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Electronics Lab Assignment #3

Instructor: Hazem Daher
Course: Electronics I Lab – ELE 402
Tuesday – Section 31

Vanessa Hanna 202101114

100/100
Valerie Naufal 202100831
Hassan Tfaily 202105815
Date of Submission: 08/03/2023
Table of Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
Equipment Used .................................................................................................................. 6
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Photoresistor .............................................................. 7
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 7
Measurements .................................................................................................................. 8
First Observation ............................................................................................................. 8
Theoretical voltage and current ....................................................................................... 9
Buffer Effect .................................................................................................................. 11
Switching R and LDR.................................................................................................... 12
First Order Active Low Pass Filter .................................................................................... 14
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 14
Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 14
Observation .................................................................................................................... 15
Transfer Function .......................................................................................................... 16
Second Order Active High Pass Filter............................................................................... 17
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 17
Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 17
Observation .................................................................................................................... 18
Calculations ................................................................................................................... 18
Research............................................................................................................................. 19
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 21
References: ........................................................................................................................ 22
Table of Figures
Figure 1: LDR circuit .......................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2: Buffer circuit ...................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3: First order low pass circuit ................................................................................. 14
Figure 4: Input and output of a low pass filter .................................................................. 15
Figure 5: High pass filter circuit ........................................................................................ 17
Figure 6: Input and output of a high pass filter ................................................................. 18
Figure 7: LDR .................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 8: Semi-conductors................................................................................................. 20
Table of Tables
Table 1: Table of Measurements ......................................................................................... 8
Introduction
This lab was a transition between the different functionalities and limitations
of the Operational Amplifiers with linear components, and Diodes, their different
configurations, types, and utilities.

In this lab, we were introduced to the LDR, the light-dependent resistance,

and how light affects its resistance, thus, affecting the output of the circuit. The
output of the circuit was connected to an LED, a light-emitting diode.

In addition, we were able to create low and high pass filters from non-linear
components. In this case, we used capacitors to create a certain range of passing
frequencies.
Equipment Used
1. Breadboard
2. Resistors
3. Capacitors
4. LED
5. LDR
6. Oscilloscope
7. Wave generator
8. DC voltage supply
9. Op-Amp (UA741)
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Photoresistor 30/30
Introduction
The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a resistor that works on photoconductivity.
Its resistance changes with the amount of light it’s exposed to. The following steps will test
this property in a fully functional circuit in which voltage division will highlight the
resistance of the LDR.

Figure 1: LDR circuit

The circuit was assembled with ±Vcc set to 10V DC and the input DC source set to 6 V
DC.
Measurements
Table 1: Table of Measurements

With Light Without Light

LDR Resistance 1.5 kΩ 12.1KΩ
V+ (Vin) 0.75V 3.5V
V Output 0.718V 3.4V
I LDR 0.535mA 0.26mA
I LED 0 3.99 mA
V LDR 0.75V 3.5V
V LED 0.69V 1.87V
put the accurate value at I = 0
First Observation
When the LDR is covered, we observe an increase of its resistance. Therefore, the lower
the resistance the lower the voltage around the LDR.
Applying voltage division:
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅
𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ×
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 + 10𝑘
When the LDR is exposed to light:
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 1.5
𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × =6× = 0.78𝑉
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 + 10𝑘 1.5 + 10
when the LDR is not exposed to light:
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 12.1
𝑉+ = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × =6× = 3.29𝑉
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 + 10𝑘 12.1 + 10
Assuming that we are using an ideal operational amplifier, 𝑉+ = 𝑉− = 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅
The output voltage has no feedback between 𝑉− and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 so 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉− = 𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅
The output of the voltage follower depends directly on the resistance of the LDR,
which is inversely proportional to the luminosity to which the LDR is exposed to. This
output is connected to a LED (diode) that will turn on when the voltage around it exceeds
or reaches a certain threshold voltage.

The LED used in the lab was a red LED, characterized by a voltage drop between
1.7V and 2V. This special diode is turned on when the voltage around it exceeds this
voltage drop. Therefore, when the LDR’s resistance is small, the output voltage will also
be small, the LED will remain off. However, when the LDR’s resistance is large, the
output voltage will also be large, the LED will be on, and emit light. In short, this circuit
turns the light on when it’s dark, and off when there is light.

Theoretical voltage and current

𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅
𝐼𝐿𝐷𝑅 =
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅
When the LDR is exposed to light:
𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅 0.75
𝐼𝐿𝐷𝑅 = = = 0.5𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 1.5𝑘
|𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙| |0.535 − 0.5|
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.07
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 0.5

When the LDR is not exposed to light:

𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅 3.5
𝐼𝐿𝐷𝑅 = = = 0.28𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 12.1𝑘
|𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙| |0.26 − 0.28|
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.07
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 0.28

When the LDR is exposed to light: (using voltage division)

𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 1.5
𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × =6× = 0.78𝑉
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 + 10𝑘 1.5 + 10
|𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙| |0.75 − 0.78|
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.038
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 0.78

When the LDR is not exposed to light: (using voltage division)

𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 12.1
𝑉𝐿𝐷𝑅 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × =6× = 3.29𝑉
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 + 10𝑘 12.1 + 10
|𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙| |3.5 − 3.29|
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.063
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 3.29
When the LDR is exposed to light: (using KVL)
𝑉𝐿𝐸𝐷 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐼𝐿𝐸𝐷 × 330 = 0.78 − 0 = 0.78𝑉
(𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 0.78 < 𝑉𝐷 )
When the LDR is not exposed to light: (using KVL)
𝑉𝐿𝐸𝐷 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐼𝐿𝐸𝐷 × 330 = 3.29 − 3.99𝑚 × 330 = 1.97𝑉
(𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 1.97 > 𝑉𝐷 )

The theoretical 𝑉𝐿𝐸𝐷 cannot be calculated since we are not able to find the current coming
out of Vout except in measurements.
Buffer Effect
The buffer operational amplifier, also known as the voltage follower, is used in
circuits to convert the voltage as it is needed to a higher or lower impedance area.
Therefore, it is mainly used to transfer voltage without worrying about the voltage
division and high impedance effect.

In this specific circuit, if the voltage follower was removed, and the LED and resistor
were to be connected directly to the LDR, it will result to the following circuit:

Figure 2: Buffer circuit

If the LDR, while covered, reported a large resistance, a minimal current will pass
through the LDR, equivalent to turning it into an open circuit, making the 10kΩ and
330Ω in series. The current passing through the LED will be smaller than the threshold
current that should light up the LED.
(Current I=6/(10000+330)=0.58mA < 3.99 mA found in the measurements.)

If the LDR, while exposed to light, reported a small resistance, the LDR will be in
parallel with the series combination of the LED and the 330 Ω resistor. This will decrease
the overall resistance, thus decreasing the voltage around the LDR and the LED.

Consequently, it can be observed that the presence of the voltage follower

prevented the unstable resistance effect of the LDR on the LED and vice-versa. The
buffer is used, then, to isolate the input from the output, thus preventing any impedance
mismatch between the LDR and the LED in this circuit.

Switching R and LDR

When R and LDR are switched in the circuit, the positive input voltage will be the
voltage across the 10kΩ resistor and not the LDR. This voltage will show on the output
pin of the buffer, hence around the series combination of the 330Ω and the LED.

If the LDR was covered, its resistance would increase to the maximum value that we
observed Rmax = 12.1kΩ.

If we apply voltage division to find the output voltage:

10 10
𝑉10 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × =6× = 2.71𝑉
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 + 10𝑘 12.1 + 10
The output voltage is found to be greater than the threshold, causing the LED to turn on.
If the LDR was not covered and exposed to light, its resistance would decrease,
increasing with it the voltage around the 10kΩ resistor. The Rmin = 1.5kΩ.

If we apply voltage division to find the output voltage:

10 10
𝑉10 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × =6× = 5.21𝑉
𝑅𝐿𝐷𝑅 + 10𝑘 1.5 + 10
The obtained voltage is much greater than the value found at a higher resistance.
Therefore, theoretically speaking, the light emitted by the LED should be brighter than
the case before.

The observed fluctuations of the LED’s brightness in the lab are consistent with
the theoretical analysis done in this report. When the LDR is exposed to light, the light of
the LED is brighter, and when covered, the light of the LED is dimmer.

The functions of the circuit in the case where the LDR and resistor are switched
are reversed and the LED is always on since the voltage across it will be greater than the
threshold for the values found in the lab.
First Order Active Low Pass Filter 20/20
Introduction
An active filter is a filter circuit, constructed using active elements, such as
transistors, operational amplifiers, or Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). Active filters
require an external power source to operate, whereas passive filters do not. Its function is
to selectively block frequencies from analog signals, according to the wiring of the
circuit. Low pass filters are filters that block out high frequencies and pass lower
frequencies. First order filters are simpler circuits constructed from only one reactive and
one passive element.

Procedure
The following designed circuit was designed on a breadboard in the lab, and the input and
output voltages were recorded.

Figure 3: First order low pass circuit

The circuit was assembled with ±Vcc = 12V DC and the input voltage being the sum of
two sine wave signals:
𝑉 (𝑡 ) = sin(200𝜋𝑡 ) + sin(200,000𝜋𝑡)
Connecting the input to channel 1, and the output to channel 2, we observe the following
waveforms on the oscilloscope:

Figure 4: Input and output of a low pass filter

Check your probes, it seems that they

were scaled up
Observation
The output is what was expected since the filter constructed passes low
frequencies, and this is what is observed in the output waveform. The input waveform is
a sum of a signal with 100Hz frequency, and another with 100,000Hz signal. However,
the output waveform is observed to have a frequency of 100Hz. Hence, the filter
constructed was successfully able to pass only lower frequencies.

The gain of the amplifier is:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 102.5
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = = 6.528 𝑉/𝑉
𝑉𝑖𝑛 15.7
Transfer Function
𝑉𝑜
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜 𝑅3
=1+
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
(Gain of a non-inverting amplifier)
Let the node at V+ be V1
Applying voltage division at node V1:
1
𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑠 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
1
𝑅+
𝐶𝑠
Therefore,
𝑅3
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + ) 𝑉1
𝑅2
1
𝑅3
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + ) × ( 𝐶𝑠 ) × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅2 1
𝑅+
𝐶𝑠
The transfer function H(s) is determined to be:
𝑉𝑜 𝑅3 1
𝐻 (𝑠 ) = = (1 + ) × ( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠
𝑅3 1
𝐻 (𝑗𝑤) = (1 + )×( )
𝑅2 1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑗𝑤
𝑅3
Let A=the DC gain of the circuit given by: 𝐴 = (1 + )
𝑅2

𝐴
𝐻 (𝑗𝑤) = ( )
1 + 𝑅𝐶𝑗𝑤
Second Order Active High Pass Filter 30/30

Introduction
In this experiment, we built a second order active high pass filter with cutoff
frequency f = 4kHz, C1=C2= 0.02μF, and R1=R2=10K. However, 0.02μF capacitors
were not available in our lab so we had to connect two capacitors of 10nF in parallel to
construct each 0.02μF capacitor. Unfortunately, this will increase the margin of error in
our overall results.

Procedure
Two sine signals were driven into the circuit with two different frequencies.

Vi(t) = sin(200𝜋𝑡) + sin(50,000 𝜋𝑡)

The combination of both signals was done in series. The positive node of the first signal
was connected to the negative node of the second signal, from which we took the positive
node and connected it to the circuit.

±Vcc = ±12V were taken from the DC power supply.

Cmeasured = 18.27 nF (after connecting both capacitors in parallel)

Rmeasured =1.896 Ω , R1measured=9.934 Ω and R2measured= 9.914 Ω

Figure 5: High pass filter circuit

After connecting Vin to channel 1, and Vout to channel 2, we obtain the following:

Figure 6: Input and output of a high pass filter

Observation
The resulting output is what was expected, as the frequency of the output wave reflects
the higher frequency of the input (25kHz) as our design was a high pass filter that allows
only high frequencies to pass.

Calculations
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒) × 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2.17
= = 2.07 𝑉/𝑉 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1.05
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 2.07
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒) = = = 1.07 𝑉/𝑉
𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 2
Research
LDR, or light dependent resistor, is a unique kind of resistor whose resistance
varies depending on the amount of light it is exposed to. More specifically, when light
levels rise, resistance rises, and as light levels fall, resistance falls. As the change in
resistance may be used to activate or regulate electronic circuits, because of this unique
property, LDRs are very useful in a range of light-sensing applications. The resistance of
an LDR can vary over a wide range, depending on the intensity of the light. [1]

Figure 7: LDR

Lead sulfide (PbS) and cadmium sulfide (CdS) are frequently used to make LDRs.
These substances are semiconductors with special electrical characteristics that make
them light-sensitive. cadmium sulfide is available as a powder or thin film and has a
crystalline structure. Because of its sensitivity to light and ability to function at room
temperature, it is frequently utilized for LDRs. Because of its 2.4 electron volt bandgap,
cadmium sulfide is most sensitive to light in the visible spectrum.

It is essential to keep in mind that some materials used to manufacture LDRs, such
CdS, include hazardous elements that might be bad for both the environment and human
health. As a result, LDRs manufactured of these materials must be used and disposed of
properly and in accordance with all applicable laws. [2]
 The electrodes, which are typically formed of a metal like platinum or silver, are
positioned on either side of the semiconductor material. The LDR's resistance varies with
the quantity of light falling on it due to the electrodes, which allow an electric current to
flow through it. Depending on the particular application and material utilized, an LDR's
exact structure may change. As an illustration, certain LDRs might contain numerous
layers of semiconductor materials to improve sensitivity or spectral response, while
others might have various electrode arrangements to enhance performance.

Figure 8: Semi-conductors

LDRs have many practical applications, such as in automatic lighting control

systems, where they adjust lighting according to ambient light levels. They are also used
in security systems to detect changes in light levels caused by movement, triggering an
alarm in the process. LDRs are commonly used in cameras to control image exposure,
adjusting the shutter speed and aperture to ensure properly exposed images. In solar
panels, LDRs help to track the sun's movement and adjust the panel's angle to maximize
sunlight exposure. Finally, LDRs are used in weather stations to measure the intensity of
sunlight and the amount of cloud cover. These examples demonstrate the versatility of
LDRs and their usefulness in various industries. [3]
Conclusion
During this lab, LEDs and LDRs were introduced as the first elements from the
photonics family to work with. Filters were also covered by building first and second
order circuits using non-linear components such as capacitors. Outputs were observed
through optical light emitted from the LED and through oscilloscope screenshot taken.
The filters designed were consistent with the theory. Both filters were high pass filters
from which low frequencies were cut-off and only high frequencies passed to the output.
In the second experiment, a filter was set in cascade with an amplifier, and proved that its
gain is unity.
References:

[1] Electronics Notes. (2021). Light Dependent Resistor LDR Tutorial & Circuits.
Retrieved from https://www.electronics-
notes.com/articles/electronic_components/resistors/light-dependent-resistor-ldr.php
[2] Elprocus. (2022). LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) Circuit and Working. Retrieved
from https://www.elprocus.com/ldr-light-dependent-resistor-circuit-and-working/
[3] Electronics Hub. (2022). Basics of Phototransistor - Working and Its Applications.
Retrieved from https://www.electronicshub.org/basics-of-phototransistor/