respectively, as suggested in [1].

4. Numerical simulation

The commercial programs ANSYS and nCode were used in the spring fatigue analysis to estimate the num-
ber of cycles to failure at each stress amplitude sa. The general methodology used in the analysis is presented
next.
A finite element model of the spring was created as shown in Fig. 3. 67,800 Quadratic tetragonal elements
with 20 nodes each one were used. A linear stress analysis was made in ANSYS and the information of the
stresses on the spring surface was transferred to nCode [21]. The nCode module FE-Fatigue was used in
the fatigue analysis. Strain life material properties obtained through the M and MM methods as explained
previously (Table 3) were introduced into the FE-Fatigue software. In order to determine the fatigue crack
initiation life due to constant amplitude loading, a multiaxial fatigue analysis using the Wang–Brown and
Fatemi–Socie criteria was conducted. In addition, a uniaxial strain-life fatigue analysis (see Eq. (6)) was per-
formed using the shear strain components XY and YZ. The y-axis is oriented along the spring axial axis.

5. Failure analysis

Visual examination of the failed spring was carried out to inspect the general overall condition of the
spring. As shown in Fig. 4, the spring had 7.5 active coils and fracture took place at coil 2.4 (from the bottom).

Fig. 9. Fatigue numerical prediction using nCode and ANSYS of the fatigue crack initiation life. Note that the inner coil surface is the
most damaged zone. Fatemi–Socie model and the M method to estimate strain life properties were used.
1312 L. Del Llano-Vizcaya et al. / Engineering Failure Analysis 13 (2006) 1303–1313

Macrofactography of the fracture surface was conducted using a stereomicroscope and a SEM, Figs. 4–6. A
typical feature of the fatigue fracture in the form the beach marks was found on the fracture surface. This is
indicated by arrow marks in Fig. 5. A carefully assessment of the fracture surface was made to find the origin
and path of the fracture. The fracture extended at an angle to the spring wire axis from the inner diameter to
the outer diameter (see Fig. 6). This revealed crack initiation in the inner diameter. That position is marked in
Fig. 4. The final fast fracture path is indicated by F in Fig. 5.

6. Results and discussion

Spring fatigue lives obtained with the nCode were compared with the experimental results. This comparison
is shown in Figs. 7 and 8 using the M and MM methods, respectively. The critical plane Fatemi–Socie
approach gives a good prediction of fatigue life. While the Wang–Brown criterion overestimates spring fatigue
life, the Coffin–Mason model (based on the XY and YZ shear strain components) gives conservative results. In
those figures, the usual factor-2 bands are plotted as well. In addition, note that the M method to estimate
strain-life properties from the monotonic uniaxial tension test, gives better predictions of the spring fatigue
lives than the MM method.
In addition, fatigue numerical simulation with nCode may determine the most damaged zone. Fig. 9 shows
that plot using the Fatemi–Socie model and the M method to estimate strain life properties. Note that the
inner surface of the coils is the most damaged zone. This result agrees with the experimental observation, since
the fatigue initiation was observed close to the inner surface as described in Figs. 4–6. Similar results were
obtained using the Wang–Brown and the Coffin–Mason criteria.

7. Conclusions

Fatigue tests were carried out on helical compression springs made of AISI MB steel in order to determine
the S–N curve at fixed mean stress sm = 254.9 MPa. Experimental fatigue lives were compared with multiaxial
fatigue criteria predictions using the approaches of Fatemi–Socie, Wang–Brown, and the Coffin–Manson
method based on shear deformation. The stress analysis was carried out in the finite element code ANSYS,
and the multiaxial fatigue study was performed using the fatigue software nCode. A failure analysis was con-
ducted in order to determine the fatigue crack initiation point and a comparison of that location with the most
damaged zone predicted by the numerical analysis was made. The Fatemi–Socie critical plane approach gives
a good prediction of fatigue life. While the Wang–Brown criterion overestimates spring fatigue life, the Coffin–
Mason model gives conservative results. It is considered that the results of this work may help in spring fatigue
design methodologies, determining the most suitable fatigue model to analyze fatigue of helical compression
springs. In addition, it was noted that the M method to estimate strain-life properties from the monotonic
uniaxial tension test, gives better predictions of the spring fatigue lives than the MM method.

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