SYNTAX ANALYSIS

OR
PARSING
Lecture 05
FOLLOW SETS
 FOLLOW(A) is the set of terminals (including
end marker of input - $) that may follow non-
terminal A in some sentential form.
 FOLLOW(A) = {c | S ⇒+ …Ac…} ∪ {$} if S ⇒+
…A
 For example, consider L ⇒+ (())(L)L
Both ‘)’ and end of file can follow L
 NOTE: ε is never in FOLLOW sets

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COMPUTING FOLLOW(A)
1. If A is start symbol, put $ in FOLLOW(A)
2. Productions of the form B  α A β,
Add FIRST(β) – {ε} to FOLLOW(A)
3. Productions of the form B  α A or
B  α A β where β ⇒* ε
Add FOLLOW(B) to FOLLOW(A)

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EXAMPLE
 FOLLOW(E) = {$}
 E  T E′  FOLLOW(E′) =
 E′  + T E ′ | ε  FOLLOW(T) =
 T  F T′  FOLLOW(T′) =
 T′  * F T ′ | ε  FOLLOW(F) =
 F  ( E ) | id

 FIRST(E) = {(, id} Using rule #1

 FIRST(E′) = {+, ε}
 FIRST(T) = {(, id} 1. If A is start symbol, put $ in FOLLOW(A)

 FIRST(T′) = {*, ε}
 FIRST(F) = {(, id}} 4
Assume the first non-terminal is the start symbol
EXAMPLE
 E  T E′  FOLLOW(E) = {$, )}
 E′  + T E ′ | ε  FOLLOW(E′) =
 T  F T′  FOLLOW(T) = {+}
 T′  * F T ′ | ε  FOLLOW(T′) =
 F  ( E ) | id  FOLLOW(F) = {*}

 FIRST(E) = {(, id}

 FIRST(E′) = {+, ε}
 FIRST(T) = {(, id}
 FIRST(T′) = {*, ε}
Using rule #2
 FIRST(F) = {(, id}}
2. Productions of the form B  α A β, 5
Add FIRST(β) – {ε} to FOLLOW(A)
EXAMPLE
 E  T E′
 E′  + T E ′ | ε
 T  F T′
 T′  * F T ′ | ε
 F  ( E ) | id
 FIRST(E) = {(, id}
 FIRST(E′) = {+, ε}
 FIRST(T) = {(, id}
 FIRST(T′) = {*, ε}
 FIRST(F) = {(, id}}
3.
Add FOLLOW(B) to FOLLOW(A)
 FOLLOW(E) = {$, )}
 FOLLOW(E′) = FOLLOW(E)
= {$, )}
 FOLLOW(T) = {+} ∪ FOLLOW(E′)
= {+, $, )}
 FOLLOW(T′) = FOLLOW(T)
= {+, $, )}
 FOLLOW(F) = {*} ∪ FOLLOW(T′)
= {*, +, $, )}
Using rule #3
Productions of the form B  α A or
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B  α A β where β ⇒* ε
EXAMPLE
 S  ( A) | ε
 ATE
 E&TE|ε
 T(A)|a|b|c

 FIRST(T) =
 FIRST(E) =
 FIRST(A) =
 FIRST(S) =

 FOLLOW(S) =
 FOLLOW(A) =

 FOLLOW(E) =

 FOLLOW(T) =
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EXAMPLE
 S  ( A) | ε
 ATE
 E&TE|ε
 T(A)|a|b|c

 FIRST(T) = {(,a,b,c}
 FIRST(E) = {&, ε }
 FIRST(A) = {(,a,b,c}
 FIRST(S) = {(, ε}

 FOLLOW(S) = {$}
 FOLLOW(A) = { ) }
 FOLLOW(E) = FOLLOW(A) = { ) } 8

 FOLLOW(T) = FIRST(E) ∪ FOLLOW(E) = {&, )}

 EXAMPLE
 SaSe|B  FOLLOW(C) =
 BbBCf|C
 CcCg|d| ε  FOLLOW(B) =

 FIRST(C) =  FOLLOW(S) = {$}

 FIRST(B) =
 FIRST(S) =
Assume the first non-terminal is the start symbol
1. If A is start symbol, put $ in FOLLOW(A)
2. Productions of the form B  α A β,
Add FIRST(β) – {ε} to FOLLOW(A)
3. Productions of the form B  α A or
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B  α A β where β ⇒* ε
Add FOLLOW(B) to FOLLOW(A)
EXAMPLE
 SaSe|B  FOLLOW(C) =
 BbBCf|C {f,g} ∪ FOLLOW(B)
 CcCg|d| ε = {c,d,e,f,g,$}

 FIRST(C) = {c,d,ε}  FOLLOW(B) =

 FIRST(B) = {b,c,d,ε}
{c,d,f} ∪ FOLLOW(S)
= {c,d,e,$ ,f}
 FIRST(S) = {a,b,c,d,ε}

 FOLLOW(S) = {$, e }

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 FOLLOW EXAMPLE
 SaSe|B  FOLLOW(C) =
 BbBCf|C
 CcCg|d| ε  FOLLOW(B) =

 FIRST(C) =  FOLLOW(S) = {$}

 FIRST(B) =
 FIRST(S) =
Assume the first non-terminal is the start symbol
1. If A is start symbol, put $ in FOLLOW(A)
2. Productions of the form B  α A β,
Add FIRST(β) – {ε} to FOLLOW(A)
3. Productions of the form B  α A or
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B  α A β where β ⇒* ε
Add FOLLOW(B) to FOLLOW(A)
FOLLOW EXAMPLE
 SaSe|B  FOLLOW(C) =
 BbBCf|C {f,g} ∪ FOLLOW(B)
 CcCg|d| ε = {c,d,e,f,g,$}

 FIRST(C) = {c,d,ε}  FOLLOW(B) =

{c,d} ∪ FOLLOW(S)
 FIRST(B) = {b,c,d,ε}
= {c,d,e,$}
 FIRST(S) = {a,b,c,d,ε}

 FOLLOW(S) = {$, e }

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PREDICTIVE PARSING

 LL(1) Grammars
 Can do predictive parsing
 Can select the right rule
 Looking at only the next 1 input symbol
 First L : Left to Right Scanning
 Second L: Leftmost derivation
 1 : one input symbol look-ahead for predictive decision

 LL(k) Grammars
 Can do predictive parsing
 Can select the right rule
 Looking at only the next k input symbols

 Techniques to modify the grammar:

 Left Factoring
 Removal of Left Recursion

 LL(k) Language
Can be described with an LL(k) grammar
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
TABLE DRIVEN PREDICTIVE PARSING

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PARSE TABLE CONSTRUCTION

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TABLE DRIVEN PREDICTIVE PARSING

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TABLE DRIVEN PREDICTIVE PARSING

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PREDICTIVE PARSING ALGORITHM

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PREDICTIVE PARSING

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RECONSTRUCTING THE PARSE TREE

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RECONSTRUCTING THE PARSE TREE

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RECONSTRUCTING THE PARSE TREE

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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EXAMPLE: THE “DANGLING ELSE” GRAMMAR

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LL(1) GRAMMAR LL(1) Grammar

 LL(1) grammars
 Are never ambiguous.
 Will never have left recursion.

 Furthermore...
 If we are looking for an “A” and the next symbol is
“b”,
 Then only one production must be possible

 Although elimination of left recursion and left

factoring is easy.
 Some grammar will never be a LL(1) grammar. 80
LL(1) GRAMMAR

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PROPERTIES OF LL(1) GRAMMAR
 A grammar G is LL(1) if an only if whenever A
→α | β are two distinct productions of G the
following conditions hold:
1. For no terminal a do both α and β derive strings
beginning with a.
2. At most one of α and β can derive the empty string.
3. If then β ⇒* ε , then α does not derive any string
beginning with a terminal in FOLLOW(A).

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ERROR RECOVERY
When Do Errors Occur? Recall Predictive Parser Function:

a + b $ Input

Stack X Predictive Parsing Output

Program
Y
Z
Parsing Table
$ M[A,a]

1. If X is a terminal and it doesn’t match input.

2. If M[X, Input] is empty – No allowable actions 83
ERROR RECOVERY

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ERROR RECOVERY: SKIP INPUT SYMBOLS

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ERROR RECOVERY: POP THE STACK

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ERROR RECOVERY: PANIC MODE

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ERROR RECOVERY - TABLE ENTRIES

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QUESTIONS ?

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