Power Generation Options v1 - Clean

Electricity Supply & Storage Options
Document no: RZ020301-FWP9-002

Revision no: A
MFAT
MFAT001
Grenada Integrated Resource Plan

6 October 2022
Client name: MFAT
Project name: Grenada Integrated Resource Plan
Client reference: MFAT001 Project no: RZ020301
Document no: RZ020301-FWP9-002 Project manager: Alastair Brookes
Revision no: A Prepared by: Dan Ingold, Veronika Vazhnik, William

Bromby
Date: 6 October 2022 File name: Document4
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Executive Summary
Jacobs is supporting the development of an Integrated Resource Plan in Grenada. The IRP provides a robust
assessment of the power sector and a least cost power development plan (LCPDP) to achieving generation
and network expansion over the next 20 years to support the achievement of energy reliability, security and
carbon reduction goals.
This document provides an overview of potential electricity generation and energy storage options that can
support this goal in the near term (i.e., 5 years) as well and the longer term (up to 20 years) and identifies a
list of priority technologies to be taken forward in analysis that are most suitable for Grenada.
Technologies were qualitatively assessed based on the five following parameter:

1. Technology Maturity
2. Constructability
3. Environmental Impacts
4. Levelised cost of energy (LCOE)
Based on those priorities, we found that electricity supply technologies including photovoltaic solar energy,
onshore wind, and geothermal energy rank highest for electricity supply. Other technologies like biomass
combustion and anaerobic digestion of agricultural waste were analyzed in consideration of readily available
fuel supply than can be used to complement electricity supply on a smaller (e.g., campus) scale for localized
resilience.
Electrochemical energy storage, such as lithium-ion battery, is the most suitable near term electricity storage
technology applicable to Grenada’s energy system.
Alternative technologies might mature in the next 5-10 years and could be added to the electricity supply
mix once more established on the market. For example, technologies like fuel cells, hydrogen fuels, and
nuclear microreactors can become more accessible for use in Grenada.
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Contents
Executive Summary ..................................................................................................................................................................i
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Technology Assessment Approach ........................................................................................................................... 1
2. Technology Review ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Electricity Supply Technology Options .................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Electricity Supply Technology Assessment......................................................................................................... 12
2.3 Electricity Supply Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 15
3. Energy storage ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Energy Storage Technology Options ..................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Energy Storage Technology Assessment ............................................................................................................. 18
3.3 Electricity Storage Conclusions ............................................................................................................................... 19
4. Recommendations .................................................................................................................................................... 20
5. References .................................................................................................................................................................. 21
RZ020301-FWP9-002 ii
1. Introduction
Jacobs is supporting the development of an Integrated Resource Plan in Grenada. The IRP provides a robust
assessment of the power sector and a least cost path to achieving electricity supply and network expansion
over the next 20 years to support the achievement of energy reliability, security and carbon reduction goals.
This document provides an overview of potential electricity supply and energy storage technology options
that may be considered to support these goals in the near term (5 years) as well as the longer term (20
years). This report identifies a list of priority technologies most suitable for Grenada’s energy supply mix to
be considered in a least cost power development plan (LCPDP).
1.1 Technology Assessment Approach

The below parameters were selected as lead indicators for assessing technologies that will contribute towards
providing a safe and secure supply of electricity that minimizes the cost to consumers whilst prioritizing low
carbon and renewable energy and reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels.
This analysis considers the existing electricity supply technology (diesel generators) along with alternative
fossil fuel types, renewable energy and low carbon generation options. Further it considers energy storage
options that will be required to facilitate diversification of the electricity supply portfolio through increased
penetration of renewable energy.
Technologies were qualitatively assessed based on the following four parameters to identify a short list of
electricity supply and storage options suitable for deeper analysis in the IRP.
1. Technology Maturity – Is the technology commercially available, maintainable and sufficiently mature to
minimize operational risks.
2. Constructability – Are there likely to be significant constraints to constructing projects that prohibit the
use of the technology (i.e.: land, infrastructure, fuel supply, renewable energy resource)
3. Environmental Impacts – Will the local and regional environmental impacts likely be acceptable, neutral
or unacceptable
4. Levelised cost of energy (LCOE) – Are anticipated costs going to increase, maintain or decrease electricity
supply costs on the island.
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2. Technology Review
2.1 Electricity Supply Technology Options
A variety of new and established electricity supply technologies could be suitable for Grenada’s energy future.
This section provides a brief overview of possible technology options, commenting on their maturity,
environmental impacts, scale and cost. The following are considered:
▪ Fossil fuels
▪ Solar energy
▪ Wind energy
▪ Geothermal energy
▪ Hydroelectric
▪ Wave energy
▪ Ocean thermal
▪ Fuel cells
▪ Micro nuclear
▪ Biomass energy
2.1.1 Fossil Fuels

Grenada currently derives 98% of its electricity from imported hydrocarbons, primarily diesel, with some
other refined petroleum products for home, transport and industrial uses. Diesel generators are operated on
demand and are a baseload electricity resource that enables stable network operation. Although a readily
available fuel source globally, the island is dependent on imports with marginal amounts of reserve supply
maintained in Grenada.
The emissions from fossil combustion include particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and greenhouse gas
emissions. Technology that burns fossil fuels is available in varying sizes from small household backup
generators to large utility scale power plants greater than 500 MW in size.
Different types of fossil fuel may be considered as alternatives to diesel. These differing fossil fuels vary in
combustion efficiency and flash points, with associated operational and environmental considerations.
Generally, the lighter the fuel, the more usable energy is produced in the combustion process while the
heavier the fossil fuel, the more stable the source of generation.
Diesel Fuel
Diesel fuel is specifically refined for internal combustion engines. Diesel fuel has multiple uses on the island,
particularly as a fuel source in the transportation sector. Diesel is a heavy fossil fuel that is often purchased
with low-sulfur or ultra-low sulfur content.
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)
LNG is a lightweight fuel source that has been cooled to a liquid state for shipping and storage. This allows
transportation to locations that cannot justify establishing gas pipelines, such as Grenada. Natural gas
typically produces lower carbon emissions during combustion than diesel fuel and may be available at lower
cost. Diesel engines may be converted to gas, but do not have the same responsiveness to load fluctuations.
New fuel handling and storage facilities would be required.
Liquid Propane Gas (LPG)
LPG is a lightweight fuel source that is a gas at standard temperature and pressure. LPG is stored in cryogenic
tanks that require special consideration for pressurized vessel safety concerns.
Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO)
HFO is the heaviest fossil fuel and has higher sulfur content than diesel. It is lower cost than diesel and is
used on other Caribbean islands for electricity generation, but has higher carbon emissions than diesel. The
existing diesel engines and fuel storage could be modified to use HFO.
Waste Oil Incineration
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Waste oil incineration uses disposed waste oil as the fuel source for combustion. Grenada’s sources of waste
oil come from maintenance activities, primarily used motor oil from the transportation sector, including
marine vessels. Presently waste oil is removed from the island.
2.1.2 Solar Energy

The solar resource in Grenada is generally suitable for photovoltaics (PV). The types of applications for
consideration are generally characterized into utility scale, commercial scale, and distributed (rooftop) solar.
Utility scale PV represents a larger capacity resource, generally greater than 5 MW, that requires significant
areas of land and as individual projects would make a meaningful impact to the electricity supply mix.
Commercial scale solar installations capture those opportunities that take advantage of real estate capable of
co-locating PV solar, for instance larger rooftops, resulting in installed in the range of 100’s of kW to
approximately 1 MW, but not the size of utility scale.
Distributed PV solar will consider the residential rooftop solar installations, generally around 7 kW. While not
independently meaningful, aggregated distributed PV solar installations can result in meaningful electricity
supply to the network or remove demand from the network.
2.1.2.1 Photovoltaic Solar Energy

Utility-scale PV on-ground
Ground-mounted solar power systems are a mature and reliable source of energy production when there is
sufficient sun exposure. These systems are comprised of numerous solar panels that are mounted to the
ground, and either maintain a stagnant angled position, or rotate to follow the path of the sun. They require
an adequate amount of open space and exposure to sun. The energy produced by this system can be
connected to the electricity grid.
Photo Credit: CS Energy
Utility-scale PV (floating)
Floating solar panels are mounted on a structure that floats in a body of water. These systems are typically
better suited for large-scale applications where land is at a premium.
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Photo Credit: PV Magazine
Commercial PV
Commercial or industrial buildings can utilize various solar power methods, such as on-ground, rooftop solar
or purpose bult structures such as carports. Instead of connecting this power production to the grid, it can be
used directly in the building(s). Surplus energy can be sold into the grid.
Rooftop solar power systems are like on-ground systems but are typically smaller. They consist of a system
of solar panels that are mounted on the rooftop of residential or commercial buildings.
Solar carports are built canopies over parking areas such as lots and garages that capture solar energy. This
provides an opportunity to utilize parking space to produce renewable energy.
Roadway embedded PV, or solar roadways, are roads that are built with durable solar panels that can
withstand the force from vehicles. These panels have many applications and can also be used for walkways,
parks, bike paths, and more.
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Residential PV
Residential self-consumption is the same as commercial, but on a smaller scale. Solar energy generated on
the site of the residential property can be used to power the surrounding area. Solar PV Roof Shingles
are solar panels that are durable enough to be used to build a roof. They provide a way to construct
conventional rooftops that have the capability to produce renewable energy.
2.1.2.2 Solar Thermal Energy

Concentrated Solar System
Concentrated solar power systems use mirrors or lenses to focus a large area of sunlight onto a heat absorber
or receiver, often with thermal storage built. This heat is then used to create steam and power a steam
turbine generator. These require excellent solar resource and large areas of flat land. Costs are significantly
greater than solar PV.
Photo Credit: U.S. Department of Energy
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Parabolic Trough solar

Parabolic troughs are curved solar thermal collectors that are lined with a mirror. This magnifies sunlight
towards an area that is intended to be heated, typically a heat absorber. This concentrated collection of heat
is then used to power a steam turbine generator. Parabolic troughs require excellent solar resource.
Photo Credit: Pennsylvania State University
2.1.3 Wind Energy
2.1.3.1 Onshore Wind

Stationary Tower
Wind turbines extract energy from the wind using a rotor which is connected to an electric generator. Most
common are horizontal axis turbines, with the rotor and nacelle mounted atop a tower. The turbines with
capacities <500kW are generally less than 75m in height, may not have gearboxes, and may utilize a vane for
passive orientation. Larger wind turbines can have significantly higher power capacities up to several MWs.
They require large heavy lift cranes for installation. The mobile crane and long pre-fabricated blades can be
difficult to transport to sites.
Hinged Tower
Wind turbines (<275kW) are available which are hinged at the base, allowing them to be lowered for
hurricanes or maintenance. They require guy-wire supports, which decreases the amount of concrete needed
for foundations, but increases the overall footprint required for the site.
Photos’ Credit: Vergnet Groupe
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2.1.3.2 Offshore wind

Fixed
Offshore wind turbine generators have the potential to be much larger than onshore and can reach up to
10MW in capacity. Offshore wind speeds are generally considerably higher than onshore speeds and are
subject to less turbulence. Currently the majority of offshore wind turbines are fixed to the seafloor in
relatively shallow water. The large size requires specialist barges and equipment to construct and maintain
facilities.
Floating
Floating offshore wind turbines can be located in deeper waters than fixed systems, furthering opportunities
to use this technology. The anchoring system is more resilient than fixed wind turbine structures, allowing for
even larger capacity turbines to be deployed.
Photo Credit: Joshua Bauer, NREL image library
2.1.4 Geothermal
Geothermal energy refers to the heat energy available under the ground as a result of elevated temperatures
within the earth. Extraction of heat for use above ground lies at the heart of utilizing the energy available,
which may be achieved directly via transport of geothermal fluids or indirectly by placement of closed loop
systems.
In the case of geothermal resources used for electricity generation, heat is transported either as steam, liquid
brine or a mixture of both. Typically drilling of wells is required to access the geothermal fluids. Once at the
surface, the fluids are passed through heat exchangers and/or turbines to generate electricity. These
applications are limited in geography to the location of suitable geothermal resources which determine the
amount of power which may be generated. Investigations are ongoing in Grenada to determine if a
geothermal resource suitable for electricity generation exists.
Closed loop systems can be utilized to extract heat from the ground into a working fluid. Commercial scale
high temperature closed loop systems for electricity generation are in various stages of development and
operation, but are still pre-commercial.
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2 x 5MW geothermal power plant, Mexico
2.1.5 Hydroelectric
2.1.5.1 Impoundment
Impoundment is the most common type of hydroelectric power, generally creating a reservoir by damming a
river. The impoundment facility (dam) contains turbines which produce electricity as water is released from
the reservoir.
2.1.5.2 Run of River

Run of River hydroelectric power does not create an artificial reservoir. The turbine facility can be within the
banks (creating minimal impoundment) or can be along a diversion channel. Run of River power is
susceptible to seasonality, and may not provide the continuous power output throughout the year.
2.1.6 Wave energy

Wave power captures energy contained in surface waves of large bodies of water. There are several types of
mechanisms, but in general they involve a buoyant object and a hydraulics-based energy conversion device to
produce electricity as it is moved by the water. They require anchoring to the sea bed and are subject to daily,
diurnal and seasonal variations in the resource.
Photo Credit: European Marine Energy Centre
2.1.7 Ocean thermal

Ocean thermal energy produces electricity by using the temperature difference between the colder deep
ocean water and warmer surface waters to run a heat engine. The cold and warm water must be pumped to
an energy conversion facility. Most current designs require onshore facilities, but floating facilities are
possible.
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Photo Credit: Makai Ocean Engineering
2.1.8 Fuel Cells

A fuel cell generates electricity through an electrochemical reaction using an anode, cathode, and an
electrolyte membrane. It does not use combustion and there are no moving parts. In a fuel cell, hydrogen
and oxygen are combined to generate electricity, heat, and water. Fuel cells do not need to be periodically
recharged like batteries, but instead continue to produce electricity as long as a fuel source such as hydrogen
or methane is provided.
Photo Credit: Bloom Energy
2.1.9 Nuclear
Nuclear energy comes from splitting uranium atoms in a reactor creating large amounts of heat. The heat is
used to convert water into steam which in turn is used in a steam turbine to produce electricity. Nuclear
energy is a carbon free, emissions free baseload energy resource meaning electricity can be generated 24
hours a day, seven days a week. Uranium is mined and processed before it can be used as a fuel source and
spent nuclear fuel (SNF) is typically stored in a pool to cool. Once cooled, SNF can be stored in large
containers. Large amounts of water are needed to create nuclear energy and the highest level of safety must
be maintained due to the potential to release radiation. Typically, nuclear reactors are large capacity built in
place assets, however, advanced reactors are being developed of varying sizes with more flexible output.
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2.1.9.1 Nuclear SMRs

Small modular reactors (SMRs) are modular reactors producing between 20MW and 300MW. They are
composed of small modules, meaning that they can be factory-assembled and transported for installation at
the site. The reactors are being commercially tested and lauded as a clean baseload power source.
Image source: NuScale Power. https://www.energy.gov/ne/advanced-small-modular-reactors-smrs
2.1.9.2 Nuclear microreactors

Nuclear microreactors are small nuclear reactors that can be part of electric grids or microgrids, generating
up to 20 MW thermal energy. The reactors are designed to be easily transportable and are intended for
remote locations, including islands. They can serve as a substitute for diesel power generators.
Image source: Idaho National Laboratory. https://inl.gov/trending-

topic/microreactors/#:~:text=A%20microreactor%20is%20a%20small,provide%20heat%20for%20industri
al%20applications.
2.1.10 Biomass
2.1.10.1 Biomass Combustion

Agricultural/Forestry Feedstock
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Biomass combustion is one of the oldest sources of energy but is not frequently considered as an efficient
utility-scale electricity source. The electricity supply process involves direct combustion of dried agricultural
or forestry feedstocks like sugar cane bagasse or wood residue. To improve the efficiency of the process,
biomass can be pelletized or undergo torrefaction, which makes the feedstock more compact and hence
more energy dense. Biomass can serve as a feedstock for co-firing with coal in existing coal-fired power
plants.
MSW Feedstock
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) can be combusted to generate power, and on average produces 550 kWh per
ton of waste (EPA, 2022). The most common process is the Mass Burn, which places the MSW into a
combustion chamber, and the generated thermal heat is used to produce electricity. Note that it is possible
to converts municipal solid waste into liquid fuel or gas, but those processes are still being optimized.
Overall, it can be should treated first as part of a comprehensive waste management strategy together with
electricity supply.
Image credit: Xing et al. 2021.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360544221004060
Liquid Fuel Conversion

Liquid fuel, like ethanol or biodiesel, can be produced from biomass feedstocks of various types. Such fuels
are often called biofuels. The process to produce bioethonol is fermentation, where, feedstocks that contain
simple sugars (e.g., sugar cane, or corn) or more complex sugars (e.g., grasses) are processed by
microorganisms to produce ethanol. Biodiesel is produced from oils and fats, and can be a way of reusing
cooking grease or vegetable oil.
Using High Temperature Plasma System

Biomass can be gasified using high temperature thermal plasma, that results in the production of syngas,
which is hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Syngas can be used as fuel for electricity generators, or as feed for
Fischer Tropsch process. The use of high temperature plasma for biomass to fuel conversion is still under
development.
2.1.11 Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a series of biological processes, during which microorganisms break down organic
material and produce biogas. The process takes place without oxygen, and can utilize organic waste like
agricultural biproducts, wastewater sludge, and food scraps. Biogas can be combusted in a power engine or
boilers, or if it is cleaned to a higher quality, can be used as a substitute to natural gas.
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Image credit: Lu et al. 2021. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960852421005356
2.1.12 Landfill Gas

If landfill gas collection is included in the design of a landfill, the gas can be used for electricity supply. Once
collected, the gas can be dewatered and scrubbed to increase the energy density and quality, and then can be
used in either boilers or gas turbines. This approach not only helps generate additional energy, but also
reduces methane emissions from waste.
2.2 Electricity Supply Technology Assessment

This section evaluates the energy supply technologies to identify which are most suitable for Grenada based
on technology maturity, constructability, environmental impacts and levelized cost of energy.
The key evaluation parameters are summarized below describing what attributes are considered in the
analysis of the electricity supply technologies.
Technology Maturity
Each generating type was evaluated to determine its maturity in the electricity supply technology market. For
this analysis, technology maturity or readiness is characterized as follows:
▪ Green - Bankable asset class. Technology has been optimized, processes are well articulated, experts
exist in nearly every geography, and market competition drives widespread development.
▪ Orange - Technologies that are better defined with some commercial applications are considered to have
experts throughout the industry but not necessarily outside niche circles.
▪ Red - Initial deployment or commercial trial, small scale where few people have knowledge of the
technology, processes are not well defined, and few operating facilities exist.
Constructability
Constructability of a resource is critical. Each generation resource was looked at and characterized as follows:
▪ Green – The technology can readily be deployed using existing infrastructure, there is sufficient land /
roof space, the resource or fuel supply is available, specialist construction personnel or equipment not
required.
▪ Orange – Existing infrastructure will require upgrades, land area may be limited or in difficult to access
locations, the renewable energy resource is not optimum or limited.
▪ Red – Major new infrastructure is required to facilitate construction of the technology, the fuel supply or
resource is limited, highly specialized skills and large equipment are required for construction.
Environmental Impacts
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There are several considerations when looking at the local and regional environmental impacts of different
generation resources including visual impacts, noise, emissions to ground/water/air and biodiversity impacts.
One of the most obvious impacts is greenhouse gas emissions and where commitments have been made,
backsliding is not a consideration.
▪ Green – Environmental impacts are likely to be acceptable with minimal mitigations required.
▪ Orange – Some environmental impacts will be significant, but mitigation is likely to mitigate these to the
extent that the project can proceed.
▪ Red – Environmental impacts create a fatal flaw in the development which would prevent financing from
being available.
Levelised Cost of Energy and Storage
The Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) or Levelised Cost of Storage (LCOS) is a measure of the average of the
net present cost of electricity generation for a generator over its lifetime divided by energy production over
its lifetime. It provides a useful basis for comparing technologies of unequal life spans, project size, different
capital costs, and production profiles.
The LCOE and other cost estimates were based on market research, and can be found in Table 1, in the
Additional Information section.
▪ Green - Technologies, for which LCOE was up to EC$0.14/kWh, were considered well fitting for Grenada
▪ Orange - Technologies in the price range of EC$0.15/kWh to EC$0.54/kWh were marked as marginally
fitting
▪ Red - Technologies for which the price was either still uncertain due to lacking maturity and commercial
implementation, or if the cost is greater than EC$0.55/kWh, were marked as not fitting for Grenada.
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2.3 Electricity Supply Conclusions

This evaluation considers the technologies sequentially, eliminating from further consideration those that are
not deemed viable in Grenada to achieving long term policy goals. This means the parameters outlined below
are in sequential order and technology maturity is the key parameter that is required for a technology to be
considered. Second, locational availability or constructability are considered for implementation of a new
asset. As the technologies are eliminated in evaluating the first two parameters, the remaining are then
ranked according to environmental impacts and levelized cost of energy.
The technologies that are not considered mature, such as biomass using high temperature plasma system,
nuclear small modular reactors, nuclear microreactors, roadway embedded PV, solar PV roof shingles,
parabolic trough solar, concentrated solar power, floating offshore wind, wave energy, and ocean thermal
energy, were excluded from further analysis.
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The scale and available land in Grenada can be a limiting factor for the development of some utility-scale
energy generation technologies, in particular biomass to liquid fuel conversion, commercial/industrial self-
consumption, and residential self-consumption, large onshore and fixed offshore wind installations, and both
impoundment and run of river hydroelectric power generation option. Due to those limitations, these energy
generation technologies were excluded from further analysis.
Since one of the main goals of the Integrated Resource Plan, is to bring the islands’ power mix closest to
100% renewable and zero carbon energy, carbon footprint and overall environmental performance matter
when selecting the best power generation options. Currently, most of Grenada’s electricity is derived from
fossil fuels, and each type of fossil fuel was reviewed as an option for power generation. Yet, because of the
carbon footprint and environmental performance of those fuels, diesel fuel, LNG, LPG, HFO, and waste oil are
removed from further consideration. Biomass combustion generates greenhouse gas emissions, but can be
considered as a waste management approach rather than utility-scale power generation strategy, and thus is
removed from the final assessment.
The technologies that are mature, are constructable within the Grenada environmental constraints, and have
minimal local environmental footprint have been evaluated for power generation based on the expected
LCOE. Anaerobic digestion and landfill gas are waste management and resilience strategies that allow
reducing methane emissions caused by waste decomposition. These solutions can be beneficial for the
islands, but can be treated as local power sources rather than utility-scale solutions, due to the possible
challenges to scale and install at the island facilities. Fuel cells are a technology that has been established as
a clean and flexible electricity source, but are still requiring cost reductions to be suitable for Grenada.
Solar energy, small on-shore wind energy, and geothermal are the most suitable power sources for Grenada.
All of these technologies have matured significantly to often being the least-cost generation options.
Together with suitability for construction on the islands and minimal local environmental footprint, these
technologies can offer Grenada a path towards decarbonizing its grid. Solar energy options suggested for
Grenada include on-ground, on-roof, floating, and carport PV technologies to maximize the potential for
clean electricity generation. Small (under 1MW) onshore wind turbines are considered, but their adoption on
the islands will be limited by the logistics for the needed equipment. Geothermal is a baseload power source
and is required to ensure the reliability of the energy supply. For solar and wind energy to meet the demand
consistently, they need to be paired with energy storage technologies, which are evaluated in the next
section.
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3. Energy storage
3.1 Energy Storage Technology Options
Solar and wind energy can provide clean electricity in Grenada, but cannot ensure reliability of energy supply
without energy storage. That is why energy storage is considered in this report, to enable the adoption of
renewable energy sources on the island without any detriment to the safety and quality of power supply.
3.1.1 Electrochemical Energy Storage (EES)

Electrochemical energy storage (EES) systems are batteries using gels or solid chemicals that have higher
energy density than mechanical and thermal storage systems. Round-trip efficiency for EES ranges from 95%
for lithium-ion (Li-ion) to 40% for metal-air systems. EES systems do need to be cooled during recharge and
discharge. EES systems are compact and modular and can be sized for a range of applications, from power
plants to residential and vehicle uses.
Photo Credit: LG Energy Solutions
3.1.2 Mechanical Energy Storage (MES)

Electrical energy can be converted into mechanical energy such as gravitational potential energy and kinetic
energy. Electrical energy can also be used to compress gas such as air. Some MES types are suitable for
large-scale and long-duration energy storage; however, their energy density is much lower than the energy
density of chemical or electrochemical storage technologies.
3.1.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

CAES systems store pressurized air in underground cavities or above-ground tanks. This technology has been
widely discussed as a potential grid-scale energy storage option, but there are major obstacles to deployment
at grid-scale.
3.1.4 Thermal Energy Storage (TES)

Thermal energy storage can store heat effectively in low-cost materials such as molten salts. A near-term
TES approach for updating steam turbines at fossil fueled power plants is to discharge the stored heat to
produce steam. This can be completed using commercially available technologies.
3.1.5 Pumped Hydro Storage (PSH)

Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) stores energy in the potential energy of water pumped uphill. PSH is a
mature, widely deployed technology that accounts for well over 90% of the global grid-scale energy storage
capacity.
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Photo Credit: Engineering News Record (4.18.2009)
3.1.6 Hydrogen
Hydrogen produced via electrolysis can serve as a low-carbon fuel for electricity supply during periods when
variable renewable energy (VRE) generation is low. Use of electrolyzers as a dispatchable load for the power
system could also reduce the costs of power system decarbonization by increasing capacity utilization of VRE
resources.
3.2 Energy Storage Technology Assessment

Several types of clean energy technology were considered in this analysis, and are reviewed based on cost,
technology maturity, and suitability parameter and are described below. The suitability parameters are
described in detail in section 2.2 Electricity Supply Technology Assessment.
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3.3 Electricity Storage Conclusions

Similar to energy generation, electricity storage technologies are evaluated sequentially, eliminating from
further consideration those that are not deemed viable in Grenada. Technology maturity is the key parameter
that is required for a technology to be considered. Second, locational availability or constructability are
considered for implementation of a new asset. Because most of the technologies evaluated for electricity
storage were only nearing maturity – like hydrogen, compressed energy storage, thermal energy storage, and
mechanical energy storage – only two technologies were further considered for the analysis.
Pumped hydro energy storage is a mature solution, but the suitability of sites where this technology can be
implemented in Grenada is tenuous, with use of Grand Etang being the obvious upper reservoir.
Electrochemical energy storage is the only electricity storage solution that is currently suitable for Grenada
based on the maturity, constructability, environmental, and economic criteria. Lithium-ion batteries are
considered as such solution in the consecutive economic models.
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4. Recommendations
Based on the maturity, constructability, environmental impacts, and LCOE, several electricity supply
technologies are recommended for consideration in the Integrated Resource Plan. The greatest opportunities
for clean energy supply in the next 5 years are:
- PV (on-ground, on-roof, floating, and carport),
- On-shore wind turbines (under 1MW), and
- Geothermal energy sources.
Because of the intermittent nature of solar and wind power, the recommendation is to pair these technologies
with electrochemical (e.g., Li-ion) battery storage. These scenarios will be used to model for least-cost option
determination in the IRP.
While fossil fuels qualify price- and technology maturity-wise for the use on the islands, those energy sources
provide no or only a marginal improvement to the Greenhouse Gas Emissions performance of electricity, and
therefore can only be a short-term solution that will need to be phased out to meet the clean energy goals of
the country.
Some clean energy technologies will continue to mature and become more viable for use on the island. That
is why the electricity supply scenarios after 2027 should reflect the updated status of clean energy
technologies. For example, the pricing and maturity might change for offshore wind energy technologies, or
for the more innovative solar technologies. If found suitable for the island, fuel cells, hydrogen, micro-nuclear
or small modular nuclear reactors might be suitable as baseload power in the future; alternatively, waste-
based energy sources like agricultural biomass or municipal solid waste can be considered for small-scale
energy generation.
This initial screening needs to be followed-up with additional review to identify the potential projects based
on the availability of land, resource quality, intermittency, social and environmental impacts, expected costs,
and policy support or limitations. These findings are most suitable for the island of Grenada, but could be
suitable for the islands of Petit Martinique and Carriacou. Petit Martinique could meet its clean energy needs
through solar energy generation with electrochemical storage; Carriacou could similarly have solar and
storage energy system, but might be suitable for wind generation.
RZ020301-FWP9-002 20
5. References
AIGUASOL, 2022. Inception Report: Grenada Power System Integrated Assessment (GP601059).
Unpublished project document.
EPA, 2022. Energy Recovery from the Combustion of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). Accessed online:
https://www.epa.gov/smm/energy-recovery-combustion-municipal-solid-waste-msw
RZ020301-FWP9-002 21
Additional information
Table 1. Levelised cost of energy (LCOE) or storage (LCOS) of the mature, constructable, and
environmentally non-harming technologies in Grenada
Technology LCOE/LCOS (EC$/kWh)* Source
Landfill gas 0.06-0.14 1
Anaerobic digestion (agricultural waste, 0.30-0.73 2
wastewater)
Utility-scale PV (on-ground) 0.13 3
Utility-scale PV (on-roof) 0.26 4
Utility-scale PV (floating) 0.15 5
Solar PV carport 0.11-0.24 6
Onshore wind < 500kW Stationary Tower 0.08 7
Geothermal 0.11-0.38 8
Fuel cell 0.54-0.89 9
Electrochemical energy storage 0.23-1.12 10
*Note: The assumed exchange rate between US$ and EC$ is 1EC$ = 0.37 US$
1
U.S. DOE. 2019. Waste-to-Energy from Municipal Solid Wastes. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/08/f66/BETO--Waste-
to-Energy-Report-August--2019.pdf
2
Chen, S. 2021. Develop an efficient and cost-effective novel anaerobic digestion system producing high purity of methane from diverse
waste biomass. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-04/beto-12-peer-review-2021-organic-chen.pdf
3
Feldman, D, et al. 2020. U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System and Energy Storage Cost Benchmark: Q1 2020.
https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/77324.pdf
4
Feldman, D, et al. 2020. U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System and Energy Storage Cost Benchmark: Q1 2020.
5
Ramasamy V. & R. Margolis. 2021. Floating Photovoltaic System Cost Benchmark: Q1 2021 Installations on Artificial Water Bodies.
6
Mooney M. et al. 2021. Chapter 5. Utility Options for Local Solar and Storage. In Final report: The Los Angeles 100% Renewable Energy
Study. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy21osti/79444-5.pdf
7
NREL. 2022. Land-Based Wind. https://atb.nrel.gov/electricity/2022/land-based_wind
8
IRENA. 2017. Geothermal power: Technology brief. https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2017/Aug/IRENA_Geothermal_Power_2017.pdf
9
Hunter C. et al. 2021. StoreFAST Model Overview: Long duration energy storage using Hydrogen and fuel cells.
https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2021-04/h2iq-03242021_2.pdf
10
Weaver J.F. 2021. A deep dive into Lazard’s LCOE report. https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2021/11/11/a-deep-dive-into-lazards-lcoe-
report/
RZ020301-FWP9-002 22

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Electricity Supply & Storage Options

Document no: RZ020301-FWP9-002

Grenada Integrated Resource Plan

Client name: MFAT

Project name: Grenada Integrated Resource Plan

Client reference: MFAT001 Project no: RZ020301

Document no: RZ020301-FWP9-002 Project manager: Alastair Brookes

Revision no: A Prepared by: Dan Ingold, Veronika Vazhnik, William

Date: 6 October 2022 File name: Document4

Doc status: [Doc suitability – Delete row if not applicable]

Document history and status

Revision Date Description Author Checked Reviewed Approved

Revision Issue approved Date issued Issued to Comments

Jacobs New Zealand Ltd

Copyright Jacobs New Zealand Ltd © 2022.

Technologies were qualitatively assessed based on the five following parameter:

1.1 Technology Assessment Approach

2.1.1 Fossil Fuels

Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)

Liquid Propane Gas (LPG)

Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO)

Waste Oil Incineration

2.1.2 Solar Energy

2.1.2.1 Photovoltaic Solar Energy

Photo Credit: CS Energy

Photo Credit: PV Magazine

Photo Credit: PV Magazine

Photo Credit: PV Magazine

2.1.2.2 Solar Thermal Energy

Photo Credit: U.S. Department of Energy

Parabolic Trough solar

Photo Credit: Pennsylvania State University

2.1.3 Wind Energy

2.1.3.1 Onshore Wind

Photos’ Credit: Vergnet Groupe

2.1.3.2 Offshore wind

Photo Credit: Joshua Bauer, NREL image library

2 x 5MW geothermal power plant, Mexico

2.1.5.2 Run of River

2.1.6 Wave energy

Photo Credit: European Marine Energy Centre

2.1.7 Ocean thermal

Photo Credit: Makai Ocean Engineering

2.1.8 Fuel Cells

Photo Credit: Bloom Energy

2.1.9.1 Nuclear SMRs

Image source: NuScale Power. https://www.energy.gov/ne/advanced-small-modular-reactors-smrs

2.1.9.2 Nuclear microreactors

Image source: Idaho National Laboratory. https://inl.gov/trending-

2.1.10.1 Biomass Combustion

Image credit: Xing et al. 2021.

Liquid Fuel Conversion

Using High Temperature Plasma System

2.1.11 Anaerobic Digestion

Image credit: Lu et al. 2021. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960852421005356

2.1.12 Landfill Gas

2.2 Electricity Supply Technology Assessment

Levelised Cost of Energy and Storage