KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

UNIT 2:KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY

Learning Objectives:
 Describe the different physical states of matter
 Explain the interconversion of physical states of matter based on the kinetic
 particle theory and energy changes
 Describe and explain the evidence of the movement of substances
 State and deduce the effect of molecular mass on the rate of diffusion
 Explain the effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
 Matter takes up space and has mass.
 Matter can exist in three different physical states. They are solid, liquid and gas.
 The kinetic particle theory states that:
 Matter is made up of tiny particles. These tiny particles can be atoms, ions or
molecules.
 The particles have kinetic energy and hence, are in constant and random
motion.

The particulate model of matter

 The particulate model of matter is used to explain the properties and
characteristics of matter in different physical states.

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Using the paniculate model of matter to explain some common properties and
characteristics ofmatter.
Physical Explanation in terms of the particulate model of
Properties
state matter
solids  The particles are arranged in a fixed position
fixed volume and and a regular pattern.
shape  The strong attractive force prevents the particles
from breaking away from their fixed positions.

 The particles are closely packed together, so

not compressible
there is little spaces to squeeze them.
 The particles can only vibrate at their fixed
not able to flow
positions.
 The moderately strong attractive force prevents
fixed volume but them from escaping from their positions.
not fixed shape  However, the particles can move about and
slide past each other freely.
• The particles are able to move about and slide
liquids able to flow easily past
each other.
 The particles are arranged quite closely
not compressible together, so there are less spaces between
them.
take up the shape  The particles are able to move about within
of container confined spaces.

 The particles can move freely and randomly in

no fixed volume all the available spaces.
and shape  The negligible attractive force is not able to hold
them in confined spaces..
 The particles are far apart from each other, so
gases compressible
they are more spaces between them.
flow easily  The particles move freely at high speeds.
take the shape and  The particles are able to move freely in all
volume of directions to occupy every corner of the corner.
container
There are other properties or characteristics
i that can be explained by the particulate
model of matter such as density.

REVISION 1 CHECKPOINT
1. Matter is anything that occupies................................and has ………………………
2. What is the kinetic particle theory?
……………………………………………………………………………………………..

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3. (a) Describe the particulate model of matter in different physical states by
completing the table below.

solids liquids gases

arrangement

motion

attractive force
between particles

distance between
each other

(b) Draw the diagrams to represent the arrangement of particles in three

different physical states in the boxes provided below.

4. Explain the following physical properties of matter in terms of the kinetic particle
theory.
(a) A solid has a higher density generally in terms of arrangement of
particles.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) A liquid cannot be compressed easily in terms of distance between
particles.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(c) The expansion in gases is the fastest when heated in terms of motion and
distance.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..

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Learning Objective:
 Explain the physical state changes of matter in terms of the kinetic particle theory
and energy changes
ENERGY CHANGES DURING INTERCONVERSION OF PHYSICAL STATES
 A change in the physical state does not produce new substances. It is called a
physical change only.
 When a substance undergoes changes in physical states, energy is either given
out to the surroundings or taken in from the surroundings.
 When energy is given out to the surroundings, it is called exothermic. When
energy is taken in from the surroundings, it is called endothermic.
 A pure substance has a fixed melting point and boiling point. Changes in the
physical states of a substance takes place at these two particular temperatures.
 Energy is involved in the breaking down the attractive force or the formation
of attractive forcebetween particles during changes in physical states of a
substance.
 Energy changes during interconversion of physical states in substances:

Process Definition Energy Reason for

changes energy changes
to overcome the
 It is a process in which a solid
melting endothermic attractive force
changes into a liquid.
between particles
 It is a process in which a liquid
boiling
changes into a gas.
 It is a process in which a solid
sublimation changes into a gas directly without
becoming a liquid.
to allow the formation
condensatio  It is a process in which a gas
exothermic of attractive force
n changes into a liquid.
between particles
 It is a process in which a liquid
freezing
changes into a solid.
 It is a process in which a gas
deposition changes into a solid without
becoming a liquid.
 Evaporation is a process in which a liquid changes into a gas and is an endothermic.
However, this process is different from boiling because it takes place below the boiling
point of the substance.
The concept of endothermic and
i exothermic is applied to both
physical changes and chemical
changes.

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Kinetic particle theory and energy changes in the heating curve
Melting
 Heat energy absorbed from the
surroundings increases the kinetic
energy of the solid particles, so their
vibrations become more vigorous.
 At the melting point, the vibration is
strong enough to overcome the
attractive force between them.
 They start to break free from their fixed
positions and start to move about.
Melting takes place.
 The temperature remains constant
during melting because heat energy
taken in is used to break the
attractive force between the
particles. Thus, the average kinetic
energy of particles remains the same.
 During melting, the substance exists as
a mixture of solid and liquid.
Kinetic particle theory and energy changes in the cooling curve
Be able to relate the
i change in physical states
to the particulate model
of matter.
Boiling
 Heat energy absorbed from the
surroundings increases the kinetic
energy of the molecules in a liquid, so
they move about more vigorously.
 At the boiling point, their vigorous
movement is able to overcome the
attractive force between them.
 They start to move randomly in all
directions. Boiling takes place.
 The temperature remains constant
during boiling because heat energy
taken in is used to break the
attractive force between the
particles. Thus, the average kinetic
energy of particles remains the same.
 During boiling, the substance exists as
a mixture of liquid and gas.
1. Melting point =
i 2.
Freezing point
Boiling point =
Point of condensation
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Condensation
 The kinetic energy of the gaseous
particles decreases when they lose
heat to the surroundings, so they move
less vigorously.
 At the point of condensation, the
moderate attractive force between the
particles beings to form.
 The particles become closer and slide
past each other when they move.
Condensation takes place.
 The temperature remains constant
during condensation because heat
loss to the surroundings is
compensated by the heat given out
during the formation of attractive
force between the particles. Thus,
the average kinetic energy of particles
remains the same.
 During condensation, the substance
exists as a mixture of gas and liquid.
Freezing
 The kinetic energy of the liquid
particles decreases when they lose
heat to the surroundings, so they move
about less vigorously.
 At the freezing point, the strong
attractive force between the particles
begins to form.
 The particles become closely packed in
a regular manner and vibrate at the
fixed positions only. Freezing takes
place.
 The temperature remains constant
during freezing because heat loss to
the surroundings is compensated by
the heat given out during the
formation of attractive force
between the particles. Thus, the
average kinetic energy of particles
remains the same.
 During freezing, the substance exists
as a mixture of liquid and solid.

REVISION 2 CHECKPOINT

1. (a) Explain the following terms,

(i) Endothermic
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(ii) Exothermic
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) State the energy changes, endothermic or exothermic, for the following
processes.

Process Energy changes

melting

condensation

freezing

sublimation

boiling

(c) Why is energy changes involved when a substance undergoes a change

in physical state?
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2, The graph below shows changes in temperature of a substance.

Based on the graph above, answer each statement by using the letter T for true
statement and 'F' for false statement.
(a) There are two physical states observed at 105°C. ………
(b) The particles break free from the fixed positions to move about freely within
confined spaces at 5°C. ………
(c) This graph shows changes of temperature of a mixture. ………
(d) At 110°C, the substance does not have any fixed shape or volume anymore. …...
(e) At 25°C, heat energy does not increase the average kinetic energy of the
particles in the substance. ………
(f) At 105°C, the particles lose energy so that they can form attractive forces
between them. The distance between them decreases. ………
(g) At 50°C, the substance can take up the shape of any containers. ………

3. Draw, and label the temperature in which changes in physical state takes place
clearly, the heating curve and cooling curve for each substance on the axes
provided below.
(a) The melting point and boiling point of sulfur is -219°C and -183°C.

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(b) The melting point and boiling point of oxygen is 239°C and 832°C.

4. The diagram shows the heating curve of hexane.

(a) Name the processes taking place at the regions BC and DE.
BC:..................................................... DE:.............................................
(b) Using the knowledge of the paniculate model of matter, describe the
changes in the particles in terms of motion and arrangement in the
following regions.
(i) AB
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) BC
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

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(iii) CD
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(iv) DE
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(v) EF
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(c) Explain why the temperatures remain unchanged in the regions BC and
DE.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(d) From the graph, deduce the temperatures when hexane condenses and
freezes.
condensation:............................... freezing:.................................

5. Argon and neon are separated from liquid air by fractional distillation. The boiling
point of argon and neon is -186°C and -246°C. The graph below shows the
heating curve of the distillation process.

(a) (i) State the temperatures labelled x and y.

…………………………………………………………………………….

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(ii) Explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(b) List the substances present at P and R.
P:..................................................... R:........................................
(c) Describe what takes place at Q in terms of the paniculate model of
matter.
(d) Draw the arrangement of particles at S in the box provided below.

6. The melting points and the boiling points for six substances A to F are given
below:
Substance Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C
A -80 -20
B 10 80
C 130 850
D 70 210
E -20 60
F 500 1200

(a) Which substances are solids at 25 °C?

……………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Which substance is a gas at 0 °C?
……………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Which of the substances will undergo physical change when the
temperature is raised from 25 °C to 65 °C?
……………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Draw the particle arrangement of substance D at 100 °C.
……………………………………………………………………………………

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Learning Objectives:
 Describe and explain the evidence of the movement of particles in liquids and
 gases
 Give examples of diffusion in our everyday life
 Understand the effect of molecular mass on the rate of diffusion
 Explain the effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion

EVIDENCE OF THE MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES

 Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of its higher
concentration to a region of its lower concentration, down its concentration
gradient.
 Diffusion of substances in liquids and in gases is the evidence of the movement
of substances. It shows that the particles are in constant and random motion.
 There are many examples of diffusion in our everyday life. For example,
- tea grains diffuse out of the tea bag when the tea bag is immersed in hot water
- the perfumery odour permeates the air in the cosmetic counters
- the cooking aromas spread from the kitchen
Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in liquids and gases
Diffusion in Experiment

liquid

 Some blue dyes are placed at one corner of a beaker filled with water.
 After a few hours, blue colour of the dyes spread throughout the water.
 This shows that the blue dye particles are in constant and random motion.

gas

 The inverted upper jar is filled with air and the lower upper jar is filled with
brown nitrogen dioxide gas.
 The two jars are separated by a lid initially.
 When the lid is removed, brown nitrogen dioxide gas occupies both jars
completely after a few hours.
 This shows that the nitrogen dioxide particles are in constant and random
motion.

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Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
Molecular mass
 The molecular mass of a substance is the total mass of all atoms in a
substance. For example,

Substance Chemical Molecular mass

formula (g/mol)
carbon dioxide C02 44
oxygen 02 32 The concept of

hydrogen H2 2
i molecular mass of
substances will be
covered in unit 5.
hydrogen chloride HCI 36.5
chlorine CI2 71

 The molecular mass of a substance affects the rate of diffusion.

 The larger the molecular mass, the slower the rate of diffusion
 The smaller the molecular mass, the faster the rate of diffusion

Experiment to demonstrate the effect of molecular mass on the rate of diffusion

Experiment Observations Explanation

Level X Level Y
 The molecular mass of H2 and
C02 is 2 g/mol and 44 g/mol.
 H2 diffuses faster than C02
because it has a smaller
molecular mass.
 There are more H2 particles
falls rises
entering the porous pot than C02
particles leaving the porous pot.
 The pressure inside the porous
pot increases and causes water
level at X to fall.

 The molecular mass of CI2 and

HCI is 71 g/mol and 36.5 g/ mol.
 HCI diffuses faster than CI2
because it has a smaller
molecular mass.
rises falls  There are more HCI particles
leaving the porous pot than CI2
particles entering the porous pot.
 The pressure inside the porous
pot decreases and causes water
level at X to rise.

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 The molecular mass for both N2
and C2H4 is 28 g/mol.
 Both N2 and C2H4diffuses at the
same rate because they have
the same molecular mass.
 The number of N2 particles
No No
entering the porous pot is equal
change change to the number of C2H4 particles
leaving the porous pot.
 The pressure inside the porous
pot remains the same and
hence, water level at X and Y
remains unchanged as well.
Molecular mass , the

Temperature
i speed of diffusion of
molecules 

 Temperature affects the kinetic energy of particles, so it can affect the rate of
diffusion of a substance.
 As temperature increases, there is more energy supplied to the particles of the
substance. The kinetic energy of the particles increases, so they move faster in
all directions. As a result, the rate of diffusion increases.
 As temperature decreases, there is less energy supplied to the particles of a
substance. The kinetic energy of the particles decreases, so they move slower.
As a result, the rate of diffusion decreases.
REVISION 3 CHECKPOINT
1. (a) Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region
of..................................................(higher/lower)concentration to a region
of..................................(higher/lower) concentration.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) State two factors that affect the rate of diffusion of a substance.
2. The table shows the molecular masses of a few substances.
Substance Molecular mass (g/mol)
nitrogen 28
sulfur dioxide 64
argon 40
hydrogenfluoride 20
chlorine 71
For the same period of time, which substance
(a) diffuses the fastest .............................
(b) diffuses the slowest? .............................
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3. The table shows the molecular masses of some gases.

Chemical formula of gas Molecular mass

(g/mol)
C3H8 44
HCI 36.5
SO2 64
Ne 20
CO2 44

(a) Use the information to answer for the following questions.

Experiment Gases involved Observation at level X (rise, no

change or fall?)
A

(b) Explain what causes the observation taking place in Experiment A.

……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..

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4. Study the following statements. Use the letter T for true statement and 'F' for
false statement.
(a) Diffusion takes place in gaseous state only.
(b) Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of its high
concentration to a region of its low concentration.
(c) When two regions have an equal concentration of different types of
substances, no net diffusion takes place.
(d) When a bottle of perfume is open, your are able to detect the smell of the
perfume even if you are quite a distance from the bottle. This is an
example of diffusion.
(e) The particles stop moving when its concentration in two regions becomes
equal.

5. A gas jar of air was placed on top of a gas jar of nitrogen dioxide as shown in the

The gas jars are left undisturbed. After some time a uniform colour was seen
throughout both gas jars. Explain how this experiment can clearly show the
evidence of diffusion of substances.
6. The diagram below shows a long glass tube filled with a plug of cotton wool
soaked with concentrated hydrochloric acid at one end and the other end with
concentrated ammonia solution. Both ends are sealed up with rubber bungs.

The tube is left undisturbed in a horizontal position. After some time, a white
cloud of ammonium chloride forms closer to the end of cotton wool B.

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The chemical equation below shows the reaction between ammonia vapour and
hydrochloric acid vapour.
NH3 + HCI  NH4CI

(a) Using the Periodic Table, fill in the molecular mass of the following
substances. The molecular mass of NH4CI has been done for you.

Name Chemical formula Molecular mass (g/mol)

1 N atom + 4 H atoms + 1 Cl
Ammonium chloride NH4CI atom = (1 x 14) + (4 x 1) + (1 x
35.5) = 53.5

Ammonia NH3

Hydrochloric acid HCI

(b) State the substances that are most likely to be soaked by

(i) CottonwoolA .................. Cotton wool B ……………….
(ii) Explain how you derive your answer in (b)(i).
…………………………………………………………………………….
(iii) What can you conclude about the relationship between the
molecular mass of a substance and the rate of diffusion?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

7. The diagram below shows a large beaker containing gas X inverted over a
porous pot containing gas Y.

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The table below shows the data of some common gases.

Gas Chemical formula Molecular mass (g/mol)

Carbon monoxide CO 28
Oxygen O2 32
Sulfur dioxide SO2 64
Nitrogen N2 28
Hydrogen bromide HBr 81

(a) State and explain what would you observe in the change of water levels
at A and B if
(i) gas X is oxygen and gas Y is hydrogen bromide
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) gas X is sulfur dioxide and gas Y is nitrogen
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
(b) (i) Which two gases, as gases X and Y, would not cause the water
levels at A and B to change?
…………………………………………………………………………….
(ii) Explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

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Topical Practice Questions 2

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions

1. Which of the following descriptions about the particles in a dilute ethanol solution
at room temperature is correct?

Ethanol molecules Water

A. Close together, vibrate at fixed positions Close together, vibrate at fixed positions
B. Widely separated, vibrate at fixed positions Widely separated, moving at random
C. Close together, vibrate at fixed positions Widely separated, not moving
D. Widely separated, moving at random Close together, moving at random

2. A gas X in the beaker over a porous pot causes the water level at M to fall.

Which of the following gases could be X?

A. Oxygen gas, O2 B. Ammonia gas, NH3
C. Methane gas, CH4 D. Nitrogen gas, N2

3. Which of the followings gases will not cause a change in the water level at the U
tube?

Gas X Gas Y
A. Carbon dioxide, CO2 Fluorine, F2
B. Nitrogen gas, N2 Carbon monoxide, CO
C. Methane gas, CH4 Ammonia gas, NH3
D. Chlorine gas, CI2 Sulfur dioxide, SO2

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4. The diagram shows two gas jars. The jar containing the air is inverted on top of
the gas jar containing the nitrogen dioxide. When the glass plate is removed,
what would be the possible observation after a period of time?

Upper gas jar Lower gas jar

A. Dark brown Colourless
B. Dark brown Dark brown
C. Colourless Dark brown
D. Colourless Colourless

5. The melting points and the boiling points of some metals are given below. Which
metal remains as a liquid over the shortest range of temperature?

Metal Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C

A Aluminium 660 2470
B Copper 1083 2595
C Iron 1535 3000
D Platinum 1769 4530

6. The boiling points of some elements are given below.

Element Boiling point/°C

Nitrogen -196
Xenon -108
Oxygen -183

These three gases are made into liquid air at-200 °C and are separated by
fractional distillation. When the temperature is increased by 50 °C, which
substance(s) would remain in liquid state?

A. Nitrogen B. Xenon
C. Oxygen D. Nitrogen and oxygen

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7. The diagram shows the spacing of moleculars in a substance at the atmospheric
pressure but at two different temperatures.

What could be the melting point and boiling of the substance?

Melting point/°C Boiling point/°C
A. - 180 - 80
B. - 170 - 90
C. - 180 - 90
D. - 170 - 80

8. A100 cm3 sample of alcohol is mixed with 100 cm3 of water.

The volume of the mixed alcohol and water is found to be 195 cm3. Which of the
following is best used to explain this observation in terms of the particulate model
of matter?
A. attractive force between particles B.arrangement of particles
C. motion of particles D.spaces between particles

9. Which statement about the behaviour of the particles in a liquid is correct?

A. They spread thourghout the container in which they are contained.
B. They are able to move at high speeds.
C. They are arranged in irregular patterns.
D. They are large spaces between the particles.

10. Which of the following is an example of diffusion?

A. The spreading of the smell of baked cookies in a kitchen
B. Water vapour condensing on a cold surface
C. Bubbles rising in a glass of carbonated drinks
D. Sand particles sinking to the bottom of a container
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Section B: Short Answer Questions

1. The melting points and the boiling points of seven substances A to G are given in
the following table.

Substance Melting point /°C Boiling point I°C

A -82 400

B -25 -50

C -15 60

D 44 280

E 110 185

F 85 450

G 1250 2150

(a) Which substance is a gas at room temperature (25 °C)?

……………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) Which substance is a solid at 1000 °C?
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(c) Which substance changes its physical state when the temperature
changes from 0 °C to 50 °C?
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(d) Which substance exists as a liquid over the largest range of
temperature?
……………………………………………………………………………………..
(e) Sketch the arrangement of particles of substance F at room temperature.
……………………………………………………………………………………..

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2. A pure substance M is heated to determine its melting point and boiling point.
The graph shows the results of the experiment.

(a) Describe the physical change taking place at

(i) P .................................................................
(ii) Q .................................................................
(b) Determine the melting point and the boiling point of M.
(i) Melting point ....................................................
(ii) Boiling point ....................................................
(c) State the physical state(s) of the substance
(i) 5 minutes after heating ..........................
(ii) 20 minutes after heating ..........................
(iii) 40 minutes after heating ...........................

3. (a) Define the term diffusion.

……………………………………………………………………………………..
(b) The experiment is set up as below to investigate the rate of diffusion of
different gases.

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The time taken for 50 cm3 of various gases to escape from the syringe is
recorded below:
Gas Time taken Is
N2 ?
C3H8 120
CO 65
CH4 40
NH3 45

Suggest the time taken for the diffusion of nitrogen. Explain your answer.
(ii) Which gas has the smallest molecular mass? Explain your
answer.
…………………………………………………………………………….
(iii) Suggest another gas which diffuses faster than any of the gases
shown in the table.
…………………………………………………………………………….
(iv) The experiment set up is changed by replacing the syringe with a
graduated tube with a lower end enclosed by water.
…………………………………………………………………………….

Which of the gases in the table will not be suitable to determine its rate of
diffusion using this set up? Explain your answer.
………..………………………………………………………………………….
Section C: Free Response Questions
1. A fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of ethanol (boiling point 78
°C) and water (boiling point 100 °C).
(a) Explain why the bulb of the thermometer must be placed near the outlet
of the condenser connecting to the fractionating column.
(b) The boiling of the mixture is bumpy. Suggest one way to reduce this
boiling effect.
(c) Which of the compounds is being distilled first? Explain your answer.
(d) Sketch a graph of temperature-time for the distillation of both substances
from room temperature to the boiling point of water.

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