HISTORY OF VIRUSES

Significant Mentions Contribution

Louis Pasteur Worked on rabies vaccine
Coined the term virus
Robert Koch Koch postulates
John Bruist Elementary bodies.
Thought viruses were spores of micrococci
Dmitri Ivanowski Father of Virology
Tobacco Mosaic Virus
Acellular infective agents
Martinus Beijerinck Contagium vivum fluidum
Freidrich Loeffler & Paul Frosch Foot-and-mouth disease
Walter Reed Yellow Fever Virus
Vectors are mosquitoes
Landsteiner & Popper Poliomyelitis caused by filterable agent
Peyton Rous Tumor Virus
“Rous Sarcoma virus”
Frederick Twort and Felix D’Herelle Discovered bacteriophage
Felix D’Herelle Eaters of bacteria “phages”
Frederic Twort Discovered entities capable of destroying
bacteria
Max Theiler Attenuated vaccine: virulence is removed
Guangdong China Place: start of SARS-CoV
International Committee on Taxonomy of Added the kingdom level in the classification
Viruses (ICTV) because of the availability of molecular tests that
allow the determination of organisms up to 16s
RNA
Paramyxovirus Biggest DNA virus
Parvo Smallest DNA virus
Picorna Smallest RNA virus, smaller compared to Parvo

VIROLOGY TRIVIAS

Important Trivias Definition/Description

Budding Process by which the virus exits the cell
Vacca Latin word for “cow”
Contagium vivum fluidum Soluble living germ
Lysogeny incorporation of genetic material into the host
A-H1N1 Original strain of influenza virus A
Virus This word come from a latin word “poison”
Henipavirus Virus that jumped now to humans from animal
horses and mixes with other viruses
Picornaviridae Smallest human virus (25 nm)
Smallpox (under Poxviridae) Largest virus (250-350 nm)
Poliovirus Smallest RNA virus

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 Virion A virus that is complete in structure; the
infectious form of the virus
Enveloped virus Virus that has an outer external
Nucleocapsid Contains the genome (DNA/RNA) that is
protected
Protein covering inside the protein genome
Glycoprotein spikes Found outside the envelope; made up of carbon
and proteins.
Responsible for the attachment to the epithelial
cells of muscles
Tegument A matrix that separates the capsid that houses
the genome, from the envelope
Genome DNA or RNA but not both
Contain nucleic acids
Polarity This happens only in single-stranded genetic
material

+(positive/sense) Polarity: which means it can be utilized

immediately as a messenger
-(negative/antisense) Polarity: which means it can be transcribed as
messenger RNA before it can be used for protein
synthesis.
Capsid Covers the genome of the virus
Capsomere Layers of protein that are attached to each other
Protomers of viral protein structural units.
Compose the capsid.
Layers up to maximum of 5.
Symmetry Is the arrangement that is determined by the
capsomeres in the capsid.
Can be:
Cubic (Rotational)
Helical
Complex
Endocytosis Adherence of the virus is facilitated by this
process
Direct penetration Mode of adherence of naked viruses
Nucleus Where the DNA viruses replicate
Cytoplasm Where the RNA viruses replicate
Latent Virus remains in asymptomatic host cells for long
periods
Persistent Disease processes occur over a long period
Acute infection A term used to describe viral infection

Edward Jenner – Variolation Martinus Beijerinck – Contagium vivum fluidum

Loius Pasteur – Rabies Felix D’Herelle – Bacteriophage

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 VIRUS GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristic
Obligate intracellular parasites
Submicroscopic
Lack cellular structure and independent
metabolic processes
Replicate by exploiting living cells
Host-specific
Not affected by antibiotic but inhibited by
antiviral chemotherapeutic agent
Description
Viruses must enter the host so they can
reproduce
20-300 nm; small 0.02-0.p35 um
Viruses outside the host are lifeless/inert
When viruses infect a dead cell, they cannot
replicate
Viruses exhibit host tropism
Antiviral agents must be intended for viruses.
Chemicals that interrupt the life cycle,
reproduction site, etc.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES

Characteristic Description
Size 25 nm (picornavirus) to 25o X 350 nm (smallpox
virus)
Genome DNA or RNA. Double stranded or single-stranded
Structure Viruses are complexes comprising of:
Virus-coded proteins and nucleic acid
Cell-coded components

Icosahedral
Helical
Reproduction Replicate only in living cells
Antibiotics Viruses are unaffected by these chemicals but
can be inhibited by interferon and
chemotherapeutic agents

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 VIRUS SYMMETRY

Virus Symmetry
HIV1 Icosahedral
Mnemonics: HI Pap! Ad Co! (add ko)
Papilloma
*All DNA viruses are icosahedral except: Pox
Adenovirus
RNA Icosahedral: CF-PRT = Calici-Flavi-Picorna-
Coronavirus Reo-Toga

Influenza Complex
Smallpox Mnemonics: Small Baby Bird In a complex nest
Bird Flu virus
Bacteriophage
Tobacco Mosaic Virus Helical
Rabies Mnemonics: Tobaco Raba? Ka helix!
*All DNA viruses are icosahedral except: CF-PRT

VIRUS TAXONOMY (Previous)

Description Name
Family name ends in -viridae
Subfamily -virinae
Genus name ends with virus -virus
Viral species (Common names are used)

UPDATED VIRAL TAXONOMY (CURRENT)

Taxonomical order Specifics

Kingdom -virae
Subkingdom -virites
Phylum -viricota
Subphylum -viricotina
Order -virales

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 MEANS OF CLASSIFICATION AND NAMING OF VIRUSES

Characteristic Description
Structure Size, morphology, and nucleic acid
Biochemical characteristic Structure and mode of replication
This is the current means of taxonomic
classification of viruses
Disease e.g. encephalitis and hepatitis viruses
Means of Transmission Arbovirus spread by insects for example
Host cell Host range
Tissue or organ tropism Adenovirus and enterovirus for example

CLASSIFICATION

Characteristic Description
Structure Morphology of virion
Genome Nucleic acid composition
Baltimore classification Depends on the method of RNA transcription; 7
groups
Host Viral tropism: e.g. bacteria, fungal, animal,
human, or plant
Disease e.g. Hepatitis A, B, C, D, & E
DNA genome classification DNA, RNA, single-stranded, double-stranded,
positive-stranded, and negative-stranded

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES

Characteristic Description
Size 25 nm (picornavirus) to 25o X 350 nm (smallpox
virus)
Genome DNA or RNA. Double stranded or single-stranded
Structure Viruses are complexes comprising of:
Virus-coded proteins and nucleic acid
Cell-coded components
Icosahedral
Helical
Reproduction Replicate only in living cells
Antibiotics Viruses are unaffected by these chemicals but
can be inhibited by interferon and
chemotherapeutic agents

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 DNA VIRUSES

Virus Mnemonics
Herpes / Hepadna H2APP2y

*Rule 1: All DNA viruses are icosahedral except

poxviruses
Adeno
*Rule 2: All DNA viruses are double-stranded
except parvoviridae

Papova / Pax / Parvo *Rule 3: The smallest DNA virus belongs to the
Parvoviridae and the biggest belongs to
Poxviridae

DNA NAKED VIRUSES

Virus Mnemonics
Papova A woman is naked in PAPsmear
Adeno
Parvo

DNA ENVELOPED VIRUSES

Virus Mnemonics
Herpes DNA Envelope na may nakasulat na Her Hepa Po
Hepadna
Poxvirus

RNA VIRUSES

Virus Mnemonics
Bunya If you want to BF2AT dO P2C2R3
Filo / Flavi *All are singe stranded except Reo (double
Orthomyxo stranded)
Paramyxo / Picorna *All RNA are helical, except: CF-PRT = Calici-Flavi-
Rhabdo / Reo / Retro Picorna-Reo-Toga (icosahedral)
Toga

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 RNA ENVELOPED VIRUSES

Virus Mnemonics
Herpes Envelope na may nakasulat na Her Hepa Po
Hepadna
Poxvirus

RNA NAKED VIRUSES

Virus Mnemonics
Picorna Pic rna sa Reo (Rio)
Reo

RNA ENVELOPED VIRUSES

Virus Mnemonics
Toga Envelope rna gikan sa The BAR CORP
Bunya
Arena
Rhabdo
Corona
Orthomyxo
Retro
Paramyxo

DNA and RNA viruses (genome, polarity)

Naked, Enveloped

Shape (ang mga except except)

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COMPLETE CYCLE OF VIRAL INFECTION

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Protein Synthesis (memorize ang mga +SS RNA/DNA)

Baltimore Classification

Major Steps in Infection Cycle

Virus Replication

CONSEQUENCES OF VIRUS CELL INTERACTION

Viral proliferation and cell lysis Viruses will increase rapidly; cell will die (lysis)
Latent infection Non-replicating virus; can be dormant for years.
Waiting until your immune system is
compromised
Persistent infection Gradual type of infection
Virus keeps on shedding, slow release of the virus
Ongoing viral replication, few or no symptoms
self-limiting symptoms or asymptomatic
Oncogenesis Cancer-generating
Cellular proliferation: transforming healthy cells
into cancer or tumor cells
Lytic infection Mostly found in acute infection; cell dies after
release of the virus

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Consequences of Virus Cell Interaction

CYTOCIDAL INFECTIONS

Effect Description
Genetic / Genotoxic Effects →Effect is in the genes of the host. Some
mutations may happen

→ Increase calcium release into the cell, increase

in protein production but there is miscoding of
proteins
→following virus infection, breakage,
fragmentation, and/or changes in the number of
chromosomes

Biochemical →Production of proteins that are not usual

proteins thereby function will change.
- many viruses inhibit the synthesis of host
cell macromolecules
- virus may also change cellular
transcriptional activity
- for some viruses, specific cellular
biochemical functions may be stimulated

Physiologic →The cell’s ultimate effect of transformation is

that cell loses its function because it has been
transformed into a cell that has no function at all
but keeps on replicating.
- Movement of ions
- Formation of secondary messengers
- Activation cascades leading to altered
cellular activities
Morphologic →from normal size cell into bigger or smaller one
→virus allows cell to replicate many times; there
are some genes that expressed for the excessive
growth of the cell.
→Rounding of the infected cell (balloon-ey)
→Fusion with adjacent cells to form a sync
(polykaryocytes)
→Appearance of nuclear or cytoplasmic
inclusion

Cytocidal Infections (ipa identify ni Ma’am if it’s Physio, biological, etc.)

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 GENOTOXIC EFFECTS

Effect
Cytocidal (Cytolytic) Infection
Persistent infections
Transformation: under these changes are the ff.
Description
Production of new infectious virus kills the cell
Virus or its genome resides in some or all of the
cells without killing most of them.
The virus does not kill the cell, but produces
genetic, biological, physiologic, and morphologic
changes that may result in acquisition of
malignant properties

Genetic →Effect is in the genes of the host. Some

mutations may happen

Biochemical → Increase calcium release into the cell, increase

in protein production but there is miscoding of
proteins

→Production of proteins that are not usual

proteins thereby function will change.

Morphologic →The cell’s ultimate effect of transformation is

that cell loses its function because it has been
transformed into a cell that has no function at all
but keeps on replicating.
→from normal size cell into bigger or smaller one
→virus allows cell to replicate many times; there
are some genes that expressed for the excessive
growth of the cell.

Cell Membrane Receptors

CELL MEMBRANE RECEPTORS

Characteristic Description
Structure Size, morphology, and nucleic acid
Biochemical characteristic Structure and mode of replication
This is the current means of taxonomic
classification of viruses
Disease e.g. encephalitis and hepatitis viruses
Means of Transmission Arbovirus spread by insects for example
Host cell Host range
Tissue or organ tropism Adenovirus and enterovirus for example

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Laboratory Diagnosis (Advantages and Disadvantages)

LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS

TEST Description
Direct Examination Virus particles/Ag/Nucleic acids
- Antigen Detection
- Microscopy
- Molecular Techniques
Indirect Examination Viral isolation through cell culture, eggs, or
animals
- Cell Culture
- Egg Pockets on CAM
- Animal Inoculation
Serology Rising Ab titers in acute & convalescent stage
- Classical Techniques
- Newer Techniques

CELL MEMBRANE RECEPTORS

Test Advantage Disadvantage

Antigen Detection
(Immunofluorescence)
Electron Microscopy (EM)
Viral Genome Detection
Rapid to perform with result
being available within a few
hours
→Rapid diagnosis of viral
gastroenteritis cases
→Compared to culture, the
process can take up to 1-3 days
Classical molecular technique
→Tedious and time consuming
- Because you really have
to process your
specimen
- get most concentrated
specimen
- ultracentrifuge is used
→Results are difficult to read
and interpret
→Poor sensitivity and specificity
→Expensive (uses God with
other chemicals for embedding,
ultra-thin microtome)
→Poor sensitivity (need to
harvest a lot of viral particle for
it to be sensitive enough to be
detected)
→requires at least 10^5 – 10^6
virus particles per mL in the
sample for visualization
→Contamination

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Rapid Culture Techniques

RAPID CULTURE TECHNIQUES

Rapid Culture Description

Shell Vial Culture Advantage: results can be obtained within 24 hrs.
CMV DEAFF Test A cytomegalovirus fluorescent test; CMV infects
human fibroblast cells, so florescence can been
seen which is yellowish
Culture in Embryonated Hen Egg (CAM) Chorioallantoic membrane
Animal Culture Detects pathogenicity
Culture of viruses using laboratory animals

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