HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN

THE WORLD

A. Stone Age
This era, which started at the beginning of human existence until about 3,000 BCE, is
marked by the invention and use of stone tools by our early human ancestors and the eventual
transformation of the society from a culture of hunting and gathering to farming and food
production. This period is practically difficult for our ancestors because resources are not
abundant, and they are also living in the midst of wild animals making them easy targets/prey.
We know relatively little about this era because there are limited to no written accounts of the
human activities that occurred here. Only cave drawings, unearthed artifacts (such as stone
tools, bone tools) are available for us to study, leaving us with little capacity to contemplate.
Archaeologists have found Stone Age tools 25,000-50,000-year old all over the world. The
most common are daggers and spear points for hunting, hand axes and choppers for cutting up
meat and scrapers for cleaning animal hides. Other tools were used to dig roots, peel bark, and
remove the skins of animals. Later, splinters of bones were used as needles and fishhooks. A
very important tool for early man was flakes struck from flint. They could cut deeply into big
game for butchering. The Stone Age is divided into three separate periods – Paleolithic,
Mesolithic, Neolithic period – based on the degree of sophistication in the fashioning and use
of these stone tools.

B. Bronze Age
During the Bronze Age, advances in metallurgy to working were made, as
bronze, a copper and tin alloy, was discovered. Bronze is made up of 88% copper and
12% tin. Metals are obtained from ores (a naturally occurring solid material from
which a metal or valuable mineral can be extracted) through smelting. Now used for
weapons and tools, the harder metal bronze replaced its stone predecessors and helped
spark innovations, including the ox-drawn bronze plow and the wheel. The
Bronze Age changed the face of farming with the invention of irrigation, the process
of using man made canals and ditches to divert water from natural sources or
floodplains to fields for crops or to reservoir lakes to use at a later time, and the field
system, wherein they rotate the crops planted in a number of fields to replenish
nutrients in the soil. Historical records also tell us that the first ever soap of Human
History was invented during the Bronze Age. An equation for soap was found on the
Babylonian earth tablet that dated 2800 B.C. The three main ingredients of soap at
that time were cassia oil, water and soluble base also known as Alkali. Organized
government, law, and warfare, as well as beginnings of religion, also came into play
during the Bronze Age. It was during this time that ancient Egyptians built their
pyramids to honor their dead pharaohs. Likewise, the earliest written
accounts, including Egyptian hieroglyphs and petroglyphs (rock engravings), are also
dated to this age. It was also marked by the rise of states or kingdoms—large-scale
societies joined under a central government by a powerful ruler.

C. Iron Age
The Iron Age lasted roughly from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, depending on the region.
During this era, people across much of Europe, Asia and parts of Africa began making
tools and weapons from iron and steel. Iron was first smelted from ore in South
Caucasus (a region presently occupied by Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan).
Smelting iron, a metal harder than copper and tin, requires a more intensive process
and with the development of better smelting pits (equipment for smelting) that the
ability to produce higher temperatures paved the way to the extraction of iron from
ores. At this time, iron was seen as more precious than gold! Better, sturdier, and
more reliable agricultural tools were produced in this age making agriculture a lot
easier than the previous period. Gold and silver weights existed during the Bronze
Age, but the first coins, imprinted metal pieces for exchange, seem to have emerged
in Iron Age around 600 B.C. in Lydia, a kingdom on the Anatolia peninsula (modern-
day Turkey). These coins, imprinted with images like lions, had similar weight and
purity, and so may have been used as a form of currency. Agriculture, art, and religion
all became more sophisticated, and writing systems and written documentation,
including alphabets, began to emerge, ushering in the early historical period

MIDDLE AGES
Middle Ages is also known as the Medieval Period and has started with the fall of the
Roman Empire that lasted for 1,000 years until 1450. The beginning of the Middle
Ages is called the Dark Ages because the great civilizations of Rome and Greece had
been conquered. Life in Europe was very hard in the Middle Ages. Very few people
could read or write. Their lack of knowledge often led to superstitious beliefs. The
people thought that fate ruled their existence; therefore, there was little hope for the
improvement of their condition. During the years of the Roman Empire, the poor
people were protected by the emperor’s soldiers. When the empire fell, there were no
laws to protect them, so they turned to the lords to keep the peace and to act on their
behalf. This willingness to be ruled by the lords led to the beginnings of feudalism.
Some peasants were free, but most became serfs to a lord. This meant they were
bound to the lord’s land and paid very high rent to the lord. The peasants work the
lands of their lords and are obliged to give their lords homage, labor, and a share of
the produce in exchange for military protection. Despite the constant fear of death,
there was enough calm during the Middle Ages for great leaps forward in science and
invention. Some of the most notable inventions by Europeans in these times were
horse collar that pulls on horse’s shoulders to enable it to plough and carry wagons,
watermill that rotates and generate electricity from that movement, magnetic compass
that provides direction to European mariners/conquistadors and of course the clock.
The development of the verge escapement led to the creation of the first mechanical
clocks in around 1300 AD and had become the standard timekeeping device
in this period. It is in cloth making that the first industrialization occurred during the
Middle Ages. All cloth was woven by hand on a loom and the most common
materials of this time period were wool, cotton, silk, and linen. Another key
innovation in the 13th century was the introduction into Europe of the spinning wheel.
"The Great or Jersey” wheel, introduced around 1350, was the first improvement
made in the process of cotton spinning. Thread could be spun faster on the wheel than
with the traditional distaff. The final Medieval technical improvement to the spinning
wheel was the addition of a foot treadle that powered the wheel.

A. China: Middle Ages

While there was a decline in the economy and overall progress in the European region,
different countries in Asia flourished during this era, one of them was China. A lot of
useful inventions were made by medieval Chinese during these times. First is the
seismoscope, an early type of seismograph that determine the presence and direction
of an earthquake. Likewise, Chinese paper making started in 140 BC but was
officially used in writing at a later time (105 AD). The early uses of this paper were
for clothing, wall décor, artworks, and even in toilets. Next was the magnetic
compass. The first compasses were made of iodestone, a magnetized stone of iron, in
Han dynasty. It comes with a spoon that shows the direction, and is often used in
divination, a ritual to see and understand the future, during the Han dynasty. Cannon
was also developed in this time as weapons for military activities, as well as gun
powder, followed by vigorous development of explosive weapon about three centuries
before it appeared in Europe. They also had the acupuncture that utilizes needles for
medical therapy, first movable type printing made from pottery, wheelbarrow to carry
heavy loads and wagons as well as carry royalties around when they need to travel.

B. India: Middle Ages

India also made notable inventions that are still beneficial until this present day. They
were the ones to divide a year in 12 months. They also developed metallurgy
(science of smelting). The Ayurveda or Ayurvedic medicine was also established
during this time in India which is based on the belief that health and wellness depend
on a delicate balance between the mind, body, and spirit, and its main goal is not to
fight diseases but to promote good health. With the Indians’ great minds, they were
also able to come up with the concepts of square root and linear equation.

PRE COLUMBIAN AMERICA

that opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization of the
Americas. So, is it correct to say that Columbus “discovered” the Americas? No!
Because long before he invaded the region, there were already flourishing
civilizations in this part of the world. These are the Maya, Aztec, and Inca. These
civilizations thrived not in the present-day New York or in Texas but in the Meso-
American region or Middle America, which now extends from central Mexico down
through Central America, including the territory which is now made up of the
countries Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.

A. Maya
The Mayans excelled at agriculture, pottery, hieroglyph writing, calendar-making, and
mathematics, and left behind an astonishing amount of impressive architecture and
symbolic artwork. They made pyramids made out of limestone as a display of their
architectural prowess. Also, another notable fact about Mayans is that they used cocoa
beans as monetary units. And lastly, the most noteworthy of these inventions is the
Mayan solar calendar that sparked intrigue and even fear some 8 years ago (2012).

B. Aztec
Another civilization that existed in the pre-Columbian America was the Aztec. They
recorded astronomical observations in stone sculptures. They practiced farming by
slash and burn, a process of clearing forested lands by cutting trees and plants and
burning the remaining vegetation to create a land for agriculture. Also, one peculiar
ritual of the Aztecs is the human sacrifice. They used razor sharp obsidian blades and
sliced open the chests of the sacrificial humans and offered their still beating hearts to
their gods.
C. Inca
Contrary to the Aztecs’ slash and burn technique, the Incas utilized more advanced
farming method, which was terraces farming, just like what the Igorots did in Benguet.
They also built irrigation canals to provide access to stream water along with retaining
walls which deflected heat during the hot days but trapped it in at night, preventing
crops from dying from frostbite during the bitterly cold highland evenings. Incans
made their clothes by removing animals’ fluffy wool, such as that of the llamas and
alpacas. The Incas also worked out that it was possible to save the lives of their
injured men using a primitive form of brain surgery. The operations were designed to
reduce inflammation caused by serious head injuries and incorporated basic
anesthetics such as coca, tobacco, and alcohol to reduce discomfort.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
Scientific revolution is the name given to this period of drastic change in scientific
thought that took place during the 16th and 17th centuries. It replaced the Greek view
of nature (more on philosophical rather than empirical) that had dominated Science
for almost 2,000 years ago. Scientific Revolution is characterized
by an emphasis on abstract reasoning, quantitative thought, an understanding of how
nature works, the view of nature as a machine, and the development of an
experimental scientific method. The establishment of printing machine in this era
paved the way for the faster spread of new ideas and discoveries. Scientists and
scholars publish their works in order to spark interest and even challenge
contemporary ideologies at their time. This fast method of communication hustled up
the scientific interest of people. Scientific revolution is very significant in the
development of human, formulation of scientific ideas, and transformation of the
society. When humans produce scientific ideas, it benefits the society and in turn,
will definitely benefit individual humans in the society and the cycle goes on. Just
take a good look around you and be grateful of the things that arose from the
advancement of science. The 3 Cs – creativity, curiosity, and critical thinking, when
merged are the characteristics of a scientist influencing the ideas, discoveries, and
technologies developed and produced. We can all agree with
this – our science and technology will only be as good as our scientists and skilled
people. Some Intellectuals and their Great Revolutionary Ideas

A. Nicolaus Copernicus
In the early years, when virtually everyone believed Earth was the center of the
universe, Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the planets instead
revolved around the sun. It was later on proven to be true with the invention of
telescopes. Although his model wasn't completely correct, it formed a strong
foundation for future scientists to build on and improve mankind's understanding of
the motion of heavenly bodies. Copernicus also argued that Earth turned daily on
its axis and that gradual shifts of this axis accounted for the changing seasons.

B. Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler is now chiefly remembered for discovering the three laws of
planetary motion, which state that (1) the planets move in elliptical orbits with the
Sun at one focus; (2) the time necessary to traverse any arc of a planetary orbit is
proportional to the area of the sector between the central body and that arc (the “area
law”); and (3) there is an exact relationship between the squares of the planets’
periodic times and the cubes of the radii of their orbits (the “harmonic law”). He also
did important work in optics when he provided a new and correct account of how
vision occurs; he developed a novel explanation for the behavior of light in the newly
invented telescope he discovered several new, semiregular polyhedrons; gave the first
mathematical treatment of close packing of equal spheres (leading to an explanation
of the shape of the cells of a honeycomb; gave the first proof of how logarithms
worked; and devised a method of finding the volumes of solids of revolution that can
be seen as contributing to the development of calculus. Moreover, he calculated the
most exact astronomical tables hitherto known, whose continued accuracy did much
to establish the truth of heliocentric astronomy.

C. Isaac Newton
One of the most influential scientists in history, Sir Isaac Newton contributed
significantly to the field of science over his lifetime. And while the long-told tale of
an apple dropping on his learned head is likely apocryphal, his contributions changed
the way we see and understand the world around us. In optics, his discovery of the
composition of white light integrated the phenomena of colors into
the science of light and laid the foundation for modern physical optics. In mechanics,
his three laws of motion, the basic principles of modern physics, resulted in the
formulation of the law of universal gravitation. In mathematics, he was the original
discoverer of the infinitesimal calculus. Before Newton, standard telescopes provided
magnification, but with drawbacks. After much tinkering and testing, including
grinding his own lenses, Newton found a solution. Newton’s new “reflecting
telescope” was more powerful than previous versions, and because he used the small
mirror to bounce the image to the eye, he could build a much smaller, more practical
telescope. This simple telescope design is still used today, by both backyard
astronomers and NASA scientists.

D. Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution in which he wrote a full account
of in his book entitled “On the Origin of Species.” This theory states that diverse
groups of animals evolve from one or a few common ancestors by natural selection.
Darwin’s contributions also span into entomology, when he referenced at least 50
insects in his The Origin of Species, including his own observations on the similarity
of British and Brazilian freshwater insects, the importance of insects as pollinators,
and the evolution of cell making in honeybees, among other topics.

E. Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most known as the
founder of psychoanalysis with his development of talk therapy as an approach to
treating mental health problems. Freud’s theory of personality revolved around the
three components of the mind, namely the id, ego, and superego. The id is made up
of the unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires.
The superego is composed of people’s internalized ideals (what is right and what is
wrong) acquired from parents and society and works to suppress the impulsive
urges. Lastly, the ego mediates the demands of the id, superego, and reality.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter period of the
18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and America
into industrialized, urban ones. This era is the time when the manufacture of goods
moved from small shops and homes to large factories. This brought about changes in
culture as people moved from rural areas to big cities in order to work. This
revolution started in the Great Britain.

Gutenberg Revolution
The first European to successfully use movable type printing was Johannes Gutenberg.
The books printed using these presses in the beginning of the Gutenberg era are called
incunabula (cradle or birthplace). The first book of any note to be printed with
movable type printer was Gutenberg’s bible, published in 1456. Copies are still in
existence up to this date. With this type of printer, the passing of information was
made easier compared to when this printing press is still not available. Democracy
was born and the effects it had on society. It allowed people to have a voice who
couldn’t spread their messages before. It allowed people to read the Bible in their own
language, leaving it free to their interpretation. The printing press made literature
possible as a whole. Printed text taught people the discipline of literacy, a
powerful tool used to understand text and basic communication. If it weren't for
printed text and literacy, there would have been no way to record such media as a
hard copy.

Post-Gutenberg Revolution
This revolution’s hallmark was the use of computers, internet, and other information
technologies such as the World Wide Web. Now, we are able to upload and download
any material about anything under the sun with ease and convenience. Therefore, the
passing of information is much easier compared to the previous ones (e.g., via
printing machines). But as we all know, these technologies have great potential both
to benefit and to harm the societies that embrace them.

INFORMATION AGE
The information age began around the 1970s and is still going on today. It is also
known as the computer age, digital age, or new media age. This era brought about a
period in which people could access information and knowledge easily. This brought
about changes in the society from traditionally industrialized to one reliant on
information computerization.

Rise of the Digital Age

The modern computer was born out of the urgent necessity after the Second World
War to face the challenge of Nazism through innovation. But the first iteration of the
computer as we now understand it came much earlier when, in the 1830s, an inventor
named Charles Babbage designed a device called the analytical engine. It was a
general-purpose device that could compute many different problems. It was to be
digital, automatic, mechanical, and controlled by variable programs. In short, it would
solve any calculation you wished. It would be the first computer.