Integrated Science Theory Notes

THE ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

The properties of the states of matter
Matter: The stuff of which all living and non-living things are made. There is a lot of evidence
that matter itself is made up of very, very small pieces, or particles.
The particle theory of matter
- All matter is made up of particles. These are packed close together or further apart in the
three states of matter. This helps us explain the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
Solids
- Particles are held very closely together by strong forces.
- Particles can vibrate, but do not move around.

Liquids
- Particles are closely together but have more energy.
- Particles are still attracted to each other but they can move around in the liquid.
Liquids are not easily squashed, they transfer heat mainly by the moving of particles, they have a
definite volume but not a definite shape, and they expand more than solids when heated.

Gases
- Particles are far apart and there is only very week attraction between then.
- Particles move freely until they bump into something.
Gases are not easily squashed, they transfer heat by the moving of particles, they do not have a
definite shape or volume, they diffuse quickly to fill the space available, and they expand the
most when heated.
Integrated Science Theory Notes

Changes in State

Structure of unspecialized plant and animal cells

Cells: the smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the
tissues of the body. A cell has three main parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and the
cytoplasm. The cell membrane surrounds the cell and controls the substances that go into and out
of the cell.

Plant and animal cells have certain features in common:

Cell Membrane: This encloses the cell contents and controls what can come into and out of the
cell.
Cytoplasm: This is a jelly-like substance, in which most of the chemical reactions of everyday
life occur. It is partially permeable and important in diffusion and osmosis.
Nucleus: Controls the processes of the cell and its division. It contains the chromosomes. In
humans there are 22 pairs of chromosomes.
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How are plant and animal cells different?

Plant cells have additional features not found in animals.
- Cell wall: This is made of cellulose and is tough (the fire we eat). It is outside the cell
membrane and helps a plant cell keep its shape. It lets anything in or out of the cell.
- Chloroplasts: These are in the cytoplasm and contain green pigment, chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts are present in plant cells in the light. It is here that photosynthesis occurs
- Large vacuoles with cell sap: In the center of a plant cell is a large hole or vacuole. The
vacuole helps keep the cell its shape.
- Ribosomes: reads the messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence and translates that genetic
code into a specified string of amino acids, which grow into long chains that fold to form
proteins
- Mitochondria: Generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell's
biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a
small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Diagram of a Plant Cell

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Diagram of an Animal Cell

The importance of selected microbes

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THE PROCESSES OF DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Terms
Diffusion: The movement of particles along their concentration gradient. The particles move
from a high concentration to a lower concentration.
Osmosis: a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable
membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one.
Partially Permeable Membrane: Holes that let water and small molecules through, but not
large molecules such as starch.

Explaining Diffusion:
We can put starch and glucose into a porous bag and suspend it in a beaker of water. We can
imagine the bag (membrane) to have very, very small holes. The molecules of starch are too big
to go through the holes. But the glucose molecules can pass through - diffuse - from an area
where they are at high concentration (in the bag) to the lower concentration (in the water). They
diffuse along their concentration gradient. The membrane is said to be partially permeable,
because it allows glucose, but not starch, to go through. We can show this in a diagram.
Integrated Science Theory Notes

Explaining Osmosis:
In the experiment above, water moves into the bag by osmosis. As water comes in, the solution
rises up the tube. This is because the bag is partially permeable and allows water molecules to
pass through, but not salt. So, water moves from its higher concentration in the beaker to its
lower concentration in the salt solution.
Integrated Science Theory Notes

REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
Terms
- Sexual Reproduction: occurs when the sperm from the male parent fertilizes an egg
from the female parent, producing an offspring that is genetically different from both
parents.
- Asexual Reproduction: a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by
a single parent. The new individuals produced are genetically and physically identical to
each other, i.e., they are the clones of their parents.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Asexual Reproduction
Advantages
Off springs are identical, so copies can be
made.
Usually quick and some methods can produce
very large numbers
Food resources of the parent are available for
the growth of the new organism.
Rapid growth of the offspring, as no resting
stage is needed because there are no seeds.
Disadvantages
As the off springs are identical, no
improvements of quality or plant breeding is
possible.
Special facilities may be needed to carry out
tissue culture.
Lack of variation means that organisms are
unable to adapt to changing conditions.
Plants that are continually reproduced
asexually may be less able to withstand harsh
conditions.

Sexual Reproduction
Advantages
Large numbers of seeds can be made.
Off springs are varied, so it is likely that new
useful strains can be developed.
New varieties may withstand difficult
conditions, or produce bigger seeds or fruits.
Seed and fruit dispersal can deposit offspring
into new conditions.
Disadvantages
Weak plants might be produced as well as
strong or useful ones.
Some seeds and fruits will land in poor soil,
and not grow well.
Each seed will have only a limited food store.
Flower production, pollination and
fertilization are riskier than with asexual
reproduction.
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Various Methods of Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Animals

Cloning: Asexual reproduction produces offspring that have the same genes as the parent. This is
called cloning, and the organisms are clones. Cell division is by mitosis, which produces new
cells with the same numbers of identical chromosomes.
 Simple organisms, e.g., amoeba, and flowering plants often carry out asexual
reproduction.
 Humans make use of this in order to produce new identical plants.
 Some animals have now been cloned, e.g., 'Dolly' the sheep, which was identical to its
mother
Budding: an asexual reproduction method in which a new organism develops from a bud of an
existing organism. Until the new organism matures, it remains attached to the parent organism.
Hydra and yeast, for example, reproduce by budding.
Grafting: an artificial method of asexual reproduction used to produce plants combining
favorable stem characteristics with favorable root characteristics. The stem of the plant to be
grafted is known as the scion, and the root is called the stock.
Tissue Culture: a form of artificial asexual reproduction in plants. Tissue culture is also known
as micropropagation. It is a method where large number of plants are propagated from a single
parent in a short period under laboratory conditions.
Cuttings: portion of a leaf, stem, or root off the parent plant then replanting and therefore the
plant begins to grow. This is the most common and widely used form of vegetative propagation.

The Process Of Sexual Reproduction In Plants And In Humans;

Sexual Reproduction in Humans:
There are male and female organisms that look different. They make a wide variety of gametes,
by meiosis, with half the usual number of chromosomes.
- The male makes the sperm.
- The female makes the eggs.
A sperm and egg join together in fertilization to make a fertilized egg (zygote) with the normal
number of chromosomes. This grows into the offspring. Because the gametes are different from
each other, then so are the offspring.
Integrated Science Theory Notes

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants:

In many plants the male and female gametes are made in the same flower.
- The male gamete is the pollen in the stamen.
- The female gamete is the egg in the ovary.
These gametes are formed by meiosis and have half the usual number of chromosomes. With
fertilization they make a fertilized egg (zygote) with the normal number of chromosomes. The
zygote grows into the offspring. The gametes are different from each other, and so are the
offspring.

The Menstrual Cycle

Stages in the menstrual cycle
Days 1-5: period - bleeding occurs as the lining of the uterus breaks down.
Days 5-14: - uterus lining builds up again with lots of blood vessels.
Day 14: ovulation - egg is released. Days 14-28: uterus wall is maintained- if fertilization does
not occur, the cycle begins again with the next period.

Roles of Estrogen and Progesterone Mention Menopause:

Estrogen: Estrogen regulates the growth, development, and physiology of the human
reproductive system. This hormone also influences neuroendocrine, skeletal, adipose, and
cardiovascular systems. Estrogen is an important sex hormone produced primarily by the ovaries
in females and testes in males.
Progesterone: to prepare the endometrium (lining of your uterus) for a fertilized egg to implant
and grow. If a pregnancy doesn't occur, the endometrium sheds during your menstrual period. If
conception occurs, progesterone increases to support the pregnancy.
Menopause: A point in time 12 months after a woman's last period. The years leading up to that
point, when women may have changes in their monthly cycles, hot flashes, or other symptoms,
are called the menopausal transition or perimenopause. The menopausal transition most often
begins between ages 45 and 55.
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Puberty
Puberty begins in girls from 8 to 16 years (most often 10 or 11 years) and in boys from 10 to 17
years (most often 12 or 13 years). The pituitary gland (see page 118) produces hormones that
activate the ovaries (in girls) and the testes (in boys).
The testes start to produce the male hormone testosterone, which in turn causes the development
of the male secondary sexual characteristics.
- The ovaries start producing female hormones called oestrogen and progesterone, which
then cause development of the female secondary sexual characteristics.

- Girls also start their monthly bleeding (periods, or menstruation). The cycle is roughly 28
days. It begins with the period, after which the uterus lining is built up under the control
of oestrogen.

- The egg is released on about day 14 (ovulation), under the control of the hormone LH
from the pituitary. Under the control of progesterone, the uterus wall is filled with blood.
If the egg is fertilized, the uterus lining develops as the placenta.

- If fertilization does not occur, the lining is shed as the next period.

Ovulation, Fertilization, Implantation, Development of The Fetus and Birth

Ovulation: The release of an egg from an ovary during the menstrual cycle.
Fertilization: The action or process of fertilizing an egg or a female animal or plant, involving
the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
Implantation: The act of setting in firmly. In embryology, implantation refers specifically to the
attachment of the fertilized egg to the uterine lining, which occurs approximately 6 or 7 days
after conception (fertilization).
Development of Fetus and Birth
During fertilization, the sperm and egg unite in one of the fallopian tubes to form a zygote. Then
the zygote travels down the fallopian tube, where it becomes a morula. Once it reaches the
uterus, the morula becomes a blastocyst. The blastocyst then burrows into the uterine lining — a
process called implantation.
Integrated Science Theory Notes

Various Methods of Birth Control

Natural Method: a method of contraception where a woman monitors and records different
fertility signals during her menstrual cycle to work out when she's likely to get pregnant.
Examples of Natural Methods:
Chemical Methods: These use chemicals, such as spermicides or contraceptive pills.
Examples: Foam, Cream, gel. Film, suppository, tablet.
Barrier Methods: Prevent sperm and egg from meeting.
Examples: Condoms, Diaphragm, vaginal spermicides
Surgical Methods: Tubes are cut to prevent sperm or eggs being released from the body.
Examples: Vasectomy,

The Importance of Pre- and Post-Natal Care Of Mothers And Babies;

Pre-natal Care
Before a woman knows she is pregnant, her baby's brain and heart have started to form. If a
woman and her partner are trying for a baby, it is important they both cut down on alcohol and
smoking, and have a healthy diet and exercise. The woman should also have supplements of folic
acid for 3 months before and after conception, and visit a pre-natal clinic for advice. The
additional folic acid can reduce the likelihood of the embryo developing spina bifida. The pre-
natal clinic will check blood pressure, hemoglobin levels and monitor development.
Post-natal care

The effects of nutrition, drugs, x-rays and diseases

X-rays: can cause damage to the developing tissues of the fetus. They have been largely replaced
by the use of ultrasound. examination, which works like an echo and from which the doctor can
see the developing baby.
Drugs: can easily travel from the mother to the fetus. This is especially dangerous during the
first 3 months when the nervous system and other organs are developing. The drug thalidomide,
used in the 1960s, caused some babies to be born without fully formed arms and legs. Mothers
who smoke (see page 82) are more likely than non-smokers to have a miscarriage, abnormalities
Integrated Science Theory Notes

of the placenta, and to produce smaller babies. If the mother drinks alcohol, it may also damage
her baby. Even the use of aspirin has been linked with certain birth defects. The best advice is
NOT to drink alcohol, smoke or use drugs (especially hard drugs) during pregnancy.

Diseases: Some diseases travel from the mother to the fetus. For example, if a mother has
German measles in the first month of pregnancy there is a 50% chance the baby will be born deaf
or with brain damage or heart disease. The mother should be vaccinated (see page 95) when
younger. If the mother suffers from syphilis, herpes or AIDS the baby may catch the disease and
become seriously ill or even die. These diseases must be treated.

Advantages Of Breast Feeding, And Immunization.

Advantages of Breast Feeding:

- Help protect babies against some short- and long-term illnesses and diseases.
- Breastfed babies have a lower risk of asthma, obesity, type 1 diabetes, and sudden infant
death syndrome (SIDS). Breastfed babies are also less likely to have ear infections and
stomach bugs.

Advantages of Immunization:
1. Immunizations can save your child's life.
2. Vaccination is very safe and effective.
3. Immunization protects others you care about.
4. Immunizations can save your family time and money.
5. Immunization protects future generations.

Use of ultrasound
Diagnostic ultrasound, also called sonography or diagnostic medical sonography, is an imaging
method that uses sound waves to produce images.

The causes, symptoms, prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections

 STI’s: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can be passed on during any form of sexual
intercourse. They may also be passed on during childbirth, and, for HIV, through infected
blood or saliva. STIs vary in their seriousness. But if a person has a lifestyle that means
they might pick up STIs, then it is possible they could pick up HIV and later suffer from
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AIDS. It is better to take precautions, such as using a condom, to help prevent infection
by STIs.
 Herpes: Herpes is caused by a virus. Symptoms occur 4 to 7 days after infection. In both
men and women there is itchiness around the sexual organs, followed by blisters and
painful sores, high temperature and feeling unwell. There is no simple treatment,
although half the people do develop resistance. Otherwise, anti-viral ointments can be
used. This is especially important for mothers, as 40% of babies are infected during birth,
and this can cause serious brain damage, blood poisoning or even death.
 Gonorrhea: caused by a bacterium. Symptoms occur 1 to 2 weeks from infection. In the
man there is some discomfort on passing urine, and perhaps some pus. Samples are taken
and tested. As there may not be visible symptoms in the woman, a man will have to ask
for his sexual partner to be examined and treated. Treatment is a full course of antibiotics
such as penicillin.
 Syphilis: is caused by a bacterium. Symptoms occur 9 to 90 days from infection. A hard
sore or bump develops on the penis (or the anus in homosexuals) and around the vulva in
women. At this stage it is very infectious, and this is when it should be treated. The sore
may heal, but the infection has not been cured unless antibiotics have been given. If the
infection is ignored, it goes into a second and third stage, getting worse and worse, and
can eventually lead to damage of body systems and death. Treatment is a full course of
antibiotic injections, given as early as possible.
 Hepatitis: inflammation of the liver. The liver is a vital organ that processes nutrients,
filters the blood, and fights infections. When the liver is inflamed or damaged, its
function can be affected. Heavy alcohol use, toxins, some medications, and certain
medical conditions can cause hepatitis.

 Aids:

 Candida (thrush): caused by a fungus but does not harm general health. It is very
common in small amounts and is controlled by acid secretions from the woman.

GROWTH PATTERNS IN SELECTED ORGANISMS;

Growth is not just an increase in size. For example, a seed placed in water will get bigger, but
this can be reversed if the seed dries out. Growth is an irreversible increase in size, together with
the production of new protoplasm.
The main ways we measure growth are:
- Increase in height, e.g., height of a stem, or human height, measured over time.
- Increase in mass, e.g., mass of seedlings or of a growing child, measured over time.
Growth Development in flowering plants Growth & Development in human
Integrated Science Theory Notes

Occurs at root and shoot tip and leaf tips
Leads to a branched shape of root and shoot
Growth continues throughout life
Growth is controlled by plant hormones
(auxins)
Reproduction is asexual or sexual
Occurs as cells divide all over the body
Leads to a compact shape with trunk and
limbs
Growth ceases at maturity; repair continues
Growth recorded by measuring height, mass
or length at parts at certain intervals of time.
Reproduction is sexual

Control of growth and development

 Flowering plants: growth is controlled by plant hormones (auxins). For example, these
cause the growth of stems towards light coming from one direction.
 Humans: the overall control is by the growth hormone from the pituitary. At puberty
other pituitary hormones cause the release of eggs and sperm. They also stimulate the
ovaries and testes to produce their sex hormones, causing the development of secondary
sexual characteristics.
Integrated Science Theory Notes

The need for human population control

What controls population growth:
- Population growth = birth rate minus death rate. Immigration (people coming into a
country) and emigration (people leaving) also affect the growth rates of countries.
- Starvation and wars: Famines and wars reduce the populations of some countries.
- Birth control

EFFECTS OF POPULATION PRESSURES ON QUALITY OF LIFE, WORLD FOOD

PRODUCTION AND LIMITED MATERIAL RESOURCES
1. Water supplies: Water is needed for drinking and development. Where water is scarce,
over-population makes it worse and can lead to loss of crops, starvation and perhaps
future wars.
2. Quality of life: Overcrowding means poor living conditions, increased problems from
crime and unemployment.
3. Limited material resources: more energy is needed, and so fossil fuels are used up more
quickly. This also contributes to global warming.
4. Problems of food production: it is difficult to supply food for increasing numbers of
people. If fewer people ate meat, then plant foods could feed more people.
5. How the land is use: the increase un population, more land is needed for houses,
factories, roads, etc. and so there is less for growing food.

FOOD AND NUTRITION

The Process of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use simple substances and combine them using the
energy in sunlight. The light energy is changed into chemical energy in the food.