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Practical Data Structures C++, C#, and Java

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M.A. Eljinini

2019

Practical
Data Structures
C++, C#, and Java

M.A. Eljinini

English
ISBN: 978-9957-67-401-4
Arabic

i
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

Practical Data Structures

with C++, C#, and Java

Published by M.A. Eljinini

eljinini.ma@gmail.com

First Edition

Copyright © M.A. Eljinini, 2019

987654321

The author asserts the moral right to

be identified as the author of this work

ISBN: 978-9957-67-401-4

All rights reserved, no part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher.

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

The Deposit Number at the National Library
(2019/12/6292)

ii
M.A. Eljinini

Content

1 CHAPTER ONE: Introduction To Data Structures........................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Definition of Data Structures ....................................................................................... 2
1.3 Random Access Memory (RAM) ................................................................................ 4
1.4 Software ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Software Development................................................................................................. 6
1.6 Case Study: Library System........................................................................................ 7
1.6.1 Understanding System Requirements ............................................................... 8
1.6.2 System Analysis .................................................................................................... 9
1.6.3 Designing the new system ................................................................................ 11
1.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 13
1.8 Exercises ...................................................................................................................... 14
2 CHAPTER TWO: Introduction to C++, C#, Java ........................................................... 17
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Integrated Development EnvironmentS .................................................................. 18
2.2.1 IDE for c++ and C# ............................................................................................. 19
2.2.2 IDE for java .......................................................................................................... 22
2.3 First Program ............................................................................................................... 26
2.4 Problem Solving .......................................................................................................... 30
2.5 Writing and using Methods ........................................................................................ 38
2.6 Recursive Methods ..................................................................................................... 42
2.7 Classes and Objects .................................................................................................. 46
2.8 Exercises ...................................................................................................................... 53
2.9 programming Exercises ............................................................................................. 54
3 CHAPTER THREE: Arrays Of Objects............................................................................ 57
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 58
3.2 Introduction to Arrays ................................................................................................. 58
3.3 Problem Solving with Arrays ..................................................................................... 60
3.4 Arrays of Objects ........................................................................................................ 66

iii
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

3.5 The application of borrowing books ......................................................................... 70

3.6 Hash Tables................................................................................................................. 76
3.7 Exercises ...................................................................................................................... 78
3.8 Programming Exercises............................................................................................. 80
4 CHAPTER FOUR: Linked Lists ........................................................................................ 81
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 82
4.2 Introduction to Linked lists ......................................................................................... 82
4.2.1 Printing linked lists .............................................................................................. 86
4.2.2 Searching Nodes in linked lists ......................................................................... 87
4.2.3 Delete a node from the linked list ..................................................................... 88
4.3 Circular Doubly Linked lists ....................................................................................... 89
4.3.1 Printing data in circular doubly linked list ........................................................ 93
4.3.2 Searching a doubly linked list ........................................................................... 93
4.3.3 Delete node from circular doubly linked list .................................................... 94
4.4 Problem Solving with Linked Lists............................................................................ 95
4.5 Linked Lists of Objects ............................................................................................. 101
4.6 Updating the Books Borrowing Application........................................................... 103
4.7 Exercises .................................................................................................................... 109
4.8 programming Exercises ........................................................................................... 111
5 CHAPTER FIVE: Stacks .................................................................................................. 113
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 114
5.2 Introduction to Stacks............................................................................................... 114
5.3 Example: Decimal To Binary ................................................................................... 115
5.4 Array-based Stacks .................................................................................................. 116
5.5 Linked-Based Stacks................................................................................................ 117
5.6 Stacks Applications .................................................................................................. 119
5.6.1 Balancing Parentheses .................................................................................... 119
5.6.2 Math Expressions ............................................................................................. 120
5.6.3 Postfix Evaluation ............................................................................................. 123
5.7 Application of Stack in Recursive Methods........................................................... 123
5.8 Exercises .................................................................................................................... 124
5.9 programming Exercises ........................................................................................... 125
6 CHAPTER SIX: Queues .................................................................................................. 127

iv
M.A. Eljinini

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 128

6.1 Introduction to Queues............................................................................................. 128
6.2 Circular Queue .......................................................................................................... 129
6.3 Array-based Queues ................................................................................................ 130
6.4 Linked-Based Queues.............................................................................................. 131
6.5 Queues Applications ................................................................................................ 133
6.5.1 Queues in Operating Systems ........................................................................ 133
6.5.2 Queues in Simulation Experiments ................................................................ 134
6.5.3 Application of Palindromes .............................................................................. 134
6.6 Exercises .................................................................................................................... 135
6.7 programming Exercises ........................................................................................... 137
7 CHAPTER SEVEN: Trees ............................................................................................... 139
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 140
7.2 Introduction to Trees ................................................................................................ 140
7.3 Binary Trees .............................................................................................................. 141
7.4 Array-Based Trees.................................................................................................... 142
7.5 Linked-Based Trees ................................................................................................. 144
7.6 Applications of Binary trees: Heap ......................................................................... 149
7.6.1 Priority Queue.................................................................................................... 149
7.6.2 Heap Sort ........................................................................................................... 150
7.7 Traversing Trees ....................................................................................................... 151
7.8 Binary Search Tree (BST) ....................................................................................... 154
7.8.1 Searching in a BST........................................................................................... 154
7.8.2 An application of BST: TreeSort ..................................................................... 156
7.9 AVL Trees .................................................................................................................. 157
7.10 B-Trees ....................................................................................................................... 162
7.11 Hoffman Codes ......................................................................................................... 163
7.12 Exercises .................................................................................................................... 167
7.13 programming Exercises ........................................................................................... 169
8 CHAPTER EIGHT: Graphs ............................................................................................. 171
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 172
8.2 Graph theory .............................................................................................................. 172
8.3 size of graph .............................................................................................................. 173

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Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

8.3.1 degree of vertex ................................................................................................ 173

8.3.2 path ..................................................................................................................... 173
8.3.3 Circle ................................................................................................................... 174
8.4 Types of Graphs ....................................................................................................... 174
8.4.1 Directed Graphs ................................................................................................ 174
8.4.2 Undirected Graphs............................................................................................ 174
8.5 Graphs Representation ............................................................................................ 175
8.5.1 Adjacency Matrix............................................................................................... 175
8.5.2 Linked Adjacency List ...................................................................................... 177
8.6 Applications of Graphs ............................................................................................. 180
8.7 Graph Searching ....................................................................................................... 181
8.8 Exercises .................................................................................................................... 186
8.9 programming Exercises ........................................................................................... 188

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M.A. Eljinini

Preface

Computer Scientists have developed many programming languages, from assembly language in
the 40s, FORTRAN and COBOL in the 50s, BASIC and PL/I in the 60s, C and Prolog in the 70s,
among many other programming languages, like the ones to process and manage databases. The
80s have brought more advances, notably object-oriented programming languages like C++ and
Objective-C. In the 90s, the development of programming languages was influenced heavily by
the Internet revolution. Some of the most notable programming languages were Visual Basic, Java,
JavaScript, and PHP. The evolution of programming languages continued in the twenty and
twenty-one century with increasing trends toward security and reliability verification, concurrency
and massive parallelism, distribution and mobility, graphical interfaces, more integration with
databases including XML and relational databases. One of the most notable programming
languages of the modern era is C-Sharp (C#). C# is becoming very popular among programmers
for its productive environment, which is called the .NET Framework. The .NET Framework consists
of ready to use classes that are well written and well documented. They are handy for beginner
and professional programmers alike.
Computers are made to process all sorts of data. Writing good software is an art that involves
many steps. One of these steps is the design and implementation of data structures.
This book comes to achieve this goal; to design and implement data structures that we can use in
applications. The approach used in this book is very practical. Real-life applications have been
explained and developed gradually from scratch with an emphasis on the different types of data
structures. This book comes full of figures and examples that aid the student in understanding the
concepts of data structures. It contains many MC exercises and programming exercises that are
useful for students to help them master the topics. It is the first data structures book that is written
in both English and Arabic languages, side-by-side. It is the first data structures book that presents
examples in three programming languages, C++, C#, and Java. It is a unique, multi-language book
by all meanings.
The first chapter consists of several sections aimed at identifying basic concepts of ICT in terms of
hardware and software. It also addresses the basic fundaments of data structures. As well as the
mechanism of problem solving and software development, accompanied by a real-life case study.
The second chapter provides a brief tutorial of the main concepts and structures of the C++, C#,
and Java programming languages that we use throughout this book. It starts by pointing out the
advantages of using these programming languages. It has a section devoted to each language.
We introduce each one of the three programming languages, and we present their traits and
peculiarities. The best development tools for each language has been discussed and then shown
how to download them, install them, and use them. Finally, we present a comparison of the three
programming languages via some examples, which we show in detail. This section does not cover
the three programming languages in detail; instead, it covers the necessary material needed for
the rest of the chapters.
The third chapter presents arrays in general and arrays of objects in particular. Arrays of objects
are one of the building blocks in data structures. It is crucial to understand this subject before
moving any farther. The chapter ends with covering step-by-step the utilization of the arrays of
objects in the real-life case study. The fourth chapter presents linked lists, which are the other

vii
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

building block in data structures. It presents the primary operations performed on linked lists, such
as adding and deleting objects in linked lists, searching, and printing the content of these objects.
It covers other types of linked lists, such as circular and doubly-linked lists. At the end of the chapter,
it shows how to switch from arrays to linked lists in detail via the case study. In the fifth chapter to
the eighth chapter, we present and cover the various types of data structures, namely stacks,
queues, trees, and graphs in detail. These are the primary data structures that make up most of
this book. Each chapter provides definitions and examples to advance the understanding of each
of these data structures. Also, the implementations of these structures using arrays and linked lists
are presented and worked out. Finally, many examples demonstrate how these data structures are
used in real-life applications.

Mohammad Ali Eljinini, Ph.D.

Associate Professor

Faculty of Information Technology

Isra University, Amman - Jordan

viii
M.A. Eljinini

1. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO DATA STRUCTURES

Objectives of Chapter 1 ‫ﺃﻫﺩﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ‬

1. Understand the fundamentals of Data ‫ﻓﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﻻﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬ .1
Structures (RAM) ‫ﻓﻬﻡ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺷﻭﺍﺋﻲ‬ .2
2. Understand the role of Random-Access ‫ﺗﻌﺭﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﺗﻁﻭﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﺩﻭﺭ‬ .3
Memory (RAM) ‫ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
3. Learn about the Software Development Cycle ‫ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻖ ﺧﻁﻭﺍﺕ ﺣﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺷﻛﻼﺕ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ‬ .4
and the role of data structures ‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗﺣﻠﻳﻠﻳﺔ ﻟﻣﺛﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻲ‬
4. Applying the problem-solving steps using a
Case Study

1
‫‪Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java‬‬

‫‪1.1‬‬ ‫‪INTRODUCTION‬‬

‫‪This chapter aims to present the fundament‬‬
‫‪concepts of data structures, its types, and‬‬
‫‪usages in the field of Information Technology.‬‬
‫‪First, we give a brief description of the rest of the‬‬
‫‪chapters of this book. We then present some‬‬
‫‪examples that explain the main concepts of‬‬
‫‪software production in general and data‬‬
‫‪structures in specific.‬‬
‫‪C-Plus-Plus (C++), C-Sharp (C#), and Java are‬‬
‫‪the languages that we use throughout this book‬‬
‫‪to explain the subject of data structures. All three‬‬
‫‪computer languages are used in the teaching of‬‬
‫‪computer programming in many universities‬‬
‫‪around the world.‬‬
‫‪In chapter 2, we provide a tutorial of the main‬‬
‫‪concepts and structures of these programming‬‬
‫‪languages. In chapter 3, we present arrays in‬‬
‫‪general and arrays of objects in particular.‬‬
‫‪Arrays of objects are one of the building blocks‬‬
‫‪in data structures. It is very important to‬‬
‫‪understand this subject before moving any‬‬
‫‪farther. In chapter 4, we present linked lists,‬‬
‫‪which are another building block in data‬‬
‫‪structures. In chapter 5 to chapter 8, we present‬‬
‫‪Stacks,‬‬ ‫‪Queues,‬‬ ‫‪Trees,‬‬ ‫‪and‬‬
‫‪respectively. These are the main data structures‬‬
‫‪that make up most of this book. We provide a‬‬
‫‪definition of each one of them, and then we give‬‬
‫‪some examples to advance our understanding of‬‬
‫‪each of these data structure. We show how we‬‬
‫‪use them in our programs; first, we implement‬‬
‫‪these data structures using arrays and then‬‬
‫‪linked lists. Finally, we provide more real-life‬‬
‫‪examples and show how these data structures‬‬
‫‪are used in real-life applications.‬‬
‫ﺗﻬﺩﻑ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻻﻭﻟﻰ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺭﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﺎﻫﻳﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻧﻭﺍﻋﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻛﻧﻭﻟﻭﺟﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻫﺫﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺳﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﺗﻣﻬﻳﺩﺍ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺍﺕ ﻛﻣﺎ ﺳﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﻣﺩﻋﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﻣﺛﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻌﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺳﺗﻌﺯﺯ ﻣﻥ ﺗﻭﺿﻳﺢ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﺎﻫﻳﻡ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻁﻭﻳﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻭﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺧﺎﺹ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ﺳﻳﺗﻡ ﻋﺭﺽ ﻣﻘﺩﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻲ ‪، ++‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺳﻲ ‪ ، #‬ﻭﺍﻟﺟﺎﻓﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺳﻧﺳﺗﺧﺩﻣﻬﺎ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺷﺭﺣﻧﺎ ﻟﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﺗﻡ ﺍﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﺩﻳﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﺳﺑﺎﺏ‪ ،‬ﻓﻬﻲ‬
‫ﺟﻣﻳﻌﻬﺎ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﻛﺎﺋﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺣﻰ ﺃﻱ ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻌﺗﻣﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺻﻧﻳﻑ ﺍﻷﺷﻳﺎء ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﺃﻗﺭﺏ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻊ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻥ ﻓﻭﺍﺋﺩ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺃﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺗﻌﺩﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺻﺎﺕ ﺃﻱ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻛﺗﺏ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻱ‬
‫ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻛﻭﻳﻧﺩﻭﺯ ﺃﻭ ﻟﻳﻧﻛﺱ ﺃﻭ ﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺗﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ‬
‫ﻏﺎﻟﺑﻳﺔ ﻛﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺗﻛﻧﻭﻟﻭﺟﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺟﺎﻣﻌﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻣﺣﻠﻳﺎ ﻭﻋﺭﺑﻳﺎ ﻭﺣﺗﻰ‬
‫ﻋﺎﻟﻣﻳﺎ ﺗﻌﺗﻣﺩ ﻟﻐﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺛﺭ ﻣﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻛﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﻠﻡ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﻭﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﻟﻣﻭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﺍﻷﺧﺭﻯ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺷﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﺳﻭﺍﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻠﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻣﻥ ﻓﻭﺍﺋﺩ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺭﺑﻁ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻧﻁﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺃﻧﻅﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻗﻭﺍﻋﺩ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﺛﻝ ﻣﺎﻳﻛﺭﻭﺳﻭﻓﺕ ﺃﻛﺳﺱ ﻭﺃﻭﺭﺍﻛﻝ ﻭﻣﺎﻱ‪-‬ﺇﺱ‪-‬ﻛﻳﻭ‪-‬ﺇﻝ‬
‫ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﻧﺎ ﻳﺟﺩﺭ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻧﻪ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺻﻭﻝ ﻋﻠﻳﻬﺎ ﺟﻣﻳﻌﺎ ﻣﺟﺎﻧﺎ‬
‫ﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺩﻓﻊ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺑﻠﻎ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺎﻝ ﻻﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺗﻡ ﺍﻋﺗﻣﺎﺩ ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻖ ﻓﻳﺟﻭﺍﻝ ﺳﺗﻭﺩﻳﻭ ﻟﺗﻁﻭﻳﺭ ﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﺳﻲ‪ ++‬ﻭﺳﻲ‪ ،#‬ﺣﻳﺙ‬
‫ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺻﻭﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺳﺧﺔ ﺍﻛﺳﺑﺭﻳﺱ ﺃﻭ ﻛﻭﻣﻳﻭ ﻧﻳﺗﻲ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﻣﻭﻗﻊ‬
‫ﻣﺎﻳﻛﺭﻭﺳﻭﻓﺕ ﻣﺟﺎﻧﺎ‪ .‬ﻛﻣﺎ ﻳﻭﺟﺩ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺻﺎﺩﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺟﻊ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺷﺑﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻧﻛﺑﻭﺗﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺗﺧﺻﺻﺔ ﻟﻬﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﺟﻭﻉ‬
‫‪Graphs‬‬ ‫ﺇﻟﻳﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺣﺻﻭﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﻠﻳﻣﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻧﺎﺳﺏ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻭﻳﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﺗﺗﺿﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻳﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺳﻲ‪++‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺳﻲ‪ #‬ﻭﺍﻟﺟﺎﻓﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺳﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﻣﻘﺩﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻟﺛﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ‬
‫ﺳﻧﺳﺗﻌﺭﺽ ﻓﻳﻬﺎ ﻣﻭﺿﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﻣﺻﻔﻭﻓﺎﺕ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺻﻔﻭﻓﺎﺕ ﻣﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻛﺎﺋﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺧﺎﺹ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺻﻔﻭﻓﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﻭﻧﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺎﺋﻧﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺍﺋﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺭﺍﺑﻁﺔ ﺇﺣﺩﻯ ﺍﻟﻠﺑﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺳﻳﺗﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺭﻛﻳﺯ ﻋﻠﻳﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺭﺍﺑﻌﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺧﺎﻣﺳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻣﻧﺔ ﻓﺳﻧﺳﺗﻌﺭﺽ ﻓﻳﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺩﺳﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻁﻭﺍﺑﻳﺭ ﻭﺍﻻﺷﺟﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺧﻁﻁﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺍﻟﻲ‪ .‬ﺗﺑﺩﺃ ﻛﻝ ﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺗﻌﺭﻳﻑ ﻋﻥ ﻫﻳﻛﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻥ ﺛﻡ ﻋﺭﺽ ﺃﻣﺛﻠﺔ ﺑﺳﻳﻁﺔ‪ ،‬ﺛﻡ ﻧﻌﺭﺽ ﻛﻳﻔﻳﺔ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﻛﻝ ﻣﻥ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺻﻔﻭﻓﺎﺕ ﺃﻭﻻ ﻭﻣﻥ ﺛﻡ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺍﺋﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺭﺍﺑﻁﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺑﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺛﻼﺛﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻛﻝ ﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﻧﻌﺭﺽ ﺃﻣﺛﻠﺔ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﻋﺩﻳﺩﺓ‪.‬‬

‫‪1.2‬‬ ‫‪DEFINITION OF DATA STRUCTURES‬‬

‫‪Data Structures is about organizing, managing, and storing our‬‬
‫‪data efficiently. Our programs usually reserve space for our data‬‬
‫‪in the main memory of the computer. The Main Memory is also‬‬
‫‪called Radom Access Memory (RAM). Data structures is about‬‬
‫‪structuring and processing our data, which we will use in our‬‬
‫‪programs in very efficient ways. We will learn how to store and‬‬
‫‪retrieve our data, how to update it, and even how to search for‬‬
‫‪items. Figure 1-1 shows the main reason for using computers,‬‬
‫‪which is to process our data into useful information. Our data may‬‬
‫‪take several forms like numbers, characters, words, text, and‬‬
‫‪even images and sounds.‬‬
‫ﺇﻥ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻌﻧﻰ ﺑﺗﻧﻅﻳﻡ ﻭﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻭﻫﻳﻛﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﻋﻠﻳﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﺑﻘﺻﺩ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻓﺎﻋﻝ ﺟﺩﺍ‪ .‬ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻣﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ‬
‫ﻳﺗﻡ ﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﻔﻅ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺗﺭﺟﺎﻉ‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻌﺩﻳﻝ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ‪ .‬ﻓﻌﻧﺩﻣﺎ ﻧﻧﻔﺫ ﺃﻱ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ‬
‫ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺣﺟﺯ ﺟﺯء ﻣﻥ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﻌﺎﻟﺟﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ‪ 1-1‬ﻳﻌﺭﺽ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻬﺩﻑ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻲ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻭﻫﻭ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻗﺩ ﺗﺄﺧﺫ ﺃﺷﻛﺎﻻ ﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ‬

‫‪2‬‬
M.A. Eljinini
INPUT PROCESS
Data Data
Figure 1-1: Data Processing
How do we input our data into the computer? Where do we
save this data? Moreover, how does the computer processes
it into useful information? Data may enter the computer via
its keyboard or come from the Internet or may even enter
from the camera like pictures. We may use special programs
like Adobe Photoshop to process it, and then save these
pictures to the hard disk or send it to someone on the
Internet. We may use the calculator to enter numbers,
perform calculations, and display results. We may use MS
Word to type text, process it into something more beautiful,
and then send it to the printer or save it on the hard disk. We
may write our programs using C++ or Java to enter data,
process it, and then output it into something more useful.
The two main things we load into the computer memory
(RAM) are the data and the programs. Programs are the
codes that process the data. Each entity has its own space
in memory. A third entity is an operating system (OS) like
MS Windows. Figure 1-2 shows how the main memory
(RAM) looks like in general.
OS Kernel Space
Code Segment
Data Segment
Figure 1-2: The Main Parts of RAM
When we turn on our computer, a small computer program
called (Boot Loader) that lives in a Read-Only Memory (ROM)
runs and starts working. This program’s job is to ensure the
main parts of the computer are OK and working. After that, it
loads the central part of the operating system, which is called
the kernel, from the hard disk into a special place in the main
memory, as shown in figure 1-2 above. The kernel takes over
and starts to work. It takes control of the computer by first
checking all the hardware components connected to the
3
‫ﻣﻥ ﺃﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﻭﺃﺣﺭﻑ ﻭﻛﻠﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺟﻣﻝ ﻭﺣﺗﻰ ﺻﻭﺭ‬
.‫ﻭﺃﺻﻭﺍﺕ‬
OUTPUT
Data
‫ﺃﻱ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻷﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺣﺭﻭﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ ﺗﺩﺧﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺷﻛﻝ ﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻳﺗﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﺛﻡ ﺗﺧﺭﺝ‬
‫ ﻭﻟﻛﻥ ﻛﻳﻑ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬.‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻛﻝ ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻔﻳﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ؟ ﻭﺃﻳﻥ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺗﺧﺯﻳﻧﻬﺎ؟ ﻭﻛﻳﻑ ﻳﺗﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ؟ ﻭﻟﻺﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻻﺳﺋﻠﺔ ﻓﺎﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻗﺩ ﺗﺩﺧﻝ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﺎﺗﻳﺢ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ‬
‫ﺷﺑﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻛﺎﻹﻧﺗﺭﻧﺕ ﺃﻭ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻛﺎﻣﻳﺭﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺭﻗﻣﻳﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﺻﻭﺭ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﻣﻌﻳﻧﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌﻣﻝ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺣﻔﻅﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬
‫ ﻓﻣﺛﻼ ﻧﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ‬.‫ﻭﻣﻥ ﺛﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻷﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻳﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﺳﺎﺑﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻳﻬﺎ‬
‫ ﻭﻧﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻣﺎﻳﻛﺭﻭﺳﻭﻓﺕ‬.‫ﻭﺇﺧﺭﺍﺝ ﺍﻟﻧﺗﺎﺋﺞ‬
‫ﻭﻭﺭﺩ ﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﺻﻭﺹ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺗﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﻧﺳﻳﻘﻬﺎ‬
‫ ﻭﻧﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ‬.‫ﻭﺣﻔﻅﻬﺎ ﺃﻭ ﻁﺑﺎﻋﺗﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻭﺭﻕ‬
‫ﺃﺩﻭﺑﻲ ﻓﻭﺗﻭﺷﻭﺏ ﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻛﺎﻣﻳﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻭﻋﻣﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺩﻳﻝ ﻋﻠﻳﻬﺎ ﻭﺣﻔﻅﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺹ ﺍﻟﺻﻠﺏ‬
‫ ﻭﻗﺩ ﻧﻁﻭﺭ ﺑﺭﺍﻣﺟﻧﺎ‬.‫ﺃﻭ ﺇﺭﺳﺎﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﺍﻹﻧﺗﺭﻧﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺇﺣﺩﻯ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﺳﻲ ﺷﺎﺭﺏ‬
‫ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺟﺎﻓﺎ ﻣﺛﻼ ﻹﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﻳﻧﺔ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺗﻬﺎ ﺣﺳﺏ‬
‫ ﻣﻥ ﻫﻧﺎ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺏ ﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﻭﺇﺧﺭﺍﺟﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻁﺭﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﺳﺑﺔ‬
‫ﻳﺟﺏ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﺑﺎﻩ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻧﻭﻋﺎﻥ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻧﺎﺻﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ‬
‫ ﻓﻬﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ‬،‫ﺗﺣﻔﻅ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌﺎﻟﺞ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻛﻼﻫﻣﺎ ﻳﺄﺧﺫ ﺣﻳﺯﺍ‬
‫ ﻫﺫﺍ‬.‫ﻣﻧﻔﺻﻼ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﺷﻭﺍﺋﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺟﺯء ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﻣﺛﻝ‬
.2-1 ‫ ﻭﻛﻣﺎ ﻣﺑﻳﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ‬،‫ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻭﻳﻧﺩﻭﺯ ﺃﻭ ﻟﻳﻧﻛﺱ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺑﺩﺍﻳﺔ ﻋﻧﺩﻣﺎ ﻧﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺿﻐﻁ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺯﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺣﺎﺳﻭﺑﻲ ﺻﻐﻳﺭ‬
‫ﻳﺩﻋﻰ )ﻣﺣﻣﻝ ﺷﻳﻔﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ( ﺑﺗﻬﻳﺋﺔ ﺍﻟﺟﻬﺎﺯ‬
‫ ﻓﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺩﺍﻳﺔ ﺑﻔﺣﺹ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻷﺟﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬.‫ﻟﻠﻌﻣﻝ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻣﻥ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻭﻟﻭﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﺎﺗﻳﺢ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺭﺹ ﺍﻟﺻﻠﺏ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﻟﻠﺗﺄﻛﺩ ﻣﻥ‬
‫ ﺛﻡ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺗﺣﻣﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﺟﺯء‬.‫ﻭﺟﻭﺩﻫﺎ ﻭﺳﻼﻣﺔ ﻋﻣﻠﻬﺎ‬
(‫ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻲ ﻣﻥ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﺳﻣﻰ )ﺍﻟﻧﻭﺍﺓ‬
‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻟﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

computer, and then it prepares the user interface (UI) that is
the desktop.
Once it is ready, it silently waits for us to interact with the
computer. For example, if we want to use the calculator, we
double click on its icon. We are commanding the operating
system to start the calculator for us. The OS does that by
loading a copy of the calculator program, which resides
originally on the hard disk into the main memory. To be more
specific, it loads the copy into a special place called the code
segment, as shown in figure 1-2.
Once the OS loads the calculator program into memory, the
lines of the code that are called instructions are fetched into
the CPU one by one. The CPU is connected directly to the
memory; it receives instructions and performs the required
tasks. Like any program, the calculator first prepares its user
interface that is the window with the display and the buttons
containing numbers and operations. After that, it waits for us
to start using it. We do that by entering numbers and
operations to perform the calculations. The numbers we enter
for calculation is data that goes into a special place in the main
memory called the data segment. How does the calculator
program reserve a space for this data in memory? In other
words, how does the program structure the data in memory? If
we are going to code our programs, how do we deal with the
different types of data such as numbers and text? We shall
present these matters in detail in the next chapter.
‫ ﻭﺑﻌﺩ ﺫﻟﻙ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺟﺯء ﻭﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﻛﻭﻥ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺹ ﺍﻟﺻﻠﺏ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻣﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺗﻧﻅﻳﻡ ﻋﻣﻝ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﻓﻳﻪ ﻭﺗﻁﻭﻳﻌﻪ‬
.‫ﻟﻠﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﻟﻼﺳﺗﻔﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻧﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺷﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﺳﺏ‬
‫ﻓﻌﻧﺩﻣﺎ ﻧﺭﻳﺩ ﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ ﻣﺛﻼ ﻓﺈﻧﻧﺎ‬
‫ﻧﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻧﻘﺭ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺄﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻳﻘﻭﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺻﺔ ﻟﻶﻟﺔ‬
‫ ﻭﻛﺄﻧﻧﺎ ﻧﺧﺎﻁﺏ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﻭﻧﻁﻠﺏ ﻣﻧﻪ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ‬
‫ ﻓﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﺑﺩﻭﺭﻩ‬.‫ﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻧﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺗﺣﻣﻳﻝ ﻧﺳﺧﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻌﺷﻭﺍﺋﻳﺔ ﻳﺳﻣﻰ‬
‫ﻗﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﻔﺭﺓ ﺣﻳﺙ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﺍﻧﺗﻘﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻭﺍﻣﺭ ﻣﻥ ﻗﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﻔﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺞ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻛﺯﻳﺔ ﺑﺳﺭﻋﺔ ﻓﺎﺋﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻷﻭﺍﻣﺭ ﺗﻬﻳﺋﺔ ﺷﻛﻝ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﺳﻁﺢ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺏ ﻛﻲ ﻧﺗﻔﺎﻋﻝ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﻧﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻻﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺣﺟﺯ ﻣﻛﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬
‫ ﻭﻫﺫﻩ‬.‫ ﻭﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺳﻣﻰ ﻗﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬،‫ﻟﻠﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻷﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺳﻧﺩﺧﻠﻬﺎ ﻻﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﺳﺎﺑﻳﺔ ﻭﻣﻥ ﺛﻡ ﺇﻅﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻧﺗﺎﺋﺞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺎﻥ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺷﺎﺷﺔ‬
‫ﺇﺫﺍ ً ﻛﻳﻑ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ ﺑﺣﺟﺯ ﻣﻛﺎﻧﺎ‬
‫ﻟﻬﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻱ ﺑﻣﻌﻧﻰ ﺁﺧﺭ ﻛﻳﻑ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﻬﻳﻛﻠﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ؟ ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺭﺩﻧﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺑﺭﻣﺞ ﺁﻟﺔ‬
‫ﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﻔﺳﻧﺎ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻱ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺁﺧﺭ ﻓﻛﻳﻑ ﻧﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻧﻣﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﺛﻝ ﺍﻷﻋﺩﺍﺩ‬
.‫ﻭﺍﻟﻧﺻﻭﺹ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ؟ ﻫﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺳﻧﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺷﺭﺣﻪ ﻻﺣﻘﺎ‬

1.3 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

‫ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺑﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺄﺧﺫ ﺇﺣﺩﻯ‬

The smallest unit of data in the computer is the bit, which
‫ ﻓﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻋﺑﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻥ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻘﻳﻣﺗﻳﻥ ﺍﻣﺎ ﺻﻔﺭ ﺃﻭ ﻭﺍﺣﺩ‬
takes one of two values: zero (OFF) or one (ON). The
‫ ﻭﻛﻝ ﺧﻠﻳﺔ ﻣﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ‬،‫ﻣﺻﻔﻭﻓﺔ ﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺧﻼﻳﺎ ﺍﻻﻟﻛﺗﺭﻭﻧﻳﺔ‬
computer’s main memory is a vast array of electronic
‫ﺍﻟﺧﻼﻳﺎ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺧﺯﻳﻥ ﺷﺣﻧﺔ ﻛﻬﺭﺑﺎﺋﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻋﺩﻡ ﻭﺟﻭﺩ‬
cells; each cell can store an electrical charge. The state
of each cell is either ON or OFF, one or zero. Each ‫ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺃﻱ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻌﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬. ‫ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺷﺣﻧﺔ‬
number stored in the memory consists of a series of ‫ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺣﻘﻳﻘﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺃﻱ ﻧﻭﻉ‬،‫ﻫﻭ ﻣﻥ ﻣﺿﺎﻋﻔﺎﺕ ﻫﺫﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩﻳﻥ‬
‫)ﻭﻳﺳﻣﻰ ﻧﻣﻁ( ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻣﺛﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﺻﻭﺹ ﻭﺣﺗﻰ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺭ‬
zeros and ones. All types of data stored in memory are
‫ﻭﺍﻷﺻﻭﺍﺕ ﺗﺣﻔﻅ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻛﻝ ﺳﻼﺳﻝ ﻣﻥ‬
combinations of zeros and ones. Unlike humans that use
‫ ﻓﺎﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻳﻌﻣﻝ ﺑﺎﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺛﻧﺎﺋﻲ‬.‫ﺍﻷﺻﻔﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻭﺍﺣﺩﺍﺕ‬
the decimal system, computers use a binary system.
Every digit stored in memory is converted to zeros and ‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ً ﻛﻳﻑ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺗﺧﺯﻳﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬.‫ﻭﻟﻳﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﺷﺭﻱ ﻛﺎﻹﻧﺳﺎﻥ‬
ones according to a standard called the American ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ؟ ﻳﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﺟﺩﻭﻻ ﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻣﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺛﻧﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺩﻑ ﻟﻛﻝ ﺣﺭﻑ ﻭﻫﻭ ﻋﺑﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻥ ﺳﻠﺳﻠﺔ ﻣﻥ‬
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
‫ﺍﻷﺻﻔﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻭﺍﺣﺩﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺗﺣﻭﻳﻠﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻗﻳﻣﺔ ﻋﺷﺭﻳﺔ‬
Each code has a decimal value, as shown in figure 1-3.
.3-1‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﻣﺑﻳﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ‬

4
M.A. Eljinini

According to the ASCII table, each code is made of seven ‫ﻳﺳﻣﻰ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻭﻝ ﺑﺟﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺭﻣﻭﺯ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻳﺎﺳﻳﺔ‬
digits of zeros and ones. If we convert a series of seven ‫ ﻓﻛﻝ ﺭﻣﺯ ﻳﺗﺄﻟﻑ ﻣﻥ ﺳﺑﻊ ﺧﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻥ‬.‫ﻟﺗﺑﺎﺩﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
ones to a decimal value, we get the value 127. ‫ ﻣﻥ‬128 ‫ ﻭﺑﺫﻟﻙ ﻳﺳﻣﺢ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻭﻝ ﺑﺗﻣﺛﻳﻝ‬127 ‫ ﺇﻟﻰ‬0
Therefore, we have a range from 0 to 127 different values ‫ﺍﻟﺭﻣﻭﺯ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻛﺎﻧﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺩﺍﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻬﺩ ﺍﻟﺣﻭﺍﺳﻳﺏ ﻛﺎﻓﻳﺔ‬
that the ASCII table can represent. This was enough ‫ﻟﺗﻐﻁﻳﺔ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻭﻑ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻌﻣﻠﺔ ﺣﻳﺙ ﻛﺎﻧﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬
values for early computers to cover all the used symbols, ‫ ﻭﻣﻊ‬.‫ﺍﻻﻧﺟﻠﻳﺯﻳﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﻳﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺗﻣﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬
taking into consideration that the English Language was ‫ﺍﻟﺗﻁﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﺃﺻﺑﺢ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻣﻥ‬
the only language used at that time. During the years, ‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ‬،‫ﺗﻭﺳﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻭﻝ ﻟﻳﺷﻣﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺭﻯ‬
many coding systems have been developed to handle ‫ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺑﺩﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﺳﻌﻳﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻡ‬،‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺑﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﺭﻣﻭﺯ ﻭﺍﻷﺷﻛﺎﻝ‬
text in so many different languages across the globe. In ‫ﺇﻧﺷﺎء ﺟﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺭﻣﺯ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺣﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﺣﺗﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻻﻑ‬
the early nineties, a new coding system called Unicode .‫ﺍﻟﺭﻣﻭﺯ ﻭﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﺭﻣﻭﺯ ﻟﻸﺣﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺑﻳﺔ‬
was developed which contains thousands of symbols that
can handle most written text such as Arabic.
We have mentioned earlier that the bit is
the smallest unit of data that can hold one
of two values. A larger unit is the byte,
which consists of eight bits.
Today most computers use 64-bit
architecture. Data moves from memory to
the CPU in a path called the data bus with
a width of 64 bits (8 bytes). Therefore, the
memory is made of groups of cells; each
consists of 64 bits. A group of 64 bits is
equal to one word, and each word in the
computer memory has an address.
Imagine that the memory of the computer
consists of boxes where each box is
labeled with an address and can hold 64
bits of data. One of the main tasks we do
when writing computer programs is
reserving memory spaces for our data,
which are called variables. For example, if Figure 1-3: ASCII Table
we want to write a small program for
adding any two numbers, we need to do ‫ﻭﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺭﻯ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻟﻔﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬
the following steps: .‫ ﺑﺕ‬8 ‫ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺑﺎﻳﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳﺎﻭﻱ‬
1. Declare three variables and give them
meaningful names. For example, ‫ﺇﻥ ﻣﻌﻅﻡ ﺃﺟﻬﺯﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻳﺎﻣﻧﺎ ﻫﺫﻩ ﻣﺯﻭﺩﻩ ﺑﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺣﻳﺙ ﺃﻥ ﺳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻣﺭ‬
num1, num2, and result. ‫ ﺑﺕ ﺑﻧﻔﺱ‬64 ‫ ﺃﻱ ﺍﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻘﻝ‬،(‫ ﺑﺎﻳﺕ‬8) ‫ ﺑﺕ‬64 ‫ﺍﻟﻧﺎﻗﻝ ﻟﻠﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻳﻬﺎ‬
2. Define their types based on user ‫ ﻭﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻝ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﻣﻘﺳﻣﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻥ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻭﻗﺕ ﻭﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻣﺗﻣﺎﺛﻝ‬
requirements. For example, (int) for ‫ ﺗﺧﻳﻝ‬.‫ ﻭﻟﻛﻝ ﻛﻠﻣﺔ ﻋﻧﻭﺍﻥ‬،‫ ﺑﺕ ﻭﺗﺳﻣﻰ ﻛﻠﻣﺔ‬64 ‫ﺍﻟﺧﻼﻳﺎ ﺳﻌﺔ ﻛﻝ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻣﻧﻬﺎ‬
integers and (float) for real numbers. ‫ﺃﻥ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻣﻘﺳﻣﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺻﻧﺎﺩﻳﻖ ﻛﻝ ﺻﻧﺩﻭﻕ ﻳﺣﺗﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻠﻣﺔ‬
We discuss data types in more detail in ‫ ﻓﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﺷﻳﺎء ﺍﻻﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﻋﻧﺩ ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ‬.‫ﻭﻧﺳﺗﻁﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺇﻟﻳﻬﺎ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﻋﻧﻭﺍﻧﻬﺎ‬
the next chapter. ‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﻫﻭ ﺣﺟﺯ ﺃﻣﺎﻛﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻟﻠﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻛﻝ‬
3. When our program runs, the operating ‫ ﻓﻣﺛﻼ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺭﺩﻧﺎ ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺑﺳﻳﻁ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺈﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﻋﺩﺩﻳﻥ ﺻﺣﻳﺣﻳﻥ‬.‫ﻣﺗﻐﻳﺭﺍﺕ‬
system reserves space for these ‫ﻭﺟﻣﻌﻬﻣﺎ ﻭﻋﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻓﺈﻧﻧﺎ ﻧﺣﺗﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣﺟﺯ ﻣﻛﺎﻧﻳﻥ ﻟﻬﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ‬
variables in the data segment of the (num2) 2‫( ﻭﻋﺩﺩ‬num1) 1‫( ﺃﻭ ﻋﺩﺩ‬y) ‫( ﻭ ﺹ‬x) ‫ﻭﺗﺳﻣﻳﺗﻬﻣﺎ ﻣﺛﻼ ﺱ‬
main memory. ‫ ﻭﻋﻧﺩ‬،‫ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﻳﺟﺏ ﺍﻟﺗﺻﺭﻳﺢ ﺑﻧﻣﻁ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻐﻳﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻥ ﻧﻭﻉ ﻋﺩﺩ ﺻﺣﻳﺢ‬
‫ﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﺑﺗﺣﻣﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻟﻪ‬

5
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

4. After that, the program asks the user to
input two numbers, then perform the
addition and display the result.
The data types (int) and (float) are called
primitive data types. They are simple, and
we cannot divide them into smaller units.
On the other hand, arrays are more
complex data types that we discuss in
chapter three.
‫ﻓﻲ ﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻭﺑﻌﺩﻫﺎ ﻳﻁﻠﺏ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻣﻥ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﺗﺧﺻﻳﺹ ﻭﺣﺟﺯ‬
‫ﺍﻻﻣﺎﻛﻥ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ ﻟﻬﺫﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻐﻳﺭﻳﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻟﺣﺟﺯ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ ﻭﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺑﺈﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻧﺎﻭﻳﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻛﻣﺭﺟﻊ ﻳﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻌﻪ ﻋﻧﺩ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺫﺍﻛﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺗﺧﺯﻳﻥ ﺍﻷﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺩ ﺟﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﻛﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻣﺛﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﺳﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ‬
.‫ﺑﺈﺩﺧﺎﻟﻬﻣﺎ ﻻﺣﻘﺎ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﺍﻟﻧﻣﻁ )ﻋﺩﺩ ﺻﺣﻳﺢ( ﻣﻥ ﺃﻧﻣﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺳﻳﻁﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺑﺩﺍﺋﻳﺔ ﻭﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﺃﻧﻣﺎﻁ‬
‫ﺃﺧﺭﻯ ﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺛﻝ )ﺣﺭﻑ( ﻟﻠﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻭﻑ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻣﻧﻔﺭﺩ ﻭﻧﻣﻁ )ﻋﺩﺩ‬
‫ﻋﺷﺭﻱ( ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺳﻧﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﻌﺭﺿﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ ﻋﻧﺩ ﺍﻟﺗﻛﻠﻡ ﻋﻥ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ‬
‫ ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﺻﻔﻭﻓﺎﺕ ﻓﻬﻲ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﻧﻣﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﻛﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺳﻧﻌﺭﺿﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺗﻔﺻﻳﻝ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ‬
.‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻟﺛﺔ‬

1.4 SOFTWARE

Computer programs are groups of instructions that perform
particular tasks and are converted into machine language
when they are executed. There are two major types of
programs: Operating systems like Windows and Linux,
which are made to control the computer hardware and
provide users with a productive environment for interacting
and running programs. The other type is computer
applications, for example, there are applications for
processing text, browsing the web, playing games,
searching databases, performing complex calculations,
and just about anything that we may use in our daily lives.
Computer programs are designed and implemented by
programmers. Programmers usually work for companies
like Microsoft and other international and local companies.
Some programmers are freelancers who do work on their
own. To become a professional programmer, we need to
learn computer hardware and software. We need to
become fluent with at least one programming language,
like C++, C#, or Java. We also need to learn how to
analyze and design programs.
‫ﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻫﻲ ﻋﺑﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻥ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻌﻠﻳﻣﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﻭﺍﻣﺭ ﻣﻛﺗﻭﺑﺔ ﺑﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﻵﻟﺔ ﻭﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﻣﻬﺎﻡ‬
‫ ﻧﻅﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ‬:‫ ﻭﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻧﻭﻋﺎﻥ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ‬.‫ﻣﻌﻳﻧﺔ‬
‫ﻛﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻭﻳﻧﺩﻭﺯ ﻭﻟﻳﻧﻛﺱ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻛﻳﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺎﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻭﺗﻭﻓﺭ ﻟﻠﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺑﻳﺋﺔ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻠﻳﺔ ﻣﻊ‬
‫ ﻭﺍﻟﻧﻭﻉ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺃﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﺻﻭﺹ ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺗﺻﻔﺢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻭﻳﺏ ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﻗﻭﺍﻋﺩ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻟﻌﺎﺏ‬
‫ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻛﺛﻳﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳﺎﻋﺩ‬،‫ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺔ‬
‫ ﻭﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﻗﺎﻡ‬.‫ﺍﻹﻧﺳﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺗﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﺎﻻﺕ‬
‫ﺑﺗﺻﻣﻳﻣﻬﺎ ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﺗﻬﺎ ﺃﺷﺧﺎﺹ ﻫﻡ ﻣﺑﺭﻣﺟﻭﻥ ﺍﺣﺗﺭﻓﻭﺍ‬
‫ ﻭﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻳﻌﻣﻠﻭﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﻣﺗﺧﺻﺻﺔ‬،‫ﻣﻬﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺛﻝ ﺷﺭﻛﺔ ﻣﺎﻳﻛﺭﻭﺳﻭﻓﺕ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻛﺛﻳﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻛﺎﺕ‬
.‫ ﻭﺑﻌﺿﻬﻡ ﻳﻌﻣﻝ ﻟﺣﺳﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺹ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺣﻠﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻟﻛﻲ ﺗﺻﺑﺢ ﻣﺑﺭﻣﺟﺎ ﻣﺣﺗﺭﻓﺎ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺗﻌﻠﻡ ﻣﻌﻣﺎﺭﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﺗﻪ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺇﺣﺩﻯ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﻣﺛﻝ‬
‫ ﻭﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﻛﻳﻔﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻊ‬،‫ ﺃﻭ ﺟﺎﻓﺎ‬#‫ ﺃﻭ ﺳﻲ‬++‫ﺳﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺻﻣﻣﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﻛﺗﺑﻬﺎ‬
.‫ﺑﻧﻔﺳﻙ‬

1.5 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

The main aim of studying data structures is to develop
efficient software applications. There are several steps
that we need to learn, to develop functional applications,
which are free of errors. These steps are called the
problem-solving steps, and as follows:
1. Study and understand the problem: This is the most
critical step. We need to understand what is
required from our application, and what exactly it
should do. In large software production companies,
persons called Systems Analysts collect all the
‫ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﺩﻑ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻫﻭ ﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺗﻁﻭﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺃﻱ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻅﻣﺔ‬
‫ ﻭﻟﺻﻧﻊ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺧﻁﻭﺍﺕ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺑﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺟﺏ ﺍﺗﺑﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﻧﺎﺟﺣﺔ ﻭﺧﺎﻟﻳﺔ ﻣﻥ‬
:‫ ﻭﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺧﻁﻭﺍﺕ ﻫﻲ ﻛﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ‬،‫ﺍﻷﺧﻁﺎء‬
‫ ﻭﻫﺫﻩ‬:‫ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻭﻓﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﺑﻳﻖ )ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ( ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺩ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺗﻪ‬.1
‫ﺍﻟﺧﻁﻭﺓ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻫﻡ ﺍﻟﺧﻁﻭﺍﺕ ﺣﻳﺙ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺗﺣﺩﻳﺩ ﻣﺗﻁﻠﺑﺎﺕ‬
‫ ﻭﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ‬.‫ﻭﺃﻫﺩﺍﻑ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻭﺳﺏ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺩﻗﻳﻖ ﺟﺩﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺣﻠﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﻡ ﺑﺟﻣﻊ ﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺍﺩ ﺣﻭﺳﺑﺗﻪ ﻭﻋﻣﻝ ﺍﻻﺳﺗﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑﻼﺕ‬

6
M.A. Eljinini
information about the application to be
programmed. They usually conduct surveys and
conduct meetings with employees, managers, and
users to understand their requirements.
2. Analyze the problem (or the current manual
system): System analysts analyze all the collected
data. They draw diagrams showing the flow of data
in the current system. These diagrams are called
Data Flow Diagrams (DFD). For example, in the
purchasing system, the employee fills a purchasing
order and sends a copy to the accounting
department to prepare the invoice. Another copy
goes to the warehouse to prepare the items for
shipping. Another copy goes to the manager so he
can follow up. From the perspective of the system
analyst, all these tasks are about data that flow
throughout the different departments of the
company.
3. System Design: This step is about the design of the
new application. There are many tasks to be
performed. For example, the design of data input
screens, reports, and databases. The design of
algorithms, which are the logic of the tasks that the
application needs to perform, like calculations and
processing of data.
4. System implementation: In this step, a suitable
programming language is used to code the
programs and turn them into useful applications.
5. Testing the new system: In large companies, a
person who is called system tester performs all
types of tests on the new system. For example, he
may enter all types of data taking all the probabilities
that users may enter. In every step, he writes down
the results aiming to find and report errors.
6. Documentation: Besides documenting the whole
process, programmers usually produce a book
(User Guide), which shows how to set up and use
the new system in detail.
1.6 CASE STUDY: LIBRARY SYSTEM
In this part, we present a case study on how to
develop an application for the library. Before we
start coding the application, we need to start
from the beginning. Let us assume the library
manager asked us to design a computer
7
‫ﻣﻊ ﺍﻷﺷﺧﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻣﻳﻥ ﻟﻠﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻳﺩﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﻣﻥ‬
.‫ﻣﺩﺭﺍء ﻭﻣﻭﻅﻔﻳﻥ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﻡ‬
‫ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻠﻝ‬:‫ﺗﺣﻠﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻲ‬ .2
‫ﺑﺗﺣﻠﻳﻝ ﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺣﺻﻝ ﻋﻠﻳﻬﺎ ﻭﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺑﻌﻣﻝ ﺭﺳﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺗﺑﻳﻥ ﻛﻳﻔﻳﺔ ﺍﻧﺳﻳﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ ﻭﻣﻥ ﺃﺷﻬﺭ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺭﺳﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻣﺑﻳﻌﺎﺕ ﺣﻳﺙ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ‬:‫ ﻭﻣﺛﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻙ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻣﺧﻁﻁﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻑ ﺑﺗﻌﺑﺋﺔ ﻧﻣﻭﺫﺝ ﻳﺣﺗﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻁﻠﺑﻳﻪ ﻣﻌﻳﻧﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺗﺭﺳﻝ ﻧﺳﺧﺔ ﻣﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻧﻣﻭﺫﺝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﺎﺳﺏ ﻛﻲ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ‬
‫ ﻛﻣﺎ ﺗﺭﺳﻝ ﻧﺳﺧﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ‬،‫ﺑﺈﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﻓﺎﺗﻭﺭﺓ ﻟﻠﻣﺷﺗﺭﻱ‬
‫ ﻭﺃﺧﺭﻯ ﻟﻺﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻟﻣﺗﺎﺑﻌﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻭﺩﻉ ﻟﺗﺣﺿﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﻠﺑﻳﺔ‬
‫ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﻥ ﻣﻧﻅﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻠﻝ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﻋﺑﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻥ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻣﺑﻳﻌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺗﻧﺗﻘﻝ ﻋﺑﺭ ﺍﻷﻗﺳﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻛﺔ ﻭﻣﻥ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻣﻬﻡ ﺟﺩﺍ ﻣﺗﺎﺑﻌﺗﻬﺎ ﻛﻭﻧﻬﺎ ﺟﺯء ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻭﺳﺏ‬
‫ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻠﻝ‬:‫ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ‬ .3
‫ﺑﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﺷﺎﺷﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻟﻛﻝ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﻗﻭﺍﻋﺩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺑﻣﺎ ﻓﻳﻬﺎ ﻣﻥ ﺟﺩﺍﻭﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺑﻳﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ‬
‫ ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﻘﺎﺭﻳﺭ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻣﺛﻝ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺟﺩﺍﻭﻝ‬
‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ‬،‫ﺍﻷﺟﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻭﺳﺏ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ‬
.‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺧﻭﺍﺭﺯﻣﻳﺎﺕ ﻟﻛﻝ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬
‫ ﻗﺩ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﻣﺑﺭﻣﺟﺎ ﻭﺍﺣﺩﺍ ﺑﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫ ﻫﺫﻩ‬:‫ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬ .4
‫ﺍﻟﺧﻁﻭﺓ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﺭﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ ﻗﺩ ﻳﻌﻬﺩ ﻟﻌﺩﺩ ﻣﻥ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﻥ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ ﺑﺄﻗﺳﺎﻣﻪ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻠﻝ ﺑﺗﺣﺩﻳﺩ ﻟﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﺍﻷﻧﺳﺏ ﻹﺗﻣﺎﻡ‬
‫ ﻭﺣﺎﻟﻳﺎ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﺍﻟﻣﺋﺎﺕ ﻣﻥ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ‬.‫ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﻬﻣﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺿﻬﺎ ﻋﺎﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﻭﺑﻌﺿﻬﺎ ﻣﺗﺧﺻﺹ ﻷﻧﻅﻣﺔ‬
‫ ﻭﺟﻣﻳﻌﺎ ﺗﺷﺗﺭﻙ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺱ ﺍﻟﻬﺩﻑ ﻭﻫﻭ ﺇﻧﺗﺎﺝ‬.‫ﻣﻌﻳﻧﺔ‬
.‫ﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﻳﺔ‬
‫ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ ﺃﻭ ﺷﺧﺹ ﻣﻌﻳﻥ‬:‫ﺍﺧﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ‬ .5
‫ ﻛﺄﻥ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﺧﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻛﺎﻣﻝ ﻭﺷﺎﻣﻝ‬
‫ﺑﺗﺟﺭﺑﺔ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻻﺣﺗﻣﺎﻻﺕ ﻭﺗﺩﻭﻳﻥ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺣﺩﺙ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻝ‬
‫ ﻭﺍﻟﻬﺩﻑ ﻫﻭ ﺇﻳﺟﺎﺩ ﺍﻷﺧﻁﺎء‬.‫ﺍﺣﺗﻣﺎﻝ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺎﺧﺗﺑﺎﺭﻩ‬
‫ﻭﺗﺻﺣﻳﺣﻬﺎ ﻗﺑﻝ ﺧﺭﻭﺝ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻊ‬
.‫ﻭﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﻪ‬
‫ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺣﻠﻝ ﺑﺗﻭﺛﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺑﺄﻛﻣﻠﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ‬:‫ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺛﻳﻖ‬ .6
‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻭﺛﻳﻖ ﻁﺭﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻻﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﻪ ﻣﻥ ﻗﺑﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ )ﺩﻟﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ( ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻛﻳﻔﻳﺔ ﺗﻧﺻﻳﺏ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻭﻣﺗﻁﻠﺑﺎﺗﻪ ﻣﻥ ﻣﻌﺩﺍﺕ ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﺗﻡ ﺫﻛﺭﻩ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺟﺯء ﻳﻬﺩﻑ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺭﺽ ﻛﻳﻔﻳﺔ ﺗﻁﻭﻳﺭ‬
‫ ﻭﻗﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﺩء ﻓﻲ ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻛﻭﺩ ﺑﻠﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻟﻧﺎ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﻭﺇﻋﺩﺍﺩﻫﺎ‬
.‫ﺍﻥ ﻧﺳﺗﻌﺭﺽ ﻛﻝ ﺧﻁﻭﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺗﻔﺻﻳﻝ ﻛﻲ ﻧﺗﻣﻛﻥ ﻣﻥ ﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﻣﻔﻳﺩﺓ‬
‫ﻭﺳﻧﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺫﻟﻙ ﻣﻥ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺷﺭﺡ ﻣﺛﺎﻻً ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﺳﻧﺳﺗﺧﺩﻣﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺭﺡ‬
‫ ﻓﻣﺛﻼ ﻟﻭ ﻓﺭﺿﻧﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺃﺣﺩ‬.‫ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻳﻡ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺻﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﻣﺔ‬
 Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java
application to help her in the operations of
borrowing books. We need to understand all the
details first.
1.6.1 UNDERSTANDING SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
Before we write programs, we need to understand all
the details about the tasks of borrowing books. One of
the skills required from programmers that they must be
detail-oriented! That is to pay attention to all the details
when designing and coding new programs. We need to
gather information about the currently used system.
There are many ways to do that; for example, we need
to conduct meetings with employees and management.
We may need to make up questionnaires in some cases
when we deal with large companies. We may sit down
and watch how things work, and then we may write
scenarios and lists of operations. We may make copies
of all the forms used in the current borrowing system,
which is the manual system.
To understand how the library system works, we sat
down with the employee and asked her to tell us in
details the steps in borrowing and returning books,
which is as follows:
I. The operation of borrowing books
1. A student comes to the borrowing disk with the book
to borrow.
2. The employee takes the book and asks the student for
his ID card.
3. The employee removes the borrowing card from the
back of the book and writes down information about
the student and the borrowing date, and keeps the
card in a special drawer.
4. The employee stamps the borrowing date in a table
placed in the inside of the back of the book.
5. The employee gives back the book to the student and
asks her to return it within two weeks.
6. The student leaves with the book.
II. The operation of returning books
1. The student comes back with the borrowed book,
gives it to the employee and leaves.
2. The employee looks for the borrowing card that
belongs to the returned book in his drawer.
3. The employee writes down the returning date on the
card and returns it inside the book.
8
‫ﺍﻷﺷﺧﺎﺹ ﻳﻌﻣﻝ ﻣﺩﻳﺭﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ ﻗﺩ ﻁﻠﺏ ﻣﻧﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺻﻣﻡ ﻟﻪ ﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺟﺎ‬
‫ ﺃﻱ ﺃﻥ‬.‫ﻟﻣﺳﺎﻋﺩﺗﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺟﻭﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺏ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺗﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺑﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺛﺎﻝ‬
.‫ﻭﻫﻧﺎ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻭﻓﻬﻡ ﻣﺗﻁﻠﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺑﻛﻝ ﺗﻔﺻﻳﻼﺗﻪ ﺃﻭﻻ‬
‫ﻗﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﺩء ﻓﻲ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻳﺟﺏ ﺃﻥ ﻧﻔﻬﻡ ﺍﻵﻟﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺑﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ ﺃﻱ ﻓﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻳﺩﻭﻱ‬،‫ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﺩﺍﻳﺔ ﺣﺗﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ‬
‫ ﻭﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻁﺭﻕ ﻋﺩﻳﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺟﻣﻊ‬.‫)ﺍﻟﻭﺭﻗﻲ( ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻧﺣﺗﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻳﻬﺎ ﻣﻥ ﻋﻣﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑﻼﺕ ﻣﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺷﺧﺎﺹ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻧﻳﻳﻥ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻣﻥ ﻋﻣﻝ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺗﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﻳﻥ‬
‫ﻟﻔﻬﻡ ﺍﻵﻟﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﻌﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﻬﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺷﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻭﺍﺟﻬﻬﻡ‬
‫ ﻭﻗﺩ ﻳﻛﻭﻥ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﺟﻠﻭﺱ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻝ‬.‫ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺷﺎﻫﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻊ ﻭﻛﺗﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻳﻧﺎﺭﻳﻭﻫﺎﺕ‬
‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺧﺫ ﻧﺳﺦ ﻋﻥ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻧﻣﺎﺫﺝ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻣﻭﻝ ﺑﻬﺎ‬
.‫ﻭﺍﻷﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﺩﺭﺍﺳﺗﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﺣﻠﻳﻠﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻻ ﻳﻣﻛﻧﻧﺎ ﺍﻟﺧﻭﺽ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺻﻳﻼﺕ ﻫﻧﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﺗﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻛﺗﺏ ﻟﺷﺭﺣﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺗﻔﺻﻳﻝ ﻭﻟﻛﻥ ﺳﻧﻛﺗﻔﻲ ﺑﻌﺭﺿﻬﺎ ﺑﺻﻭﺭﺓ‬
‫ﻣﺧﺗﺻﺭﺓ ﻭﻭﺍﺿﺣﺔ ﺑﺣﻳﺙ ﺗﻣﻛﻧﻧﺎ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ ﻭﻟﻔﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺏ ﻗﻣﻧﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺟﻠﻭﺱ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻑ‬.‫ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺅﻭﻝ ﻋﻥ ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﻭﻁﻠﺑﻧﺎ ﻣﻧﻪ ﺳﺭﺩ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ‬
:‫ﻭﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﺧﻁﻭﺓ ﺑﺧﻁﻭﺓ ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﺩ ﻛﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ‬
:‫ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ‬:‫ﺃﻭﻻ‬
‫ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻛﺗﺏ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﻣﻌﻪ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ‬ .1
‫ﻳﻧﻭﻱ ﺍﺳﺗﻌﺎﺭﺗﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﺃﺣﺿﺭﻩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ‬
.‫ﻟﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺳﺗﻠﻡ ﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻭﺗﻁﻠﺏ ﻣﻧﻪ‬ .2
.‫ﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺇﺑﺭﺍﺯ ﻫﻭﻳﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﺟﺎﻣﻌﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺳﺣﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺑﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻭﺗﺩﻭﻥ ﻋﻠﻳﻪ‬ .3
‫ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺟﻭﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﻭﻳﺗﻪ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
.‫ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﻳﺣﺗﻔﻅ ﺑﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺑﻭﺿﻊ ﺧﺗﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺩﻭﻝ ﻣﻠﺻﻖ‬ .4
،‫ﻓﻲ ﺁﺧﺭ ﺻﻔﺣﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻣﺑﻳﻧﺎ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺑﺈﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻟﻠﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻭﺗﻁﻠﺏ ﻣﻥ‬ .5
‫ ﻭﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺗﺟﺩﻳﺩ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺃﺳﺑﻭﻋﻳﻥ‬
.‫ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻙ ﺍﻟﻭﻗﺕ‬
.‫ﻳﻐﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺏ ﻭﻣﻌﻪ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭ‬ .6
:‫ﺛﺎﻧﻳﺎ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬
‫ ﻳﺄﺗﻲ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻭﻣﻌﻪ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻹﻋﺎﺩﺗﻪ ﻭﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺗﺳﻠﻳﻣﻪ‬.1
.‫ﻟﻠﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﻭﻳﻐﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺏ‬
‫ ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺑﻔﺗﺢ ﺩﺭﺝ ﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻭﺗﺑﺣﺙ ﻋﻥ ﺑﻁﺎﻗﺔ‬.2
.‫ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻟﻠﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬
‫ ﺗﺩﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺇﺭﺟﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ‬.3
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻁﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﻳﺩﻫﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬
‫‪M.A. Eljinini‬‬

‫‪4. The employee then returns the book to the bookshelf‬‬ ‫‪ .4‬ﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﺗﺩﻭﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻭﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻭﺟﻭﺩ ﻓﻲ‬
‫‪where it belongs.‬‬ ‫ﺁﺧﺭ ﺻﻔﺣﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﻌﻳﺩ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻛﺎﻧﻪ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫‪After that, we asked the employee about other‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺭﻑ ﻹﻋﺎﺭﺗﻪ ﻣﻥ ﺟﺩﻳﺩ‪.‬‬
‫‪operations and problems that she faces during her‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺩ ﺫﻟﻙ ﺳﺄﻟﻧﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺇﻥ ﻛﺎﻧﺕ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﺇﺟﺭﺍءﺍﺕ ﺃﺧﺭﻯ ﺗﻘﻭﻡ‬
‫‪work. She mentioned that students after graduation‬‬ ‫ﺑﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﺻﻌﺎﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺷﺎﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻭﺍﺟﻬﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪comes back to the library to sign a quittance form. In‬‬ ‫ﻓﺫﻛﺭﺕ ﻟﻧﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺗﺧﺭﺝ ﻳﻁﻠﺏ ﺑﺭﺍءﺓ ﺫﻣﺗﻪ‬
‫‪this case, the employee must search all cards in the‬‬ ‫ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻧﺎ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺇﺟﺭﺍء ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺑﺣﺙ ﻟﻠﺗﺄﻛﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺃﻥ‬
‫‪drawer to ensure that the student has returned all‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻗﺎﻡ ﺑﺈﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺟﻣﻳﻊ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺍﺳﺗﻌﺎﺭﻫﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺩ ﻳﻁﻠﺏ‬
‫‪borrowed books. Another problem is that the manager‬‬ ‫ﻣﺩﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﻛﺗﺑﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﺇﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﺗﻘﺭﻳﺭ ﺑﺎﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺄﺧﺭﺓ‬
‫‪may ask her to prepare a report showing all the late‬‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﻳﺭ ﺃﺧﺭﻯ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌﺗﺑﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺿﻧﻳﺔ ﻳﺩﻭﻳﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﻌﺭﺿﺔ ﻟﻸﺧﻁﺎء ﺍﻟﺑﺷﺭﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻣﻥ ﻫﻧﺎ ﻧﺭﻯ‬
‫‪books. All these operations are subject to human errors.‬‬ ‫ﺃﻫﻣﻳﺔ ﺣﻭﺳﺑﺔ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻷﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺳﺎﻋﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺿﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫‪Some of these operations require hard work and may‬‬ ‫ﺍﻷﺧﻁﺎء ﺍﻟﺑﺷﺭﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻘﻠﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﻭﻗﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺟﻬﺩ ﻓﻲ‬
‫‪take a long time to achieve. Paper forms may be‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺑﺔ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﻭﻓﺎﻋﻝ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻷﻧﻅﻣﺔ‬
‫‪misplaced or lost. Computer applications help us‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺑﻳﺔ ﺗﻌﻣﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻥ ﺗﺧﺯﻳﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫‪bypass all these problems. They can accomplish tasks‬‬ ‫ﻭﺍﺳﺗﻌﺎﺩﺗﻬﺎ ﻭﻋﺭﺿﻬﺎ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺃﻭ ﺑﺂﺧﺭ ﻭﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺳﺭﻳﻊ ﻭﺩﻗﻳﻖ‬
‫‪easy and super-fast.‬‬ ‫ﺟﺩﺍ‪.‬‬

‫‪1.6.2 SYSTEM ANALYSIS‬‬

‫‪Computers are mostly about processing data‬‬ ‫ﻳﻣﻛﻥ ﺍﻻﺳﺗﻧﺗﺎﺝ ﻣﻣﺎ ﺳﺑﻖ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﺧﻁﻭﺍﺕ ﻣﻌﻳﻧﻪ ﻗﺎﻣﺕ ﺑﻬﺎ‬
‫‪and turning it into useful information. From‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﻋﻧﺩ ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻭﺍﺳﺗﺭﺟﺎﻋﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ‬
‫‪observing the above operations, we have‬‬ ‫ﻣﻌﻳﻧﻪ ﺗﻡ ﺗﺩﺍﻭﻟﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﺩﻭﻳﻧﻬﺎ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺗﻳﻥ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻫﻲ‪:‬‬
‫‪noticed that there is some information that has‬‬
‫‪been written down and kept, such as:‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ )ﺍﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻭﺭﻗﻣﻪ ﺍﻟﺟﺎﻣﻌﻲ(‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Information about the student (Student name‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ )ﻋﻧﻭﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻭﺭﻗﻣﻪ(‬
‫)‪and number‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺣﺩﺙ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ )ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻌﻳﺭ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭ‪،‬‬
‫ﻭﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ(‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Information about the book (Book type and‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺣﺩﺙ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺩﺓ )ﺍﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﺃﻋﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ‪،‬‬
‫)‪number‬‬
‫ﻋﻧﻭﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻣﺕ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺗﻪ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ(‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Information about the borrowing task‬‬
‫)‪(Student, Book, Borrowing Date‬‬ ‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺑﺔ ﻋﻧﺩ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ﻓﻬﻲ‪:‬‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Information about the returning task‬‬
‫)‪(Student, Book, Returning Date‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭﺓ ﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻣﻌﻳﻥ‬
‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺄﺧﺭﺓ‬
‫‪Information needed when performing a search:‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﻳﻥ ﻟﻣﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﺇﻥ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﺎﺭ ﺃﻡ ﻏﻳﺭ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺭ‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Information about the borrowed book‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺃﺧﺭﻯ ﻗﺩ ﻳﺣﺗﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻳﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﺩﻳﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﻳﺭ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Information about late books‬‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Information about the status of a specific‬‬ ‫ﺇﺫﺍ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﺃﺭﺑﻊ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﺗﻘﻭﻡ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ ﻭﻫﻲ‪:‬‬
‫‪book‬‬
‫‪-‬‬ ‫‪Other reports for management.‬‬ ‫ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬ ‫‪.1‬‬
‫ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬ ‫‪.2‬‬
‫‪There are four main tasks that the employee‬‬ ‫ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ‬ ‫‪.3‬‬
‫‪does:‬‬ ‫ﺇﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺗﻘﺎﺭﻳﺭ )ﻣﺛﻼ‪ :‬ﻁﺑﺎﻋﺔ ﻗﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺑﺄﺳﻣﺎء ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭﺓ(‬ ‫‪.4‬‬
‫‪1.‬‬ ‫‪Borrowing Book‬‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻵﻥ ﻧﺣﺗﺎﺝ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﺭﺳﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺗﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻧﺳﻳﺎﺏ‬
‫‪2.‬‬ ‫‪Returning Book‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻲ ﻭﺗﺳﺎﻋﺩ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬
‫‪3.‬‬ ‫‪Searching for Books‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ‪ 4-1‬ﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻭﻛﻣﺎ ﺷﺭﺣﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫‪4.‬‬ ‫‪Producing Reports (i.e., printing lists of‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻟﺩﻭﺍﺋﺭ ﺗﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻗﺎﻣﺕ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻁﻳﻼﺕ‬
‫ﺗﺑﻳﻥ ﻣﺩﺧﻼﺕ ﻭﻣﺧﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﺳﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﺭﻓﻳﻌﺔ ﺗﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻧﺳﻳﺎﺏ‬

‫‪9‬‬
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

books) .‫ ﻭﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻷﺳﻬﻡ ﺍﻟﻐﻠﻳﻅﺔ ﺗﺑﻳﻳﻥ ﺗﺳﻠﺳﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬

At this stage, we need to prepare some drawings ‫ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﻛﻣﺎ ﺷﺭﺣﺗﻬﺎ‬5-1 ‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ‬
that show data flows in the current system. Such .‫ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻔﺔ‬
diagrams are called Data Flow Diagrams (DFD),
which provide great help to programmers when .‫ﻭﺳﻧﺗﺭﻙ ﺍﻟﺭﺳﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺑﻳﻥ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ﻛﺗﻣﺭﻳﻥ ﻟﻠﻁﺎﻟﺏ‬
designing the new system. Figure 1-4 shows
the tasks of borrowing books, which we
explained in the previous section. Circles show
tasks, and rectangles are for input and output
operations, while arrows show the flow of data.

Figure 1-5: Returning Book

Figure 1-4: Borrow Book

Figure 1-5 shows the tasks of returning books,
as explained by the library employee.
At the end of this part, the programmer (or
system analyst) conduct a feasibility study.
Is it worth it financially to have a computer
program to do the work? To answer this
question, we need to find out the cost of the new
system, including hardware and software. In
some cases, where computers placed inside
many offices, we may need to consider computer
networking to connect these computers.
Moreover, we need to determine the cost of the
new application. For example, how many hours
it takes to produce the complete system.
A table with several alternatives should be
prepared and given to the management with a
recommendation. Shall we proceed with the
system or go with other alternatives? Since this
is a simple application, we shall proceed to the
next part.
‫ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ )ﺃﻭ ﻣﺣﻠﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﻡ( ﺑﻌﻣﻝ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‬
‫ ﻫﻝ ﺣﻭﺳﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻣﺟﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻗﺗﺻﺎﺩﻳﺎ؟ ﻭﻫﻧﺎ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻣﻥ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻭﻯ ﺃﻳﺿﺎ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗﻛﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ ﻭﻫﺫﺍ ﻳﺷﻣﻝ ﻛﻝ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺣﺗﺎﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻣﻥ‬
.‫ﺃﺟﻬﺯﺓ ﺣﺎﺳﻭﺏ ﻭﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﻫﺯﺓ ﻣﻥ ﻧﻅﻡ ﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺽ ﺍﻷﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻛﺑﻳﺭﺓ ﻗﺩ ﻳﻛﻭﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻛﺑﻳﺭ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﺑﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺻﻠﺔ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﺷﺑﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺑﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﺗﺎﺝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺣﺳﺎﺏ‬
‫ ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻻ ﺑﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺣﺳﺎﺏ ﺗﻛﻠﻔﺔ ﺇﻧﺗﺎﺝ‬،‫ﺩﻗﻳﻖ ﻟﺗﻛﻠﻔﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﺷﻣﻝ ﻋﺩﺩ ﺍﻟﺳﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺣﺗﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ‬
.‫ﻹﻧﺗﺎﺟﻪ ﻭﺗﻛﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﺎﻋﺔ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻭﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻳﻧﻅﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺑﺩﺍﺋﻝ ﻟﻳﺭﻯ ﺃﻳﻬﺎ ﺃﻓﺿﻝ ﻟﻳﻘﺩﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺗﻘﺭﻳﺭ ﻣﻔﺻﻝ ﻟﻠﻣﺩﻳﺭ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻭﺻﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﺣﺩﺍﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺗﻣﺭﺍﺭﻳﺔ ﺃﻡ‬
‫ ﻟﻥ ﻧﺧﻭﺽ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺎﺻﻳﻝ ﻫﻧﺎ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺑﻘﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫ ﺃﻱ ﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺇﻋﺎﺭﺓ‬،‫ﻭﺳﻧﻛﺗﻔﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻭﻝ ﺇﻥ ﺣﻭﺳﺑﺔ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺑﺳﻳﻁ‬
.‫ ﻣﺟﺩﻱ ﻟﻠﻘﻳﺎﻡ ﺑﻪ ﻭﺇﻋﺩﺍﺩﻩ ﻣﻥ ﻗﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ‬،‫ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ‬

10
M.A. Eljinini
1.6.3 DESIGNING THE NEW SYSTEM
At this stage, we shall design the input screens for the new
system. These screens must automate reality! We need
to design reports, output screens, and the data storage of
files for storing data. Another important task that we need
to consider is designing the algorithm for each task, such
as borrowing books and returning books. Usually,
programmers use diagrams to help them with the design of
algorithms. Now, we shall present the main algorithm, as
follows:
1. Display the main menu on the screen, which contains
three options (borrow a book, return the book, and
search for the book), in addition to a fourth option,
which is to exit from the system. When we code our
program, we place the commands to display the main
menu inside a method (method MainMenu), which is
called whenever the system needs to show the main
menu.
2. The user (employee) chooses one of these four
options, according to the required task at that moment.
3. In the case of choosing, borrow a book: Go to the
borrowing process by calling the borrowing method
(Method BorrowBook). Return to the main menu after
completion of the borrowing task.
4. In the case of choosing to return the book: Go to the
returning book process by calling the returning book
method (Method ReturnBook), Return to the main
menu after completion of the returning task.
5. In the case of choosing to search for a book: Go to the
searching process by calling the searching method
(Method SearchBook), Return to the main menu after
completion of the searching task.
6. If we choose to get out of the system, then we select
Exit.
Figure 1-6 shows the main algorithm to the system as
explained above.
11
‫ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺭﻣﺞ ﺑﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﺷﺎﺷﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬
‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻠﻔﺎﺕ‬،‫ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﺎﻛﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺣﺗﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻟﺗﺧﺯﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ‬
‫ ﻭﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻬﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺫﻩ‬.‫ﺍﻟﺗﻘﺎﺭﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺑﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺭﺣﻠﺔ ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﺧﻭﺍﺭﺯﻣﻳﺎﺕ ﻟﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺭﺍﺣﻠﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻥ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ‬
‫ ﻭﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺣﺳﺎﺑﻳﺔ ﺇﻥ ﻭﺟﺩﺕ ﻭﻏﻳﺭﻫﺎ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻳﺳﺗﻌﻳﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﺭﺳﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻋﺭﺿﻧﺎﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺟﺯء ﺍﻟﺳﺎﺑﻖ‬
‫ ﻭﻫﻧﺎ‬.‫ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻧﺳﻳﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻳﺩﻭﻱ‬
‫ﺳﻭﻑ ﻧﻌﺭﺽ ﺍﻟﺧﻭﺍﺭﺯﻣﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌﻣﻝ ﻋﻧﺩ‬
:‫ﺗﺷﻐﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﻳﺩ ﻭﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﻛﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ‬
‫ﺇﻅﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺣﺗﻭﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ .1
،‫ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺧﻳﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺛﻼﺙ )ﺍﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ( ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺧﻳﺎﺭ ﺭﺍﺑﻊ ﻭﻫﻭ ﺍﻟﺧﺭﻭﺝ‬
‫ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎ ﺗﻭﺿﻊ ﺃﻭﺍﻣﺭ ﺇﻅﻬﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ‬.‫ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬
‫( ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺗﻡ‬MainMenu) ‫ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ ﺑﺩﺍﻟﺔ‬
.‫ﺍﺳﺗﺩﻋﺎﺋﻬﺎ ﻛﻠﻣﺎ ﺍﺣﺗﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻅﻬﺎﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﻠﺏ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ )ﺍﻟﻣﻭﻅﻑ( ﺍﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺇﺣﺩﻯ‬ .2
‫ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﺣﺳﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺏ‬،‫ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ‬
.‫ﻣﻧﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠﻙ ﺍﻟﻠﺣﻅﺔ‬
‫ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ‬:‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬ .3
‫ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ‬ ‫ﺩﺍﻟﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺩﻋﺎء‬ ‫ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ‬
‫ ﻭﺑﻌﺩ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﻬﺎء ﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﻳﺗﻡ‬،(BorrowBook)
.‫ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬
‫ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ‬:‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻛﺗﺎﺏ‬ .4
‫ﺩﺍﻟﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺩﻋﺎء‬ ‫ﻭﺫﻟﻙ‬ ‫ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ ﻭﺑﻌﺩ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﻬﺎء‬،(ReturnBook) ‫ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬
.‫ﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﻳﺗﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬
‫ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﻘﺎﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ‬:‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ‬ .5
‫ﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺑﺔ ﻭﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﻋﻥ ﻁﺭﻳﻖ ﺍﺳﺗﺩﻋﺎء‬
‫ ﻭﺑﻌﺩ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﻬﺎء ﻣﻧﻬﺎ ﻳﺗﻡ‬،‫ﺍﻟﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻬﺎ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬
‫ ﺍﻻﻧﺗﻘﺎﻝ‬:‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺧﺭﻭﺝ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬ .6
‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺧﺭﻭﺝ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻭﻣﻥ ﺛﻡ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﺧﺭﻭﺝ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬
‫ ﺍﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ ﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺧﻭﺍﺭﺯﻣﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬6-1 ‫ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ‬
.‫ ﻭﻛﻣﺎ ﺗﻡ ﺷﺭﺣﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻋﻠﻰ‬،.‫ﻟﻠﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

Figure 1-6: The Main Algorithm

Looking very carefully at figure 1-6, we notice there is a

loop. At the end of each method, the system returns to the ‫ﻣﻣﺎ ﺳﺑﻖ ﻧﻼﺣﻅ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺗﻛﺭﺍﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻌﻳﺩﻧﺎ‬
start showing the main menu again. ‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻣﻥ‬،‫ﻛﻝ ﻣﺭﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺧﺗﻳﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻧﻘﻠﻧﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻁﻠﻭﺑﺔ‬
Figure 1-7 shows the screen for the main menu. 7-1 ‫ ﻭﻳﺑﻳﻥ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ‬.‫ﻗﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬
. .‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‬

My Books Library ‫( ﺍﻟﺧﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﻭﻫﻭ ﺍﺳﺗﻌﺎﺭﺓ‬1) ‫ﻋﻧﺩ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬

Main Menu ‫ﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺩﻋﺎء ﺩﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﻘﻭﻡ‬
.8-1 ‫ﺑﻌﺭﺽ ﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ‬
1. Borrow Book
2. Return Book My Books Library
3. Search Return Book
4. Exit
Enter Book ID: ________
Enter your choice (1-4): _

Student Name:
Figure 1-7: The Main Menu
XXXXXXXXXXXX
When entering (1), the first choice in the menu, the program
calls the method for borrowing books, which in turn displays Book Title: XXXXXXXXXXXX
the “Borrow Book” screen, as shown in figure 1-8.

Correct? (Y/N) ___

Figure 1-9: Return Book Screen

12
‫‪M.A. Eljinini‬‬
‫‪My Books Library‬‬
‫‪Borrow Book‬‬
‫_______ ‪Enter Student ID:‬‬
‫________ ‪Enter Book ID:‬‬
‫‪Student Name:‬‬
‫‪XXXXXXXXXXXX‬‬
‫‪Figure 1-8: Borrow Book Screen‬‬
‫‪In figure 1-8, the system asks to enter the student ID‬‬
‫‪number and Book number (in the red color). Then the‬‬
‫‪system searches for student name and the book title and‬‬
‫‪displays them below (in green color) and asks the user to‬‬
‫‪confirm the information by entering (Y) for yes or (N) for no.‬‬
‫‪Once the task ends, the system goes back to the main‬‬
‫‪menu.‬‬
‫‪When the user enters the second choice, that is returning‬‬
‫‪book; the system displays the Return Book screen, as‬‬
‫‪shown in figure 1-9. We should notice that the system‬‬
‫‪asks the user for book numbers only (in red). The system‬‬
‫‪displays the student name and the book title and asks for‬‬
‫‪confirmation. Once the user enters (Y), the system‬‬
‫‪operates and then return to the main menu as before.‬‬
‫‪1.7‬‬ ‫‪CONCLUSION‬‬
‫‪As we mentioned previously, the main objective of‬‬
‫‪studying Data Structures is to use it in the‬‬
‫‪development of computer applications. We have‬‬
‫‪presented the steps to make applications free of errors‬‬
‫‪in simple way. In the following chapter, we will present‬‬
‫‪how to write programs using C++, C#, and java‬‬
‫‪programming languages.‬‬
‫‪13‬‬
‫ﻣﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ﻳﻁﻠﺏ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺭﻗﻡ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻭﺭﻗﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ )ﺍﻟﺟﺯء ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺣﻣﺭ( ﺛﻡ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺑﺣﺙ‬
‫ﻋﻥ ﺍﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﻠﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺑﺣﺙ ﻋﻥ ﻋﻧﻭﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ ﻭﻳﻌﺭﺽ ﺍﺳﻡ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻭﻋﻧﻭﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ )ﺍﻟﺟﺯء ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺧﺿﺭ( ﻭﺑﻌﺩ ﺫﻟﻙ ﻳﻁﻠﺏ ﻣﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺄﻛﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ )ﺃﻳﺿﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺣﻣﺭ( ﻭﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﺄﻛﺩ ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺑﺈﺩﺧﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻑ )‪ (Y‬ﻟﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺑﻌﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ ﻛﺣﻔﻅ ﺭﻗﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺳﺟﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺻﺹ ﻟﻠﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺏ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺗﺄﻛﻳﺩ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﺎﺭ‪ ،‬ﺛﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﺩﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻑ )‪(N‬‬
‫ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺑﺈﻟﻐﺎء ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻧﺩ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ )‪ (2‬ﺍﻟﺧﻳﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﻭﻫﻭ ﺍﻋﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻳﻧﻘﻠﻧﺎ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ‪.9-1‬‬
‫ﻣﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻝ ﻧﻼﺣﻅ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﻁﻠﺏ ﺇﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺭﻗﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻓﻘﻁ )ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺣﻣﺭ(‪ ،‬ﺣﻳﺙ ﻳﻌﺭﺽ ﺍﺳﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻭﻋﻧﻭﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ )ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻭﻥ ﺍﻷﺧﺿﺭ( ﻭﻳﻁﻠﺏ‬
‫ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﺄﻛﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺗﺄﻛﺩ‬
‫ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ ﺑﺈﺩﺧﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻑ )‪ (Y‬ﻟﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ‬
‫ﺑﺗﺄﻛﻳﺩ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻭﺇﻟﻐﺎء ﺍﻹﻋﺎﺭﺓ‪ ،‬ﻛﺣﺫﻑ ﺭﻗﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻣﻥ ﺳﺟﻝ ﺍﻟﻛﺗﺎﺏ ﻣﺛﻼ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻥ ﺛﻡ ﻳﻌﻭﺩ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺷﺎﺷﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﺩﺧﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺧﺩﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺣﺭﻑ )‪ (N‬ﻳﻘﻭﻡ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺎﻡ ﺑﺈﻟﻐﺎء ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻭﺩﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻣﺎ ﺫﻛﺭﻧﺎ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻬﺩﻑ ﺍﻟﺭﺋﻳﺳﻲ ﻣﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻫﻳﺎﻛﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻳﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻫﻭ ﺍﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻁﻭﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﻳﺎﺕ ﺃﻱ ﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻅﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﺣﺎﺳﻭﺑﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻟﺻﻧﻊ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻫﻧﺎﻟﻙ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺧﻁﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﻳﺟﺏ ﺍﺗﺑﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺗﻁﺑﻳﻘﺎﺕ ﻧﺎﺟﺣﺔ ﻭﺧﺎﻟﻳﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻷﺧﻁﺎء‪ ،‬ﻭﻗﻣﻧﺎ ﺑﺷﺭﺡ ﻫﺫﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺧﻁﻭﺍﺕ ﺑﺷﻛﻝ ﺑﺳﻳﻁ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺟﺯﺍء ﺍﻟﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻭﺳﻧﻘﻭﻡ‬
‫ﺑﻌﺭﺽ ﻛﻳﻔﻳﺔ ﺻﻧﻊ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﺍﻣﺞ ﺑﺎﺳﺗﺧﺩﺍﻡ ﻟﻐﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺑﺭﻣﺟﺔ‬
‫ﺳﻲ‪ ++‬ﻭﺳﻲ‪ #‬ﻭﺟﺎﻓﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻭﺣﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

1.8. EXERCISES

1. Data Structures is about

a. Organizing data
b. Managing data
c. Storing data
d. All of the above

2. Programs reserve space for data in the

a. Hard Disk
b. Magnetic Tape
c. Main Memory
d. Read-Only Memory

3. Data may take the form of

a. Numbers
b. Strings
c. Characters
d. All of the above

4. When we run a program, the operating system loads it into

a. ROM
b. RAM
c. CPU
d. OS

5. Boot Loaders are small programs that live in

a. ROM
b. RAM
c. CPU
d. Hard Disk

6. The smallest unit of data is the

a. Byte
b. Bit
c. Number
d. Word

7. Coding Systems are developed to standardize the

a. CPU
b. data
c. computer instructions
d. operating systems

8. We declare variables in our programs to hold

a. codes
b. data
c. operating systems
d. instructions

9. The aim of studying data structures is to

a. develop computer hardware
b. develop computer software
c. write machine instructions

14
M.A. Eljinini

d. analyze programs

10. The first step for problem-solving is

a. analyze the problem
b. understand the problem
c. design the solution
d. write computer code

11. Drawing Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) is part of

a. system design
b. system analysis
c. system implementation
d. system testing

12. The development of data structures is part of

a. system design
b. system analysis
c. system implementation
d. system testing

13. Writing computer programs is part of

a. system design
b. system analysis
c. system implementation
d. system testing

14. Writing Algorithms is part of

a. system design
b. system analysis
c. system implementation
d. system testing

15. To ensure that our software is “free of errors” is part of

a. system design
b. system analysis
c. system implementation
d. system testing

16. Add a fourth option to the books Application. This option is used to print a list of all the books.

17. Add a new option to the books Application, to print the borrowed books only.

18. Add a date attribute to the (Books) class, then add a new option to the menu to print all books
that are two weeks late.

19. Perform the steps, as described in this chapter, to design an application for reserving rooms in
a hotel. The new application allows for reserving rooms, returning rooms, searching for a room,
and printing all occupied rooms.

20. Design an application for renting cars. The new application allows users to rent a car, return a
car, search for a car, and print a list of rented cars.

15
 Practical Data Structures with C++, C#, and Java

Dear Reader,

Thank you for your interest in my book. Please accept my sincere apologies for not
sharing the full text due to author/publisher agreements with some distributers.

I hope the above contents, which consist of table of contents, preface, and chapter
one, give you a good idea of what it is all about.

If you are still interested in my book, you may get the full copy from one of the
following sources:

Amazon (in Color)

Paperback: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/9957674005

E-Book: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B082FLVH7V

LuLu (in Black & White)

Paperback: http://www.lulu.com/shop/ma-eljinini/practical-data-structures-with-c-c-
and-java/paperback/product-24446111.html

Jamalon (in Black & White – also offers home delivery service, and cash on
delivery for some regions)

Paperback: https://jamalon.com/en/catalog/product/view/id/37484836

I hope this information is helpful.

Best Wishes,
Mohammad Ali H. Eljinini, Ph.D.

16

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