ASE1202 Electrical Devices

Topic 6. AC Theory

Dr. Elsa Feng

Learning objectives

•Describe the sinusoidal variation in ac current and voltage,

and calculate their effective values.
•Write and apply equations for calculating the inductive and
capacitive reactance for inductors and capacitors in an AC
circuit.
•Describe, with diagrams and equations, the phase
relationships for circuits containing resistance, capacitance,
and inductance.

2
Frequency and periodic time

3
Many types of waveforms

4
Frequency and periodic time

•where t is the periodic time (in seconds) and f

is the frequency (in Hz).

5
Waveforms with different frequencies

Waveforms with different frequencies 6

Periodic time

7
Fundamental frequency and harmonics

• Fundamental Frequency
8
•3rd Harmonics
9
•5th Harmonics
10
2nd Harmonics
11
4th Harmonics 12
Square wave

•Square wave = Fundamental + all odd harmonics only

13
Pulse wave

Pulse Train and PWM and concept of duty cycle

14
Pulse Radar Terminology

15
Triangular waves

Positive Ramp Negative Ramp

16
Alternating Triangular Waveform Non-Alternating Triangular Waveform
with a Zero Average Value with a Non Zero Average Value

17
Three phase and three phase principles

•Three-Phase e.m.f Waveforms

18
 Three phase generation

Generation of Three Phase e.m.f.

Waveforms of Three Phase e.m.f.

Loop RR1 at instant of Maximum e.m.f. 20

21
Alternating currents

AC-voltage Emax

and current imax

E = Emax sin θ time, t

i = imax sin θ

22
Rotating vector description

E E = Emax sin θ

θ 1800 2700 3600

450 900 1350

Radius = Emax

23
Effective AC current
imax
The average current in a
I = imax
cycle is zero.

But energy is expended,

regardless of direction.
I2
So the “root-mean- I rms
= = 0.707 I
2
square” value is useful.

The RMS value Irms is The effective ac current:

sometimes called the
ieff = 0.707 imax
effective current Ieff. 24
AC definitions

Effective current: ieff = 0.707 imax

Effective voltage: Veff = 0.707 Vmax

26
Parameters of sine waves

•Consider the following sinusoidal waveforms.

Vmax v(t)
Imax i(t)
𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
2

t 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
θ 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
2

v(t) = Vmax sin (ωt) ; i(t) = Imax sin (ωt − θ)

where ω is the angular frequency measured in rad/sec; ω = 2πf
27
Pure resistance in AC circuits

R Vmax Voltage
imax
A V Current

a.c. Source

Voltage and current are in phase, and Ohm’s law

applies for effective currents and voltages.

Ohm’s law: Veff = ieffR

29
Pure Inductor in AC Circuit

L Vmax Voltage
imax
A Current
V

a.c.

• Voltage leads (peaks before) the current by 90°. Voltage and

current are out of phase.
30
Inductive reactance

L
•The back emf induced by a
changing current provides A V
opposition to current, called
inductive reactance 𝑿𝑿𝑳𝑳 .
a.c.

•Inductive reactance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 is a function of both the inductance and

the frequency of the ac current.

31
Calculating inductive reactance

Inductive Reactance:

L =X L 2π fL Unit is the Ω
A V

a.c.
Ohm’s law: VL = ieffXL

32
Capacitor in AC circuit

C
Vmax Voltage
A imax
V Current

a.c.

•The voltage peaks 90° after the current peaks. One builds as
the other falls and vice versa.

35
Calculate capacitive reactance

Capacitive Reactance:

C 1
=XC Unit is the Ω
2π fC
A V

a.c.

Ohm’s law: VC = ieffXC

36
Frequency and AC Circuits

Resistance R is constant and not affected by f.

Inductive reactance XL varies directly with f

X L = 2π fL R, X
XC XL
Capacitive reactance XC varies inversely with f
R

1
XC = f
2π fC
38
Some relationships

39
Mathematical representation of sinusoidal voltages
and currents
Phasor representation

• Consider the two sinusoidal time functions:

x(t) = X sin ωt, and y(t) = Y sin (ωt + θ)

• x(t), and y(t) are presented as the projections of two rotating vectors X
and Y on the vertical axis.

40
 t=0
ω
y(t)

Y x(t)
Y sin θ
θ

•The corresponding vector diagram is referred to as a

Phasor diagram.

41
Phasor diagram representations of L

v(t) = L di(t) ⁄ dt

 di 
v(t ) =  L  = (L I max ω cos ω t ) = ω L I max cos ω t
 dt 

42
Vmax v(t)
Imax i(t)

•Giving the following phasor diagram representation:

V
i
v

L
I
43
Phasor diagram representations of C

i(t) = C dv(t) ⁄ dt

dv
i (t ) = C = (C Vmax ω cos ωt ) = ω C Vmax cos ωt
dt

44
Vmax v
Imax
i

•Giving the following phasor diagram representation:

i
I
v

C V

45
Phasor diagram representations of R

v(t) = R i(t)

i(t) = Imax sin ωt

46
• Giving the following phasor diagram representation,
Vmax v(t)
Imax
i(t)

•The resistor current and voltage are in phase with each other.
i
v
R I V

47
Complex number representation of voltage and
current phasors

Im

Y = Y ∠ θ° = Ycosθ + j Ysinθ

θ X = X ∠ 0° = X cos0 + j Xsin0 = X

Re

• If we choose the phasor X as our reference phasor, it may be

written as X ∠ 0°. The phasor Y may then be written as Y∠θ°.
48
Complex number representation of voltage and
current phasors (Cont.)

•Multiplication of a phasor quantity by j (j = 1 ∠ 90°)

results in a 90° counter clockwise rotation with no
change in magnitude.

•Division by j (or multiplication by − j) results in a 90°

clockwise rotation with no change in magnitude.

49
Complex number representation of voltage and
current phasors (Cont.)
• For an inductor:
V = j XL I
where V and I are phasor quantities (i.e. complex numbers) and
XL is the reactance of the inductor given by ωL or 2πfL.

•The complex impedance Z, of an inductor is defined as:

Z = j XL (Ω)

50
 Complex number representation of voltage and
current phasors (Cont.)

• For a capacitor:

𝐕𝐕 = −𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝐈𝐈

where V and I are phasor quantities (i.e. complex numbers) and

XC is the reactance of the capacitor given by 1/ωC or 1/2πfC.

• The impedance of the capacitor Z is given by,

Z = − j XC (Ω) 51
Complex number representation of voltage and
current phasors (Cont.)

• For a resistor:

V=RI
Z=R
V=ZI

52
Complex number representation of voltage and
current phasors (Cont.)

R L C

1 1
Z = R + jω L + = R + jω L − j
j ωC ωC

53
Example of complex number phasor

•The total impedance of a series connection of a 10 Ω

resistor, an inductor of 1 mH and a 1500 µF capacitor
operating from a 50 Hz supply is given by

Z = 10 + j (2π×50) (1×10-3) – j [1 ⁄ (2π×50) (1500×10-6)]

= 10 + j (0.3) – j (2.1) = 10 – j 1.8.

54
Example of complex number phasor (Cont.)

• With 100V voltage applied to the circuit, the current

that will flow in the circuit is then given by

V 100 ∠ 0° 100 ∠ 0°
I= = = = 9.84∠ + 10.2°
Z 10 − j 1.8 10.16 ∠ −10.2°

55
Series RLC Circuits

VT Series ac circuit
A
a.c.
L R C

VL VR VC

58
Phasor diagram in a series RLC Circuit

V V = Vmax sin θ
VL
θ 1800 2700 3600

VR 450 900 1350

VC

59
Phasors and voltage in a series RLC Circuit

Phasor Source voltage

Diagram VT
VL VL - VC
θ
VR VR
VC

Note: the example here shows only the case where the magnitude of 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 is bigger than
that of 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 , resulting in an inductive circuit.
60
Calculating total source voltage

•Treating as vectors, we find:

Source voltage
VT = VR2 + (VL − VC ) 2
VT
VL - VC
θ
VR 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 − 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶
tan θ =
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅

61
Impedance in an series RLC circuit

Impedance VT = i R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2
Z
XL - XC
θ
•Impedance Z is defined:
R
Z= R 2 + ( X L − X C )2

VT
= or i
VT iZ=
Z
62
Resonant frequency in a series RLC circuit

Resonance (Maximum Power) occurs

XL XL = XC
when XL = XC
R
XC
Z= R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 = R

1 1
Resonant fr
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = fr =
XL = XC 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2π LC
63
Power in a series RLC circuit

Impedance In terms of ac voltage:

Z
XL - XC P = iV cos θ
θ
R In terms of the resistance R:
P lost in R only
P = i2R

The fraction Cos θ is known as the power factor.

64
Power factor

Components of Current due to Power Triangle

Phase Difference 66
Parallel RL circuit

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 =
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐿𝐿
=50/(j376.9)
= -j0.133

0.15H

1 1 1
= + Z= 352.68∠69.35 °
𝑍𝑍 𝑅𝑅 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿

𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = = 50/(352.68∠69.35 °)=0.142 ∠−69.35 °
𝑍𝑍

Power factor is cos (−69.35 °)=0.353, lagging. It is an inductive circuit.

68
Parallel RLC circuit example

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅 −𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐
1 1 1
= + +
188.49𝑗𝑗 100 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗.1

𝑍𝑍 = 92.46∠−22.39 °

30𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = = 0.324 ∠22.39 ° A
𝑍𝑍

Power factor is cos (22.39°)=0.924, leading. It is a

capacitive circuit.
74
 Summary

Effective current: irms = 0.707 imax

Effective voltage: Vrms = 0.707 Vmax

76
 Summary (Cont.)

Inductive Reactance: Capacitive Reactance:

1
XL 2π fL Unit is the Ω =XC Unit is the Ω
2π fC

Inductive Susceptance: Capacitive Susceptance :

= X L 1/ 2π fL Unit is Simens=
BL 1/= X C 2π fC Unit is simens
BC 1/=

77
 Summary (Cont.)

Complex number representation of RLC circuits

Z = j XL (Ω)

Z = − j XC (Ω)

Z = R (Ω)

78
 Summary (Cont.)

Power in AC Circuits:

In terms of ac voltage: In terms of the resistance R:

P = iV cos θ P = i2R

81
End of Topic 6