ASE 1202: Electrical Devices

Transformer

Dr Soh Chew Beng

Aerospace tactical power Planar transformer up

transformer AC voltage to 75W power rating Medium distribution
conversion from 50VA to 5KVA transformer up to 3,000KVA
 Objectives -Learning Outcome

The objectives of this chapter is to enable students to learn

1. The relationship between flux linkage, flux density and inductance

of the magnetic core (recap)
2. The operating principle and construction feature of the transformer
with consideration of possible losses
3. To apply the equivalent circuit representation of transformer
4. The calculation of the voltage regulation and efficiency of the
transformer
5. To apply the open and short circuit test for determination of
equivalent circuit parameters of the transformer

2
 Outline

• Background and Introduction

• Theory of Operation and Faraday’s Law
• Losses in Transformer
• Construction feature of transformer and its losses
• Inductance and magnetic energy
• Ideal and actual Transformer
• Equivalent circuit representation for transformer
• Approximate equivalent circuit for transformer
• Voltage regulation and efficiency
• Open circuit and short circuit test
• Different types of transformer: autotransformer

• References 3
Background

A transformer is a device which is used to convert AC electric energy

at one voltage and current level to AC electrical energy at another
voltage and current level by means of electromagnetic Induction. The
frequency of the AC power remains the same.

Electrical Distribution System

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fqk0G1yDjeY&list=PLLSJ4QFrqwiKqGNAQrGhlsr
Vkb6bdODQ- 4
 Introduction

The transformer makes possible the

electrical generation at an
economical generator voltage, power
transfer at an economical
transmission voltage and power
utilization at the most suitable
voltage for the particular utilization
device for high voltage AC system
Power Transformer substation at Bouna Vista MRT
The transformer is also used in low Testing Electrical Substations
power circuitry . Low current https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9Z
2VNRat1c
electronic and control circuits for
Meiden Singapore Corporate 2012: Power
matching of impedance of a source and distribution transformer used by SMRT
and its load for maximum power and Singapore Power
transfer, isolating one circuit from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWlNPnI
another kfOo 5
Introduction

Various Transformers
• The transformer is used in various
system such as in power generation
plants, substation in the transmission
and even in electronic home appliance
like the amplifier, computer and etc.

• There is no moving part and there is no

electrical connection between the
primary and secondary circuit.

• The step down transformer is able to

reduce a high voltage to a low voltage
with minimal loss of power.

6
 Introduction : Construction Principle

Ip
IS

• It is constructed with separate set of wire windings (primary and

secondary windings) wound on ferromagnetic core.

• There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary

circuit.

• The laminated core reduces the eddy current 7

 Polarity Marking

Voltages in phase

• The secondary and the primary voltage of the transformer can be in phase
or out of phase with one another.

• This depends on the direction which the winding are wound and also the
arrangement to the connection of the external circuit (Load).
8
Polarity Marking

Voltages Out of phase

• Like wound transformer: secondary and primary voltage are in phase

• Unlike wound transformer: The primary and the secondary are out of
phase
9
 Introduction :Transformer Symbol

Transformer Symbol

Step Up Transformer Step Down Transformer

10
Theory of Operation

• As AC current flows through the primary winding, the magnetic fields

generated vary with time based on its frequency.

• When placed near the primary, the secondary coil will receive the
induced voltage (emf) from the changing magnetic field of the primary.

• The induced voltage (emf) will produces a current flow if it is connected

to the circuit. 11
Theory of Operation: Faraday’s Law (recap)
d
Faraday’s Law can be stated as below emf 
dt
Where λ is the total flux linkage of the closed path. If the closed
path consists of winding with N-turns and we assume that each turn
links the same flux, φ, then the induced emf is given by

d d d d
emf  N   N    N
dt dt dt dt

The induced voltage of the coil

is proportional to the product
of the number of loops of the
coil and the rate at which the
magnetic field changes within
the loops.
10
 Constructional Feature of Transformer
𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐

𝐼𝐼1 φ 𝐼𝐼2
+
-
𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 Load
- +

FIG 1 Elementary Model of Transformer

Although the conventional design of transformer as in Fig 1 is convenient in

analysing and illustrating the principle involved, it is unacceptable as there
is a large leakage flux.
To minimize the leakage flux and to improve magnetic coupling between
the two winding, closed core type (with multiple group winding) and
shell-core type configuration can be adopted. 12
Losses in transformer

• Eddy Currents
• Hysteresis losses

• Stray Magnetic Coupling

• Winding Resistance

14
 Losses in transformer: Eddy current loss

The alternating current in transformer

Eddy current loss winding generates an alternating
magnetic field (B, green arrows)
within the transformer steel core. The
time variation of flux in the core
caused an eddy current loops to be
induced (red line) which flows in
plane perpendicular to the field. The
current flowing through the resistance
of the core dissipates energy as heat,
Solution causing energy losses.
To reduce the power losses, instead of a solid core (left) many transformers
use a laminated core (right). The core is made of a stack of thin steel
laminations, with a nonconductive coating on its surface. Hence, the eddy
currents is confined within the thickness of each individual lamination,
and with smaller area, its magnitude will be lower. 15
Losses in transformer: Eddy current loss

Eddy current loss To minimize eddy current losses in

high frequency applications, iron
powder can be used for the core.

The iron granules are individually

coated with electrically insulating
materials which makes it a non-
conductive. This is used for
transformer operating in high radio
frequency

Eddy current losses are more

prevalent at higher frequencies

16
 Thin steel lamination for magnetic core
The losses in the transformer are due mainly to
voltages induced in the iron circuit, which is
constantly being subjected to the alternating
magnetic fields setup by the external sinusoidal
supply voltage. One way to reduce these
unwanted power losses is to construct the
transformer core from thin steel laminations.

The central iron core of transformer is

constructed from of a highly permeable material
made from highly resistive thin silicon steel
laminations assembled together to provide the
required magnetic path with minimum losses due to eddy current. These
steel transformer laminations vary in thickness’s from between 0.25mm to
0.5mm and as steel is a conductor, the laminations are electrically insulated
from each other by a very thin coating of insulating varnish or by oxidation
17
Losses in transformer: Hysteresis loss

The core of the transformer is

made up of steel with domains in
their structure. The domains are
the small randomly distributed
grains in the steel core and they
have their own magnetic dipoles
(shown as red arrows). Energy is
required to orientate (align) the
magnetic dipoles during
magnetization and this is
dissipated as heat in the core
Solution
To reduce the hysteresis loss, the core material is usually made up of
good quality electrical steel having a narrow hysteresis characteristic
loop. 18
 Closed core and Shell type configuration

In closed core type

configuration, the
magnetic circuit takes
the form of a single ring
encircled by two or
more groups of primary
and secondary windings
distributed around the http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/transformer-
periphery of the ring. construction.html
In general, the core will consists of stack of thin laminations to reduce eddy
current.

In shell-type transformer, the primary and secondary windings take the

form of a common ring that is encircled by two or more rings of magnetic
materials distributed around its periphery.
19
Inductance and Magnetic Energy (recap)

𝐼𝐼1 φ Neglecting leakage flux, the

magnetic flux
+ - F Ni Ni
𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2   
𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐼𝐼2 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐+ R R l  A ----[2]
-
Where
l = mean length of the flux path
FIG 2 Elementary Model of Transformer A = cross-sec area of core
 = permeability of the core
Consider the magnetic circuit as
shown in Fig 2. The current, 𝑖𝑖 which The self inductance of the coil;
flows produces a magnetic flux,φ.
The total flux linkage, λ of the coil total flux linkage of the coil 
with N turn is given by L 
current producing the flux i

  N -----[1] ---[3]
20
Inductance and Magnetic Energy (recap)

Substituting eqn [2] into [1] and Consider the second coil on the right leg
divide by current, 𝑖𝑖 of the magnetic circuit in Fig 2. Assuming
that only the first coil is excited (𝑖𝑖1≠ 0)
 N 2 A but second coil is not energized, (𝑖𝑖2 = 0)
L  Then the mutual inductance:
i l
total flux linking coil 2 21
When the voltage applied in Fig 2 is
M 21   -----[5]
current through coil 1 i1
time varying as shown, then the
current and the flux is also time
The total flux linkage in coil 2;
varying;
21  N 221
By Faraday’s Law, the induced emf; -----[6]
M 21  N 221 / i1
d  d  Li  di
e  L --------[4] N1i1 N1i1
dt dt dt where 21  
R l A 21
The mutual inductance, L21

  A  -----[7]
M 21  N 2 N1  
 l 

Similarly if only the second coil is excited (𝑖𝑖2≠ 0) but first coil is
not energized, (𝑖𝑖1 = 0) Then the mutual inductance

total flux linking coil 1 12

M 12  
current through coil 2 i2
  A 

And M 12  M 21  N 2 N1   -----[8]
l

22
Example 1
The magnetic circuit as shown in Fig 1 has the following dimensions : 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 =
12𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 ,𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = 50𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 . The relative permeability of the magnetic core is µ𝑟𝑟 =
20,000. The first coil has 𝑁𝑁1 = 500 turns and the second coil has 𝑁𝑁2 =
1000 turns.

a. The first coil is supplied with a current of 𝑖𝑖1 = 10𝐴𝐴, while the second is
left unenergized (open circuit). Calculate the self –inductance, 𝐿𝐿11 of
coil 1 and the mutual inductance between the two coils.
b. The first coil is de-energized (𝑖𝑖1 = 0𝐴𝐴), while the second is connected
to a source form which it draws a current of 𝑖𝑖2 = 8𝐴𝐴. Calculate the self
inductance 𝐿𝐿22 of coil 2 and the mutual inductance, 𝐿𝐿12 between the
two coils
Solutions A. The reluctance of the magnetic circuit
lc 50102 3
Rc    16.58 10
r 0 Ac 20, 0004 107 12104 
23
Example 1

a. The first coil is supplied with a current of 𝑖𝑖1 = 10𝐴𝐴, while the second is
left unenergized (open circuit). Calculate the self –inductance, 𝐿𝐿11 of
coil 1 and the mutual inductance between the two coils.
A. The magnetic flux φ1 due to the current in coil 1 ;
Solutions
N1i1 500 (10)
1    0.30 Wb
Rc 16.5810 
3

The flux linkage of the two coils are given by

11  N11  (500)(0.30)  150 Wb t

21  N 21  (1000)(0.30)  300 Wb t

The self inductance of coil 1 is;

L11  11 i1  150 /10  15 H
The mutual inductance is given by;
M 21  21 i1  300 / 10  30 H 24
B. The first coil is de-energized (𝑖𝑖1 = 0𝐴𝐴), while the second is connected to a source from
which it draws a current of 𝑖𝑖2 = 8𝐴𝐴. Calculate the self inductance 𝐿𝐿22 of coil 2 and the
mutual inductance, 𝐿𝐿12 between the two coils

B. The magnetic flux φ2 due to the current in coil 2;

Ni (1000)(8)
2  2 2  3
 0.48Wb
Rc (16.5810 )
The flux linkage of the two coils are given by
12  N12  (500)(0.48)  240 Wb t
22  N 22  (1000)(0.48)  480 Wb t
The self inductance of coil 2 and its mutual inductance, L12 is;
L22  22 i2  480 / 8  60 H
M 12  12 i2  240 / 8  30 H
25
Ideal Transformer

1. There is no leakage flux in the magnetic core. This implies that the
fluxes produced by the primary and the secondary currents are
confined within the core.

2. The windings have no resistances. Therefore the applied voltage is equal

to the induced primary voltage 𝑒𝑒1 that is 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑒𝑒1

3. The magnetic core is lossless. Hysteresis loss and eddy current losses are
negligible

4. The core has infinite permeability. This implies that reluctance of the coil
is zero. Negligible current is required to set up the magnetic flux.

How does a transformer work

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vh_aCAHThTQ

26
Let the mutual flux which links both The ratio of the induced voltage;
coil be sinusoidal V1 E N
 1  1 a
m   p sin t V2 E2 N2
As core is lossless, the mmf
According to Faraday’s Law of
produces by primary winding is
electromagnetic induction; the induced
equal to that of the secondary
emf ;
d 1 d emf N i  N i
e1   N1 m   p N1 cos t 1 1 2 2
dt dt
The primary and secondary
d d
e2  2  N 2 m   p N 2 cos t voltage, current and impedance
dt dt
is related by;
Rms of induced voltage
V1  aV2 , I1  1 a  I 2
1 
E1   p N1 where f  V1 a 2V2
2 2   Z1  a 2 Z 2
d 1 I1 I2
E2  2   p N 2
dt 2 27
Example 2

The 60Hz ideal transformer is rated as 220/110V. An inductive load Z 2  10  j10 

is connected across the low voltage side at rated secondary voltage.
Calculate the following;
a. Primary and secondary current
b. Load impedance referred to the primary
c. Power supplied by the source

I1
+
+ + +
φ
V1 E1 aE2 aV2 Z 21  a 2 Z 2
- -
-
-

28
 A. The turn ratio is
a  V1 / V2  220 /110  2
The primary and the secondary current is
V2 1100o
I2    7.78 45o A
Z 2 10  j10
I1  I 2 / a  0.5 7.78 45o A  3.89 45o A

B. The load impedance referred to the

primary side is
Z1  a 2 Z 2  (2) 2 10  j10  40  j 40 
c. Power supplied by the source is
P1  P2  V2 I 2 cos   1107.78 cos 45o  605W
2
P1  P2  I 22 R2  7.78 10  605W
29
Transformer with load connected at the
secondary winding
• When a load is connected to secondary
winding of a transformer, the voltage is
induced in the secondary windings.

• This cause a current to flow through the

secondary and the load. This current
produces a flux field in the secondary shown
as broken lines which is in opposite to the
flux field in the primary (by Lenz’s Law)

• With less flux in primary, induced emf is

reduced and the primary will increase it
current to generates more flux lines to attain
its original level.

• This is the phenomenon of mutual inductance when magnetic field in the

primary interacts with secondary.
30
Equivalent circuit of Actual transformer
(with load)
i 1
R1 L1 i' N : N R2
2 1 2
L2 i2
ie + +
+
+
v1 e1 e2 v2 Load
R c1 L m1 -
- -
-

FIG 3 Equivalent circuit of a transformer

The inductor L m1 represented the core magnetization and
Resistor R1 and R2 represented the copper losses while Rc1 represented
the hysteresis and eddy current loss.
Assume to remain constant during transformer operation and it is rated
with reference to primary side

The current flowing the primary coil after omitting the current through
'
the core related elements, Rc1and L m1 : i2  i1  ie 31
Transformer equivalent circuit in phasor form

I1 R1 jX 1 I 2' N1 : N 2 R2 jX 2 I 2
ie + +
+
+
V1 E1 E2 V2 Load
R c1 jX m1 -
- -
Ic Im -

FIG 4 Equivalent circuit of a transformer in phasor form

The primary and secondary terminal voltage, V1 and V2 V1  aV2 
The primary and secondary induced voltage, E1 and E2  E1  aE2 
The primary leakage reactance, jX 1  j 2 f L1
The secondary leakage reactance jX 2  j 2 f L2
The magnetizing reactance, jX m1  j 2 f Lm1
The magnetizing current and reactance, I m , X m
The current and resistance representing the core losses I c , Rc
The excitation current, I e  I m  I c 32
Referred transformer equivalent circuit
I2
I1 R1 jX 1 a
a 2 R2 a 2 jX 2
+ Ie +
E1  aE2
V1 aV2
R c1 jX m1
-
Ic Im -

FIG 5 referred to primary

33
Approximate equivalent circuit

I2
Re1 jX e1 I1 a
+ +

V1 Rc aV2
jX m
- -

Fig 6 shunt magnetization branch is moved from the

middle of T-circuit to aV2

38
Approximate equivalent circuit

1. All the quantities are referred to the same side of the transformer

2. The shunt magnetization branch is moved from the middle of T-

circuit to either the primary or secondary terminal as shown in Fig
6a and 6b respectively. This ignored the voltage drop across the
primary and secondary winding as a result of exciting current.

3. The primary and secondary winding resistances are combined to

2
give the equivalent resistance referred to the primary side Re1  R1  a R2
or the secondary Re 2  R1 / a 2  R2 . Similarly for the reactance, the
equivalent reactance referred to the primary X e1  X 1  a 2 X 2 or to
2
the secondary X e 2  X 1 / a  X 2

39
 Transformer with no load
Ic
Io

Ic jX m1 I m1 I m1
R c1
Io
Phasor Diagram showing No
Load Conditions

FIG 6. Equivalent Model of Transformer with No Load on Secondary

• With no load connected to the secondary, the current in the primary is just
enough to establish the magnetic flux needed for the transformer action and
to supply the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the iron.

• This no load current, called the exciting current varies from 1 to 2% of rated
current in large transformer and as high as 6% of rated current in small
distribution transformer 36
Voltage Regulation

The amount of secondary current supplied by the distribution / power

transformer to the load connected to its secondary terminal is determined
by the load’s impedance. A measure of how much the load voltage will
change as its impedance is varied is called voltage regulation;

The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the change in the

magnitude of the secondary voltage I 1 I 2

as its current changes from full +

+ + +
load to no load condition V 1φ E aE 1 aV Z a Z
2 2
21
2
2

- - -
V2,nl  V2, fl -
Voltage Re gulation  100%
V2, fl
V1  aV2
 100%
aV2
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/transformer/voltage-regulation.html 40
Example 3

A transformer has an open circuit voltage of 110 volts. A tap-changing device

operates when the regulation falls below 3% under full load condition. Calculate
the load voltage at which the tap-changer operates.

Solutions VR =

V2,nl  V2, fl
Voltage Re gulation  100%
V2, fl
110V  V2, fl
3  100%
110V
V2, fl  106.7V

The load voltage at which the tap-changer operates is at 106.7 V

35
Efficiency

The percent efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of the

power output, Poutput to the power input Pinput

Poutput Poutput
 100%  100%
Pinput Poutput   losses 
Pinput   losses 
or  100%
Pinput
where
 losses  core Iron loss  copper loss
 losses  P   I R  I R 
core
2
1 1
2
2 2

 losses  P  I R
core
2
1 e1

 losses  P  I R
core
2
2 e2

41
Example 4

A 100 kVA, 2000 V/400 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has an iron

loss of 600 W and a full- load copper loss of 1600 W. Calculate (a) the
fraction of the full load (b) its efficiency, for a load of 60 kW at 0.8
power factor.
Solution

(a) Efficiency, η =

Full-load output power, PFL = Apparent power x PF

=V I cos φ = (100)(0.8) = 80 kW

Output Load power, PL = 60 kW

Hence the transformer is at 60/80 = 3/4 full load

42
Solution
(b) Hence, copper loss at 3/4 load = = 900 W

Total losses
, � 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

� 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢

=900 W+ 600 W = 1.5 kW

Input power, Pinput = output power + losses

= 60 kW + 1.5 kW = 61.5 kW

Poutput Poutput
Hence efficiency,  100%  100%
Pinput Poutput   losses 
60kW
 100%  97.56%
60kW  1.5kW
43
Determination of Equivalent Circuit parameters

Open circuit and Short circuit test is often used to determine the
parameters of the transformer equivalent circuit of Fig 1.11 (a) and (b)

Assumption made in the analysis is to decompose the equivalent

resistance and reactance into primary and secondary components with
R1  a 2 R2 and X 1  a 2 X 2 .

Let the primary (winding 1) be the high voltage side of the secondary be
the low voltage side (winding 2) of the transformer.

Open circuit test

The transformer rated voltage is applied to the low voltage side with the
high voltage side left open. Measurement are carried out on the low
voltage end.

46
 Open Circuit Test

AM
H1 HV LV
I oc
+

Open circuit VM Voc

Rated voltage
X m2
R c2 -
H2
FIG 8 Equivalent circuit for open circuit test

The magnitude and phase angle of the The complex admittance

admittance of the shunt excitation
Yo 2  Yo 2  o 2  Gc 2  jBm 2
branch of the equivalent circuit
referred to the low voltage side: The resistance and reactance;
1 1
I oc 
1  Poc
 Rc 2  jX m 2 
Yo 2  o 2   cos   Gc 2  jBm 2
Voc V I
oc oc 

47
 Short-Circuit Test
Continued from previous slide….. Open Circuit Test

These parameters are referred to the When rated voltage at rated

high voltage side to determine the frequency is applied during open
parameters of the equivalent circuit circuit test, the power input; Poc
in Fig 1.11a is equal to the rated core loss
Rc1  a 2 Rc 2 X m1  a 2 X m 2

Short circuit test

In the short circuit test, the low voltage side is short– circuited and the high
voltage side is connected to a variable, low voltage source. Measurement of
the power, current and voltage are made on the high voltage side as shown
in Fig 1.13. The applied voltage, Vsc (generally  0.1Voc ) is adjusted until the
short circuit rated current flows through the winding. As current through the
magnetizing branch is negligible as compared to that of series impedance,
most of applied voltage is dissipated at the latter.
48
 Short-Circuit (sc) Test
FIG 9 Equivalent circuit for short circuit test
AM
H1 R e1 X e1 I sc HV LV
+
Vsc Short
VM circuit
Re duced
voltage X m2
- H2 R c2
The magnitude of series impedance These parameters are referred to low
referred to primary Vsc voltage side to determine parameters of
Z e1  equivalent circuit in Fig 1.11b
voltage side I sc
 1   1 
The equivalent series resistance and 
Re 2   2  Re1 X e 2   2  X e1
 a   a 
reactance P
R e1  sc2  R1  a 2 R2 The rated current flows through the
I sc windings during sc test and power input,
2 2 2 Psc is equal to rated copper loss
X e1  Z e1  Re1  X 1  a X 2 49
Example 5

A 50-kVA, 2400/240 V, 60Hz single phase transformer has a short-circuit

test performed on its high voltage side. An open circuit test is performed
at its low voltage side. The following results were obtained.

Voltage (V) Current (A) Power

Short-circuit 48 20.8 620
(LV shorted)
Open-circuit 240 5.4 186
(HV open)

a. Draw the transformer’s equivalent circuit

At rated load of 0.8 power factor lagging, determine its
b. Voltage regulation
c. Efficiency at rated load

50
The rating of the transformer with the high voltage side as primary are as follows;

Rated primary voltage V1  2400 V

Rated Secondary voltage V2  240 V
Rated primary current I1  50, 000 / 2400  20.83 A
Rated secondary current I 2  50, 000 / 240  208.3 A
Turn ratio a  2400 / 240  10

(a) The equivalent circuit for the short- Z e1  Vsc I sc  48 / 20.8  2.30 
circuit test is as shown in Fig 9. The R  P / I 2  620 20.82  1.43 
e1 sc sc
series impedance parameters are as
2
calculated X e1  Z e1  Re12  2.32 1.432  1.80 

Equivalent circuit for the open-circuit test Y  I oc  5.4  0.0225 S

o2
is as shown in Fig 8. The parameters of Voc 240
shunt magnetizing branch are computed  
1  Poc  1 
 186 
2   cos     cos     81.8 o

Voc I oc   2405.4 

51
 I2
Re1  1.43  X e1  1.8 
a
Fig 10 Transformer equivalent
+ + circuit

V1 aV2
X m1 
R c1
- 4.48 k
 30.96  -

The admittance of the shunt Referring the shunt magnetizing

magnetizing current , branch to the high voltage side
Yo 2  0.0225 81.8o  3.23  j 22.3103 S Rc1  a 2 Rc 2  102 309.6  30.96 k
 Gc 2  jBm 2 X m1  a 2 X m 2  102  44.8  4.48 k
1 1
Rc 2    309.6 
Gc 2 3.23103 Transformer equivalent circuit can
X m2 
1

1
 44.8 
be plotted as in Fig 10
Bm 2 22.3103
52
(b) At rated secondary condition and
0.8 power factor lagging;
aV2  10 240 0o   2400 0o V
I 2 208.3 36.9o
  20.83 36.9o A
a 10
(c) At rated load, the power output
Poutput  50, 000 0.8  40, 000 W
 losses  core loss  copper loss
 Poc  I12 Re1
2
 186  20.83 1.43  806 W

The primary voltage is computed as PInput  Poutput   losses 

V1  aV2   I 2 a  Re1  jX e1   40, 000  806  40,806 W

 24000o  20.83 36.9o 1.43  j1.80

The efficiency of the transformer
 2446.3  j12.1  2446.40.3o V
power output
 100%
The percent voltage regulation power input
V1  aV2
100% 40, 000
aV2  100%  98%
40,806
2446.4  2400
 100%  1.9%
2400 53
(c) At rated load, the power output
Poutput  50, 000 0.8  40, 000 W

 losses  core loss  copper loss

 Poc  I12 Re1
2
 186  20.83 1.43  806 W
PInput  Poutput   losses 
 40, 000  806  40,806 W

The efficiency of the transformer

power output
 100%
power input
40, 000
 100%  98%
40,806
53
Types of Transformer: Autotransformer

Auto Transformer

• The Autotransformer has only one winding. Thus they can perform either
as a step up and a step down depending on the connection
• Winding is common to both the primary and the secondary, there is
saving in copper winding,
• Disadvantage: There is no isolation between the primary and the
secondary circuit which leads to input voltage being applied to the load.
• This can lead to excessive potential and breakdown of device (connected
to the load)
51
Types of Transformer: Autotransformer
Auto Transformer

Variable Autotransformers are used in power supplies to

provide adjustable AC voltage
52
Applications of Transformer: Power Transfer
• Transformer can be used to transform
impedance and to improve power
transfer to the load and this is called
Impedance matching.

• Impedance transformation allows a load

impedance to match with the source
impedance.

• To allow the theoretical maximum

power transfer, the load impedance
must be properly match to the source Impedance Matching
impedance.
• With internal impedance of 500Ω from the amplifier and the load
impedance of speaker to be 8.0 Ω, this leads to impedance mismatch
and results in poor power performance. This leads to power
dissipation in the form of heat to drive the low impedance speaker. 53
Applications of Transformer: Impedance Matching

𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 = 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 = 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 = 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 = 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐

• Where P1 = P2 for optimal 100%

transmission with no loss.
• The relationship between the
• A stepdown transformer can be primary and secondary impedance
used to matched the impedance and the turn ratio can be expressed
between the source and the load as:
𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐
Impedance. 𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐
• The relationship between the Where 𝑻𝑻
primary and secondary impedance 𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 = Primary circuit impedance
and the turn ratio can be expressed 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 = Secondary circuit impedance
as: T = secondary turn/ primary turn
54
 Example 6
A stepdown transformer can be used to matched the impedance
between the source and the load Impedance in A350 broadcasting
system. Determine the optimum value of load resistance for maximum
power transfer if the load is connected to an amplifier of output
resistance 147Ω through a transformer with a turns ratio of 7:2

The equivalent input resistance R1 of the transformer needs to be

147 Ω for maximum power transfer.

R1 =

from which, RL = R1 = 147 = 12Ω

55
Applications of Transformer: Current Transformer

Various Current Transformers

In the current transformer, the power

cable is the primary while the secondary
Various type of current is the thin wire wound around the core
transformer are used to and it is connected to the low resistance
measure current in the circuit load. The power conductor passes
without breaking into the circuit through the core 56
Applications of Transformer: Current Transformer

• The (primary) current I1 in the Caution

power cable sets up a flux in the
core and in turns induces a • If the primary current flows and
secondary current, I2. It is the secondary current is
inversely related to the turn ratio disconnected from its load, there
will not be secondary flux.
I 1 N2
 • This can lead to high core flux due
I2 N1
to the primary current resulting in
• As 𝑁𝑁2 > 𝑁𝑁1 , hence 𝐼𝐼2 < 𝐼𝐼1 a high secondary voltage and large
eddy currents in the core.
• As the current transformer core is
in contact with a very small length • Overheating and damage to the
of the primary cable, secondary current transformer may result.
flux does not affect the primary
57
current flow
Current Transformer used in SMRT 3rd Rail
current cable measurement
The clamp sensor (current transformer) to measure
the four 3rd Rail power cables and saves the data in
data logger

3rd Rail configuration

Matlab used to analyse the graph obtained for the

current fluctuation

DC switchboard to third
rail
58
References

1. Zia A. Yamayee, “Electromechnaical Energy Devices and Power Systems; John

Wiley and Sons. Inc.

2. Mulukula S. Sarma,” Electric Machines : Steady –State Theory and Dynamic

Performance” West Publishing Company, 1985.

3. A.E. Fitzgerald,” Electric Machinery”, McGraw Hill, 6th Edition, 2003

4. E-books Knovel
[a] Martin J. Heathcote, “J and P Transformer Book - A Practical Technology of
the Power Transformer (13th Edition)”

[b] Bhag S. Guru, “Electric Machinery and Transformers” (3rd Edition), Oxford
University Press (2001).

5. Journal Paper: “Influence of air-gap length and cross-sectin on magnetic circuit

parameters”, Radoslaw Jez et al. Proceedings of the 2014 COMSOL conference
in Cambridge.
58
End
61