Measurement and Scaling

By
Prof(Dr.) Harsh Vardhan
20 /11/2022
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 Objectives
 Scales, Scales Properties
 Attitude, Components of Attitude
 Role of Attitude in Hypothesis Construct
 Process of Attitude Measurement
 Scaling Techniques
 Comparative and Non - Comparative Scaling
 True Score Model, Reliability & Validity

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 Measurement and Scaling

 Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to

measure characteristics of objects according to set rules.
 Assignment of number permits Statistical Analysis
 Numbers helps to understand measurement rules and results.
 The process of assigning numbers is one to one (isomorphic).There is one to one
correspondence between number and characteristics to be measured.
 Scaling involves the generation of a continuum upon which measured
objects are located.
 Scaling is extension of measurement.

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 EXAMPLE

 Consider a scale from 1 to 10 for identifying consumers according to

the characteristics ‘attitude towards department stores’. Each
respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 10 indicating the degree of
(un) favorableness, with 1=extremely unfavorable and 10=extremely
favorable.
 Measurement is actual assignment of numbers from 1 to 10 to each
respondent.
 Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with
respect to their attitude towards department stores.

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 Scale
 A Scale is any series of items that are progressively arranged
according to value or magnitude into which an item can be placed
according to its quantification.
 A scale is a continuous spectrum or series of categories.
 The purpose of scaling is to represent quantitatively, an item’s, a
person’s, or an event’s place in the spectrum.

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 Concept behind Scaling
 Scales are developed based on three aspects:
 Order : Numbers (categories) are ordered
 Distance : Difference between numbers (categories) are ordered
and quantifiable. For our purposes and most of practical purposes
we assume this difference is same.
 Origin : The series has a unique origin which is indicated by the
number zero.

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 SCALE

 Thus Scale is series of items

 Arranged according to value
 Purpose is quantification
 A continuous spectrum or series of categories
 Numbers are assigned

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 SCALE PROPERTIES
 There are four Primary scales of measurements in an increasing order
of their properties:
 Nominal: Uniquely Classifies
 Ordinal: Preserves Order
 Interval: Equal Intervals
 Ratio: Natural Zero

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 Example Primary Scales of
Measurements

Scale

Nominal Numbers Finish

assigned to 7 11 3
Runners
Finish
Ordinal Rank Order of
Winner Third place Second place First place

Interval Performance 8.2 9.1 9.6

Rating on 0-10
Scale
Ratio Time to Finish, 15.2 14.1 13.4
in seconds
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 Nominal Scale
 Nominal Scale
 A scale whose numbers serves only as labels or tags for identifying and
classifying objects with a strict one to one correspondence between the
numbers and objects.
Example- Numbers assigned to football players.
 Nominal Scales are used for identifying respondents, brands, attributes
and stores etc.
 The numbers in a nominal scale don't reflect the amount of the
characteristic possessed by the objects.
IT UNIQUELY CLASSIFIES
Numbers & letters are assigned to objects
Roll numbers
Isha # 5A
Ronak # 16A

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 Levels of Data Measurement
 Nominal - In nominal measurement the values just "name" the
attribute uniquely.
 No ordering of the cases is implied.
 A person’s gender is nominal. It doesn’t matter whether you call them
boys vs. girls or males vs. females or XY vs. XX chromosomes.
 Another example is geographic location – East , West, North & South.
 Sex, Religion, Pan card number, AADHAR, Mobile number, Pin code.
 Numbers are used to classify or categorize
Example: Employment Classification
1 for Educator
2 for Construction Worker
3 for Manufacturing Worker

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 Ordinal Scale

 Ordinal Scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to

objects to indicate the relative extent to which some characteristics
is possessed.
 It is possible to determine whether an object has more or less of
characteristics than other object.
 Ordinal scale indicates relative position not the magnitude of
difference between the object (how close is the 2nd to the one
ranked 1st )
 Used in relative attitudes, opinions, perceptions and preferences.

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 Ordinal Scale Properties
 Uniquely classifies
 Preserves order
 Arrangement of objects is according to their magnitude.
 Ordinal - A variable is ordinal measurable if ranking is possible for
values of the variable
 Example
 Excellent , Good, Fair (importance of object)
Excellent is better than Good but we do not know by how much.
 A gold medal reflects superior performance to a silver or bronze medal in the
Olympics. But you can’t say a gold and a bronze medal average out to a silver
medal.
 Preference scales are typically ordinal – how much do you like this cereal?
Like it a lot, somewhat like it, neutral, somewhat dislike it, dislike it a lot.
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 Ordinal Level Data

 Numbers are used to indicate rank or order

 Relative magnitude of numbers is meaningful
 Differences between numbers are not comparable
Example:
 Ranking productivity of employees -1,2 ,3
Example: Position within an organization
 1 for President
 2 for Vice President
 3 for Plant Manager
 4 for Department Supervisor
 5 for Employee

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 Ordinal Data

Is on- line teaching effective?

Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

Agree Disagree

1 2 3 4 5

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 Interval Scale

 A scale in which the numbers are used to rate objects such that
numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distance in
the characteristic being measured.
 An Interval Scale contains all information of an Ordinal Scale ,but it also
allows to compare the differences between objects.
 Distances between consecutive integers are equal
 Relative magnitude of numbers is meaningful
 Differences between numbers are comparable
 Location of origin, zero, is arbitrary

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 Interval Level Data

 There is a constant or equal interval between scale values.

 The difference 1 between 2 is the same as the
difference between 2 and 3, which is same as
difference between 5 and 6.
 Example - temperature scale, attitudinal data, most
admired company.
 Percentage return on a stock, IIP,CPI

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 Interval Scale Properties
 Uniquely classifies
 Preserves order
 Equal intervals
 Consumer Price Index (base 100)
 Fahrenheit temperature
 F=(9/5)*C+32
 Location of zero point is not fixed .Both zero point and unit of
measurement are arbitrary.
 Any linear transformation y=a+bx will preserve properties of scale, x
is original scale value ,y is transformed scale value.
 Two interval scales that rate objects A,B,C,D as 1,2,3,4 or 22,24,26 and 28
are equivalent. (use a=20,b=2).Zero has no value. Ratio between D to B
values changes from 2:1 to become 7:6
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 Ratio Scale
 It is the highest scale as it possesses properties of Nominal, Ordinal
and Interval scale in addition ,an absolute zero point.
 It allows researcher to identify or classify objects, rank order the
objects and compare intervals or difference.
 It is also meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
 The difference between 2 and 5 is the same as the difference
between 14 and 17 but also 14 is 7 times large as 2 in the absolute
terms
 Example of ratio scale: height, weight, age and money
 In marketing sales, costs, market share, and number of customers
are variables on a ratio scale.
 It allows transformation of y=bx, b>0

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 Ratio Level Data

 Highest level of measurement

 Relative magnitude of numbers is meaningful
 Differences between numbers are comparable
 Location of origin, zero, is absolute (natural)
 Vertical intercept of unit of measure transform function is zero
Examples:
 Height, Weight and Volume
 Monetary Variables - Profit and Loss, Revenues, Expenses,
 Financial ratios - P/E Ratio, Inventory Turnover, and Quick Ratio.

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 Ratio Scale Properties

 Uniquely Classifies
 Preserves Order
 Equal Intervals
 Natural Zero
 Weight and Distance
 Temperature (Kelvin scale)
 Used for Quantitative data

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 Mathematical and Statistical Analysis of Scales
 Discrete Measures
 Measures that can take on only one of a finite number of values.
 Continuous Measures
 Measures that reflect the intensity of a concept by assigning
values that can take on any value along some scale range.

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 Qualitative & Quantitative Data

 Nominal & Ordinal data is also called Non Metric or Qualitative data.
 Interval & Ratio data is called Metric or Quantitative data.
 Two major types of inferential statistics are:
 Parametric Statistics & Non - Parametric Statistics
 Parametric Statistics uses Interval & Ratio data
 Nonparametric Statistics uses Nominal & Ordinal data

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 Types of Variables
 A variable is a characteristics of an individual or object that is capable of
taking different values and can be measured.
 Examples: ROI, Stock price, EPS, Total Sales, Age of worker, Monthly salary, Time
spent on internet.
 There are two types of variables-Qualitative & Quantitative.
 Qualitative Variables are those variables which differ in kind rather than
degree. These could be measured on nominal or ordinal scale.
 The Nominal scale indicates categorizing into groups or classes.
 Example- gender, religion, race, color & occupation
 The Ordinal scale indicates ordering of items.
 Example agreement disagreement scales(Likert Scale)

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  Qualitative data could be dichotomous in which there are two categories
(gender) or multinomial in there are more than two variables
(geographic region).
 Quantitative Variables are those variables which differ in degree
rather than kind. These can be measured on interval or ratio scale.
 Interval scales indicates rank and distance from a arbitrary zero.
 Example- temperature, examination scores.
 Ratio scale indicates rank & distance from a natural zero
 Example- height, monthly consumption, annual budget.
 SPSS does not differentiate between interval & ratio scale and lists them
under label Scale.

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 Illustration of Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Scale Scale Scale Scale
Preference Preference $ spent last
No. Store Rankings Ratings 3 months
1-7 11-17
1. Parisian 7 79 5 15 0
2. Macy’s 2 25 7 17 200
3. Kmart 8 82 4 14 0
4. Kohl’s 3 30 6 16 100
5. J.C. Penney 1 10 7 17 250
6. Neiman Marcus 5 53 5 15 35
7. Marshalls 9 95 4 14 0
8. Saks Fifth Avenue 6 61 5 15 100
9. Sears 4 45 6 16 0
10.Wal-Mart 10 115 2 12 10

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Concept Map for Primary Scale

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 Attitude
 An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given manner.
 Components of attitudes:
 Affective Component
 The feelings or emotions toward an object
 Cognitive Component
 Knowledge and beliefs about an object
 Behavioral Component
 Predisposition to action
 Intentions
 Behavioral expectations

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 Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs

 The term Hypothetical Construct is used to describe a variable that is not

directly observable, but is measurable by an indirect means such as verbal
expression or overt (observable) behavior.
 A construct is an indicator variable that measures characteristics or trait.
 Example Institute admission scores are constructs that measures how well a
student is likely to do in their first year.

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 What is Construct?

 A Construct is a specific type of concept that exists at higher

level of abstraction than everyday concept ,such as brand
loyalty, product involvement, attitude and satisfaction.
 Example: “attends loud parties”, “talks a lot”, “appears
comfortable interacting with anyone” and “is usually seen
with others” are four behaviors that can be observed and
that may measure an unobservable construct called-
“Out Going”

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 Techniques for Measuring Attitudes
 Ranking
 Requiring the respondent to rank order objects in overall performance on the basis of a
characteristic or stimulus.
 Rating
 Asking the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an
object possesses by indicating on a scale where he or she would rate an object.
 Sorting
 Presenting the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and requiring the
respondent to arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.
 Choice
 Asking a respondent to choose one alternative from among several alternatives; it is
assumed that the chosen alternative is preferred over the others.

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 The Attitude Measuring Process
The process comprises of four elements:

Ranking - Rank order preference (Comparative Scale)

{ Paired Comparison, Rank Order}

Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic

{ Non Comparative Scales} { Continuous Rating, Itemized Rating-
Likert, Semantic Differential, Staple etc.}

Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts.

Choice - Selection of preferred alternative.

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 Ranking
Ranking task requires that the
respondent rank order a small number of
objects in overall performance on the
basis of some characteristic or stimulus.

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 Ranking/Rating Comparisons:

 Ranking/Rating objects with respect to one attribute is

not difficult if only a few choices are compared, but as
the number of items increases, the number of
comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n -1)/2).
 If the number of comparisons is too large, respondents
may find difficult to discriminate among these.

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 Rating
Rating asks the respondent to estimate the
magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an
object possesses. The respondent’s position on a
scale , where he or she would rate an object.

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 Types of attitude rating scales
 Single-item scales
 As the name itself suggests, single-item scales are those that have only one
item to measure a construct.
 E.g., itemized-category scales, rank-order scales, constant-sum scales,
pictorial scales.
 Multi-item scales
 Continuous scales

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 Attitude Rating Scales
 Simple Attitude Scale
 Requires that an individual agree/disagree with a statement or respond to a
single question.
 This type of self-rating scale classifies respondents into one of two categories
(e.g., yes or no).
 Example: THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION
_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE

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 Single-item scales

 Itemized-category scales
 Example 1: There are four categories from which
respondents can choose to indicate their overall level of
satisfaction with their present health insurance plan:
___ Very satisfied
___ Quite satisfied
___ Somewhat satisfied
___ Not at all satisfied

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 Single-item scales
 Example 2: “We are interested in your opinions about
the medical services offered by private doctors in this
area…”
 Quality of medical care provided:
__ Excellent
__ Very good
__ Average
__ Below average
__ Don’t know
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 Category Scales

 More than 2 categories.

 More sensitive measure than a simple scale - it provides more
information.

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 Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d)
 Category Scale
 A more sensitive measure than a simple scale in that it can have more than
two response categories.
 Question construction is an extremely important factor in increasing the usefulness of
these scales.
 Example: How important were the following in your decision to visit Laksh Dweep? (check
one for each item)
VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________
COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________
FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________
EDUCATIONAL/HISTORICAL ASPECTS ___________ ___________ ___________
FAMILIARITY WITH AREA ___________ ___________ ___________

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Scaling Techniques

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 TYPES OF SCALES

Comparative Rating Scales Noncpmparative Rating Scales

Paired Rank Constant Q-Sort Graphic Itemized

Comparision Order Sum Rating Rating

Likert Semantic Stapel

Differential
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 Comparison of Scaling Technique
 There are two types of Scaling Techniques Comparative and Non -
Comparative scales.
 Comparative Scaling involves direct comparison of stimulus objects.
 Respondent asked whether they prefer Coke or Pepsi.
 Data interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order
properties.
 Comparative scaling is also known as Non-Metric Scaling
 It includes paired comparison, rank order, constant sum scale, Q-Sort.
 Advantage-Small stimulus differences between stimulus objects are detected.
 Disadvantage- it includes the ordinal nature of data and has inability to
generalize beyond the stimulus object scaled.

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 Non - Comparative Scale

 Each stimulus object is scaled independently of the other

object in the stimulus set.
 It is also known as Monadic or Metric scale.
 Data assumed to be interval or ratio scale.
 Example :respondents asked to evaluate Coke on a 1-5 scale
(1=not preferred ,5= greatly preferred)
 They are continuous rating or itemized rating scales.
 Most widely used Scaling technique.

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 Comparative Scale
 Every response is to be scaled. To extract the necessary responses, one can
use any of the following scales:
 Paired Comparison Scales: a scale showing a series of only two objects as
choices.
 Rank Order Scale: a scale that ranks an object, concept or person in a
certain order.
 Constant Sum Scale: a scale showing how a set number of points is
distributed among two more attributes.
 Q-sorting Scale: a scale in which a set of objects are distributed into piles
according to specified rated categories.

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 Non - Comparative Scale
 Graphic Rating Scales: a scale showing a graphic continuum that is typically
anchored by two extremes.
 Itemized Rating Scales: a scale showing a limited number of ordered
categories.
 Likert Scale: a scale that shows a series of attitudes toward an object, which
are given numerical values ranging from favorable to unfavorable.
 Semantic Differential Scale: a scale that rates opposite pairs of words, or
phrases on a continuum, which are then plotted as a profile or image.
 Stapel Scale: a scale that provides a single description in the center, which is
usually measured by plus o minus 5 points.
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 Comparative Scales: Paired Comparison -1
 Respondent is presented with two objects at a time and asked to select
one object according to some criterion. The data obtained is of ordinal in
nature.
 It is most popular comparative scaling technique.
 Example- A respondent may be asked whether they shop more from Spenser or
Reliance Fresh.
 Paired comparison of two shampoos brand out of five brands. 5*(5-1)/2=10 pairs .It
is possible to convert paired comparison data to a rank order, the researcher can
find number of times each brand is preferred over the other by simple total.
 Paired comparison is feasible and practical when the numbers of brands are
limited.
 I would like to know your overall opinion of two brands of adhesive bandages. They
are MedBand and Super-Aid. Overall, which of these two brands—MedBand or
Super-Aid—do you think is the better one? Or are both the same?
 MedBand is better _____
 Super-Aid is better _____
 They are the same _____ BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 50
Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired Comparisons
Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of shampoo brands. For
each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer
for personal use.
Recording Form:
Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Head & Pert
Sassoon Shoulders
Jhirmack 0 0 1 0
5*(5-1)/2=10
Finesse 1a 0 1 0
Vidal Sassoon 1 1 1 1
Head & Shoulders 0 0 0 0
Pert 1 1 0 1
Number of Times 3 2 0 4 1
Preferredb

1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the
corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand.
The number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.
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 Rank Order Scaling-2
 A Comparative Scaling Technique in which respondents are presented
several objects simultaneously and are asked to order or rank them
according to some criterion.
 An ordinal scale may be developed by asking respondents to rank order
(from most preferred to least preferred) a set of objects or attributes.
Example
 Respondent may be asked to rank brands of toothpaste according to overall
preference. Respondent may assign rank 1 to most preferred brand,2 to second
most preferred and so on…..
 Rank order also lead to ordinal data.
 It takes less time.
 Respondent understands easily instructions.
 Rank order data can be converted to equivalent paired comparative data.
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 Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling
 Instructions
 Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking
out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1.
 Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2.
 Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in
order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10.
 No two brands should receive the same rank number.
 The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong
answer.

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Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling
Brand Rank Order
1. Crest _________
2. Colgate _________
3. Aim _________
4. Gleem _________
5. Sensodyne _________
6. Ultra Brite _________
7. Close Up _________
8. Pepsodent _________
9. Plus White _________
10. Stripe _________
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 Constant-Sum Scale-3
 Constant-Sum Scale require respondents to allocate a fixed number of
rating points (usually 100) among several objects, to reflect the relative
preference for each object.
 O1 O2 O3 O4 are four objects allocated fixed number of rating points out of total
100 – O1 given 40, O2 - 30, O3 - 10, O4 - 20 .
 If an attribute is unimportant ,the respondent assigns it 0 point. If the attribute is
twice as important to some attribute, it receives twice as many points.
 The sum of points is 100 that is why it is known as Constant Sum Scale.

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 Constant-Sum Scale

 Divide 100 points among each of the following brands

according to your preference for the brand:

 Brand A _________

 Brand B _________

 Brand C _________

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 Constant-Sum Scales
 Example: Please divide 100 points among the following
characteristics so the division reflects the relative importance of
each characteristic to you in the selection of a health plan.

 Ability to choose a doctor ______

 Extent of medical coverage provided ______
 Quality of medical care ______
 Monthly cost of the plan ______
 Distance to clinic from your home ______

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 Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
Using a Constant Sum Scale
Instructions
 There are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate
100 points among the attributes so that your allocation
reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute.
 The more points an attribute receives, the more important the
attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero
points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other
attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

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 Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes
Using a Constant Sum Scale
Form
Average Responses of Three Segments
Attribute Segment I Segment II Segment III
1. Mildness 8 2 4
2. Lather 2 4 17
3. Shrinkage 3 9 7
4. Price 53 17 9
5. Fragrance 9 0 19
6. Packaging 7 5 9
7. Moisturizing 5 3 20
8. Cleaning Power 13 60 15
Sum 100 100 100

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 Q-Sort Procedures-4
 It is Comparative Scaling technique that uses a rank order procedure to
sort objects based on similarity with respect to some criterion.
 It discriminates a large number of objects quickly.
 Objects are sorted in to piles based on similarities with respect to some
criterion.
 Example - Respondents are given 100 attitude statements on individual cards &
ask them to place in 7 piles .Ranging from most highly agreed with least highly
agreed with.

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 Non - Comparative Scaling

 Non - Comparative Scaling consists of Continuous Rating

Scale and Itemized Rating Scale.
 Itemized rating scales are Likert, Semantic and Staple.

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Scale Basic Characteristics Example Advantages Disadvantages

Continuous Place a mark on a continuous Reaction to Easy to construct Scoring can be

Rating line TV cumbersome unless
Scale commercial computerized

Itemized Rating Scale

Likert Scale Degree of agreement on a Measurement Easy to construct More time consuming
strongly disagree) to 5 of Attitude ,administer and
(strongly agree )scale understand

Semantic Seven-point scale with Brand, Versatile Controversy as to

Differential bipolar labels product whether the dates
and are interval
company
image
Stapel Scale Unipolar ten point scale,- Measurement of Easy to Confusing and
5 to +5 without a neutral attitudes and construct; difficult to apply.
point (zero) images administered
over telephone

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 Continuous Rating Scale

 It is also referred as Graphic Rating Scale. The respondents rate

the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line
that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to other.
 It is easy to construct but the scoring is cumbersome and
unreliable.
 It does not provide any new information hence its use in market
research is limited.

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Continuous Rating Scale
How would you rate Reliance as a department store?
VERSION 1
Probably the worst ……..|………………………..Probably the best

VERSION 2
Probably the worst ……..|……………………………………………Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

VERSION 3
Very bad Neither good Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst ……..|……………………………………………Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Indicates unfavorable attitude towards Reliance.

Scores are treated as interval data.

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 Itemized Rating Scales

 A measurement scale having numbers and/or brief description

associated with each category.
 The categories are ordered in terms of scale position.
 The respondents select the specified category that best describes
the objects being rated.
 The commonly used itemized scales are- Likert , Semantic
differential and Staple scales.

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 The Likert Scale
 An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Named after Rensis
Likert.
 Respondents indicate their attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or
disagree with statements.
 Five Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”,
and “strongly disagree”.
 It is easy to construct and administer.
 Disadvantage- it takes longer to complete than other itemized scale because
respondent has to read each statement.
 It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match than to play an easy
one.
___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree
BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 66
Selected Category Scales

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 Likert Scale
 Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging either from -2 to +2
or 1 to 5.
 The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (Profile Analysis)
or a total (Summated) score can be calculated for each respondent by
summing across items.
 Compare two stores: Profile Analysis will involve comparing two stores in
terms of average respondent ratings of each item such as quality of
merchandise, in-store service and variety of products.
 In Summated approach determine the total score for each respondent on
each store. High & Low score will reflect favorable or unfavorable
response.
 Summated score is quite popular and is preferred that is why Likert scale
is also known as Summated Scale.
BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 68
 Computing a Composite Scale : Trust
worthiness of a web site- page 297

Summated score of one respondent=13

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 Likert Scale

Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly

disagree agree nor agree
disagree

1. Sears sells high-quality merchandise. 1 2 3 4 5

2. Sears has poor in-store service. 1 2 3 4 5

3. I like to shop at Sears. 1 2 3 4 5

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 Likert Scale For Measuring Attitudes
Toward Tennis

 Playing Tennis is a great way to exercise.

___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree

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 Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes
Toward Tennis
 It is more fun to play a tough, competitive Tennis match
than to play an easy one.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree

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 Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes
Toward Tennis

 There is really no such thing as a Tennis stroke

that cannot be mastered.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree

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 Semantic Differential

 A series of seven-point rating scale with end points associated with

bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
 Bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”, anchor both ends (or
poles) of the scale. Two ends are defined.
 A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale.
Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
 Semantic refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a
language, code, or other form of representation.

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 Semantic Differential Scales For Measuring
Attitudes Toward Tennis
Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm

Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull

Simple ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ :Complex

Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ :Active

The resulting data is analyzed through profile analysis.

Semantic Scale used in comparing brand, product, and company images.
It is widely used to develop advertising and promotion strategies.

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A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts,
Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate
2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm
3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable
4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive
5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent
6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant
7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete
8) Organized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized
9) Rational :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional
10) Youthful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature
11) Formal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal
12) Orthodox :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal
13) Complex :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple
14) Colorless :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful
15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---:
BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6
Vain 76
 Numerical Scales
Similar to Semantic Differential, but Numerical Scales have numbers as
response options rather than “semantic space’ or verbal descriptions,
to identify categories (response positions).
You have your automobile for about one year, please tell us how
satisfied you are with your vehicle

Extremely Satisfied 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. Extremely Dissatisfied

You have seen a movie last week end, please let me know how do you find that?
Interesting _7_ : _6_ : _5_ : _4_ : _3_ : _2_ : _1_ : Dull

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 77
 Other Scale Types
 Image Profile
 A graphic representation of semantic differential data for
competing brands, products, or stores to highlight comparisons.
 Because the data are assumed to be interval, either the
arithmetic mean or the median will be used to compare the
profile of one product, brand, or store with that of a competing
product, brand, or store.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 78
Image Profiles of Commuter Airlines versus Major Airlines

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 79
 Stapel Scales

 It is a Unipolar rating scale with 10 categories numbered from -5 to

+5 without a neutral point (zero).
 Place a single adjective as a substitute for the Semantic Differential
when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
 The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as the
results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. However,
the Stapel scale[ named after James Stapel] tends to be easier to
conduct and administer.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 80
 Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately.
The more accurately you think the work describes the store, the larger the
plus number you should choose.
 Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store
accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the
larger the minus number you should choose;
 Therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are
very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 81
A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

Department
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide selection, High quality, Poor service[any one]
-1
-2
-3
BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 82
 Graphic Rating Scales

A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 83
Summary of Advantages & Disadvantages of Rating Scales
320

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 84
 Behavioral Differential

 Measures the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object

or category of objects.
 A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a
sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward
this object on a series of scales.
 Category scales that measure the behavioral components of an
attitude attempt to determine a respondent’s “likelihood” of
action or intention to perform some future actions.
 Example: How likely is it that you will change jobs in the next six
months. - I definitely will change, I probably will change, I might
change, I probably will not change, I definitely will not change

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 85
 Selecting a Measurement Scale
 Is a ranking, rating or choice techniques best. Ranking
provide ordinal data- limits statistical analysis.
 Should a monadic or comparative scale be used?
 What type of category labels, if any should be used?
 How many scale positions are needed?
 Should a balanced or unbalanced rating scale be chosen?
 Single measure V/s Index measure

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 86
 Monadic Rating Scale

A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept

Now that you’ve had your automobile for about 1 year, please
tell us how satisfied you are with its pickup.
Completely Very Fairly Well Somewhat Very
Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 87
 A Comparative Rating Scale

A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a

concept by comparing it with a benchmark

Please indicate the magnitude of authority you have in

the present position in comparison to the magnitude of
authority that would be ideal for this position.
Too Much About Right Too Little

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 88
 An Unbalanced Scale

An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of

the scale

How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the ABC mall?
Neither Satisfied Quite Very
Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 89
Three Criteria for Good Measurement

Reliability Validity

Good
Measurement

Sensitivity

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 Two general traits characterize the
Scientific Method
Two important characteristics of any measurement procedure are:
 Reliability
 Validity

Reliability refers to the confidence we can place on the

measuring instrument to give same numeric value when the
measurement is repeated on the same object.
Validity means that our measuring instrument actually
measures the property it is supposed to measure.
Reliability of the instrument does not ensure its validity.
BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 91
 Example
 There is an instrument which can measure the number of things a child can
recall from his last day’s activities. If this instrument returns the same value
when implemented on the same child, it is a reliable instrument.
 But if some one claims that it is a valid instrument for measuring IQ level of
the child ,he may be wrong. This instrument may just be measuring the
memory level not the IQ level .
The focus is on:
 Objectivity of the investigator
 Accuracy of measurement
 Continuing and Exhaustive nature of the investigation

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 92
 Reliability
 Reliability is a Statistical measure of how reproducible the survey
instruments’ data are.
 It is the ability of a measure to produce the same or highly similar
results on repeated administrations.
 Reliability of a questionnaire relates to the consistency of responses
across retesting with the same or equivalent instrument.
 In short, reliability means stability in results.
 A survey is said to be a reliable one if it provides a consistent
measure of important characteristics despite background
fluctuations.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 93
 Reliability

 We do not have a concept of absolute reliability. In fact, it is a

relative concept. Reliability is a matter of degree - some are
more reliable than others.
 It is possible to get a measure of reliability of questionnaire data
by one time testing or repeated testing.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 94
 Reliability

RELIABILITY

STABILITY INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

TEST RETEST EQUIVALENT FORMS SPLITTING HALVES

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 95
 Reliability
 Reliability
 The degree to which measures are free from random error and
therefore yield consistent results.
 An indicator of a measure’s internal consistency.(Exam page 329)
 Internal Consistency
 Represents a measure’s homogeneity or the extent to which each
indicator of a concept converges on some common meaning.
 Measured by correlating scores on subsets of items making up a scale.
 Internal Consistency Reliability is an approach for assessing internal
consistency of set of items when several items are summated in order
to form a total score for scale.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 96
 Internal Consistency
 Split-Half Method
 Assessing internal consistency by checking the results of one-half of a
set of scaled items against the results from the other half.
 Split Half Reliability is a form of internal consistency reliability in which
the items constituting the scale are divided into two halves and
resulting half scores are correlated.
1. Administer the test to a large group students (ideally, over about 30).
2. Randomly divide the test questions into two parts. For example,
separate even questions from odd questions.
3. Score each half of the test for each student.
4. Find the correlation coefficient for the two halves.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 97
 Internal Consistency
 Coefficient alpha (α) is a measure of internal consistency reliability that is
average of all possible split half coefficients resulting from different splitting of
the scale items.
 It lies between 0 to 1 and value less than 0.6 indicates unsatisfactory internal
consistency reliability.
 The most commonly applied estimate of a multiple item scale’s reliability.
 Represents internal consistency by computing the average of all possible split-half
reliabilities for a multiple item scale.
 The coefficient demonstrates whether or not the different items converge.
 Ranges in value from 0 (no consistency) to 1 (complete consistency).
 Generally, scales with a coefficient α:
 .80 - .95: very good reliability
 .70 - .80: good reliability
 .60 - .70: fair reliability
 below .60: poor reliability

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 Test-Retest Reliability
 Test-Retest Method
 Administering the same scale or measure to the same respondents at two
separate points in time to test for stability.
 Represents a measure’s repeatability.
 When a measuring instrument produces unpredictable results from one testing
to the next, the results are said to be unreliable because of error in
measurement.
 Problems
 The pre-measure, or first measure, may sensitize the respondents and
subsequently influence the results of the second measure.
 Time effects that produce changes in attitude or other maturation of the
subjects.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 99
 Validity

 The accuracy of a measure or the extent to which a score truthfully

represents a concept.
 The ability of a scale to measure what was intended to be
measured.
 Validity is extent to which differences in the observed scale scores
reflects true differences among objects on the characteristic being
measured rather than systematic or random errors.
 Validity

 A ruler is considered to be a valid instrument if it provides an accurate

measure of a person’s height.
 Validity ensures accuracy.
 A valid survey is always reliable but a reliable survey may not always be
valid.
 Establishing Validity:
 Is there a consensus that the scale measures what it is supposed to measure?
 Does the measure correlate with other measures of the same concept?
 Does the behavior expected from the measure predict actual observed behavior?

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 Validity

Validity

FACEORCONTENT CRITERIONVALIDITY CONSTRUCTVALIDITY

CONCURRENT PREDICTIVE

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 Establishing Validity
 The four basic approaches to establishing validity are face validity, content validity,
criterion validity, and construct validity
 Face Validity
 A scale’s content logically appears to reflect what was intended to be measured.
 Content Validity
 The degree that a measure covers the breadth of the domain of interest.
 Criterion Validity
 The ability of a measure to correlate with other standard measures of similar
constructs or established criteria.
 Construct Validity
 Exists when a measure reliably measures and truthfully represents a unique
concept.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 103
 Validity
 Convergent Validity
 Another way of expressing internal consistency; highly reliable scales contain
convergent validity.
 Discriminant Validity
 Represents how unique or distinct is a measure; a scale should not correlate
too highly with a measure of a different construct.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 104
 Reliability and Validity on Target

The differences between the two are illustrated with rifle targets
A: The shots from the older gun are scattered  low reliability.
B: The shots from the newer gun are closely clustered and on target 
high reliability and validity
C: The shots from a newer gun are closely clustered but off target 
high reliability but low validity.
BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 105
 Sensitivity

 The sensitivity of a scale is an important measurement

concept, particularly when changes in attitudes or other
hypothetical constructs are under investigation.
 A measurement instrument’s ability to accurately measure
variability in stimuli or responses.
 Generally increased by adding more response points or adding
scale items.

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 Measurement Accuracy

 A measurement is a number that reflects some

characteristic of an object.
 A measurement is not true value of the characteristic
of interest but rather an observation of it.
 A variety of factors can cause measurement error,
which results in the measurement or observed score
being different from true score of the characteristic
being measured.

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 True Score Model
 True Score Model provides a frame work for
understanding the accuracy of measurement.
 X0 = XT + XS + XR ,

X0 = Observed score of measurement

XT = True score of the characteristic
XS = Systematic error
XR = Random error.
 Systematic error affects the measurement in a constant
way and represents stable factors that affect the
observed score in the same way each time
measurement is made.

BRM/IIFT/Harsh/6 108
 True Score Model

 Random Error Measurement error that arises from

random changes or differences in respondent or
measurement situations.
 Reliability XR=0, Measure free from Random Error
 Validity XO =XT and XR=0, XS=0

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Thanks